Introduction

Erik Erikson was a psychologist who did most of his work in the post-Freudian era,
in the 1930s to the 1950s. He was a student of Freud, and was greatly influenced
by the latter's theories of personality development. However, unlike his
predecessor, Erikson gave a great deal of importance to the social environment in a
person's psychological development.

Thus his theory is generally called a psychosocial theory of personality

development. Erikson's theory posits that every human being passes through
several distinct and qualitatively different stages in life, frombirth to death.
According to him, the stages are universal, and the ages at which one is said to
have passed from one to another stage are also fairly universal. However, it must
be kept in mind that Erikson did not have much knowledge of cultures and
societies other than his own, and thus the universality of his theory can and must
be questioned.

The key idea in Erikson's theory is that the individual faces a conflict at each stage,
which may or may not be successfully resolved within that stage. For example, he
called the first stage 'Trust vs Mistrust'. If the quality of care is good in infancy, the
child learns to trust the world to meet her needs. If not, trust remains an unresolved
issue throughout succeeding stages of development.

Adolescent

Adolescence is a transitional stage of physical and psychological development that

generally occurs during the period from puberty to adulthood. Adolescence is
usually associated with the teenage years, but its physical, psychological or cultural
expressions may begin earlier or end later.

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STAGES OF ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT

Stage I: 0 - 2 years. Trust vs Mistrust

Trust comes from the consistent meeting of needs. An infant who can trust the
mother or father to meet her needs, will take from this stage a basic sense of trust
in the world (to meet her needs). A sense of trust helps the acceptance of limits and
boundaries.

Stage II: 2 - 4 years. Autonomy vs Shame

A child of this age is beginning to explore the world at will. This is the age
commonly known as the 'terrible twos'. The very young child learns by feeling
with all the senses, and an expression of autonomy in this process seems very
relevant to the child's growth. If this autonomy is thwarted, three consequences
may ensue:

A sense of shame develops.

It prevents a healthy acceptance of limits.

The child feels devastated by small crises.

I have personally never been able to understand why a child is restricted from
touching various objects at home, and then sent to a Montessori school to play
'sensorial' games!

This is also the age when feelings are beginning to be expressed. It is important not
to condemn feelings the child may hold, such as anger or jealousy, but to help the
child be sensitive to his behavioural expressions in a particular situation.

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Stage III: 4 - 6 years. Initiative vs Guilt

The child in this stage is beginning to make decisions, and carry them out,
primarily through play activities. Imagination is the key mover. A sense of purpose
develops when she is able to envision something in her imagination and pursue it.
Such initiative must be encouraged.

Some features of a kindergarten programme suggest themselves fromthese

perceptions.

The child must be allowed room for the expression of imagination, such as playing
with various natural, simple materials, and role-playing. Ready-made toys often
inhibit this expression, as there is very little that can be done imaginatively with
most of them. For example, a matchbox can become a car or an aircraft, but a
ready-made car cannot become anything other than what it is. It can only be
manipulated.

Stories and songs that stimulate the imagination can be introduced.

Real-life activities like serving food, chopping vegetables or making chappatis,

prepare children for participation in the community around them. Children of this
age are capable of contributing productively to the environment in which they live.
I would go so far as to say that it is vital that they do so, and that they feel their
contribution is 'real' and not just 'pretend'. This is commonly observed in poorer
families, where children of this age take charge of the younger siblings and certain
home responsibilities.

Stage IV: 6 - 12 years. Industry vs Inferiority

These are the years when a child can begin to work hard academically and gain
competence in various areas of activity.

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This is also a time when the child is praised for the 'doing', for achievement. The
question I would ask is, what do we communicate to the child about his 'being'?
Adults affirm competence, and that becomes a strong motivation for the child to
pursue an activity. While that may be a strong encouragement to a child, it also
makes him value himself for his achievements alone, and may promote a sense of
comparison and inferiority. What then happens to all those parts of him that are not
visible to the world as 'achievement'? It seems to be a very sensitive balance. It
also seems relevant not to affirm only certain kinds of aptitudes, as that may
restrict the areas of exploration to those that are approved of.

At the same time, it is vitally important to help the child feel that he can pursue a
task and do it well. Sometimes, in this age group, there is a tendency for teachers to
excuse lack of skill, lack of completion or lack of accuracy in a child's work, the
child being young and there being enough time to learn. This may be
counterproductive to developing a sense of competence. Small learning targets
may be set in a variety of areas. There seems to be a clear case for a firm and
consistent demand for the child to actually reach the target, and show proof of
learning, not just of engagement. This phase is directly linked to productivity in
later life. Thus the junior and middle school is a time to validate the child in his or
her own multiple talents and to build a work ethic.

Stage V: 12 - 19 years. Identity vs Role Confusion

The questions arising at this stage are, 'Who am I?', 'What are my values?', 'What is
my identity?' Identity is defined as the ability to exercise choice. This is the last
stage relevant to school education.

Being able to take initiative and show proof of learning would be appropriate at
this stage. There is a book called the Walkabout Papers by Dr Maurice James,

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which talks of this process of student initiative in great detail. In it is described
how a student sets a challenge for himself in certain areas, and plans and executes
a project in each of these. Teachers and resource persons in the community can act
as facilitators in this process, but the student is working independently. At the end
of this process, there can be a presentation to the community of the work done as
tangible proof of effort and achievement.

For Erikson, this is also the stage where values have to be chosen, beliefs
understood and the 'self' explored. If values are imposed rather than chosen by the
child herself, they are not internalised and there is a lack of meaning in later life.
How are these values chosen? Erikson says that adolescents are often influenced
by role models and tend to imitate and hold their values. Individuating without
rebellion is important for a healthy sense of self.

Conclusion

An awareness of such psychological findings does, no doubt, widen a teacher's

horizons. It sets us thinking about what is appropriate at each stage, in our
approaches to teaching and learning, and may thus help enrich the school's
curricular objectives. All the same, the limitations of a theory, any theory, must be
underscored. Any theory is just a framework and cannot substitute for but only aids
the teacher's ability to observe and respond to students.

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References

Bee, H. L. (1992). The developing child. London: HarperCollins.

Brown, C., & Lowis, M. J. (2003). Psychosocial development in the elderly: An

investigation into Erikson’s ninth stage. Journal of Aging Studies, 17(4),
415–426.

Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: Norton.

Erickson, E. H. (1958). Young man Luther: A study in psychoanalysis and history.

New York: Norton.