UNIT II.

PRENATAL PERIOD,
INFANCY, AND TODDLERHOOD

Lesson 1 -Prenatal Development

https://www.britannica.com/science/human-development

Lesson 2- Physical, Cognitive, and Socio-Emotional

Development of Infants and Toddlers

https://blog.udemy.com/socioemotional-development/

http://sites.uasdubai.ae/aschuessler1/gross-
motor-development/

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UNIT II. PRENATAL PERIOD, INFANCY &
TODDLERHOOD
Lesson 1. Prenatal Development
(1 week - 3 hours)

INTRODUCTI
ON

B efore the advent of modern medical technology, cultures devised spiritual

practices that were intended to ensure a healthy pregnancy with a happy
outcome. For instance, godh bharan is a centuries-old Hindu ceremony that honors a
woman’s first pregnancy. In the seventh month of her pregnancy, the mother-to-be
dresses in formal garments that are given to her by her mother. A relative ties a
yellow thread around the pregnant woman’s wrist as ceremony attendees pronounce
blessings on the unborn child. The purpose of the thread is to provide mother and
baby with the spiritual protection required for a complication free birth.
As rates of adverse pregnancy outcomes declined in the twentieth century,
the godh bharan has become more celebratory than protective in nature. Likewise, a
unique prenatal practice, the baby shower, has also grown in popularity as
pregnancy and childbirth have become safer.
The growing popularity and homogenization of prenatal celebrations suggest
that the technological advances that have reduced maternal and fetal mortality rates
have transformed the subjective and social experience of pregnancy from one of fear
and dread to one of joy and anticipation. These advances have also been
accompanied by innovations that have allowed researchers and parents-to-be to gain
insight into prenatal developmental processes that were shrouded in mystery just a
few decades ago. As you explore this unit, you will become acquainted with some of
these insights and, we hope, gain a greater appreciation for the amazing process of
prenatal development.

LEARNING
OUTCOMES
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. trace and review the stages of prenatal development.

2. explain the common hazards to prenatal and how the developing embryo
and fetus may be harmed by the presence of teratogens.
3. describe what a mother can do to reduce her risk of pregnancy.

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 ACTIVI
TY
1. In every culture, there are traditional beliefs about pregnancy, many of which
are myths. For example, you may have heard that labor is more likely to begin
during a full moon or that boys “carry high” but girls “carry low.” Other once-
popular ideas include the notion that eating spicy foods or having sex will bring
on premature labor. Share any beliefs or practices that you have heard or
known about pregnancy. What is your personal stand on these beliefs or
practices?
2. Read the article “Life Before Birth” below. What are your feelings about what
you read? Do you agree that which is developing in the womb is a mere “blob of
tissue” or uterine contents as abortionists claim? Share your explanation.

ANALY
SIS
Life Before Birth

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNBORN CHILD

The development of human life in the womb was once a
mystery, but science and medicine have changed that. Abortion
advocates still try to dehumanize the developing baby in the
womb by speaking of the child as “a blob of tissue” or “uterine
contents.” But ultrasound images, prenatal surgery and other
advances in obstetrics are revealing the beauty and wonder of life in
the womb.
Dr. Paul Rockwell, a New York physician, made these
profound observations after his amazing encounter with a tiny
unborn baby boy:
“Eleven years ago while I was giving an anesthetic for a
ruptured ectopic pregnancy (at two months gestation), I was
handed what I believe was the smallest living human ever
seen. The embryo sac was intact and transparent. Within the sac
was a tiny human male swimming extremely vigorously in the
amniotic fluid, while attached to the wall by the umbilical cord.
“This tiny human was perfectly developed, with long,
tapering fingers, feet and toes. The skin was transparent and the
delicate arteries and veins were prominent to the ends of the
fingers.
“The baby swam about the sac with a natural
swimmer’s stroke. This tiny human was obviously alive! “When
the sac was opened, the tiny human immediately stopped moving
and died." The point at which Dr. Rockwell witnessed this unborn
baby —eight weeks gestation—is the time when many abortions are
performed.
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Here are some questions for further discussions:

1. Is it more reasonable to believe that which is developing in the mother’s

womb is a human being?
2. What are the proofs that which is developing in the mother’s womb is a living
human being?
3. Has any realization from today’s discussion changed your stand on abortion?
Explain your answer.
4. What do you think are the effects of alcohol, caffeine, and nicotine on the
developing embryo/fetus?

ABSTRACTI
ON
Stages of Prenatal Development

Little was known about prenatal development until fairly recently. Consequently,
there was a lot of confusion about the connection between the experiences of the
pregnant woman and the intrauterine development and experiences of the child. For
example, pregnancy has traditionally been divided into three trimesters of equal
length, so doctors as well as expectant couples tended to think of prenatal
development as consisting of three analogous stages. Of course, technology has
changed all this. Scientists have learned that there are indeed three stages of
prenatal development, but the developing child has already reached the third stage
before the mother ends her first trimester.

The period of gestation of the human infant is 38 weeks (about 265 days). These
38 weeks are divided into three stages of unequal length, identified by specific
changes within the developing organism.

The Germinal Stage

The germinal stage begins at conception and ends when the zygote is implanted
in the wall of the uterus. After conception, the zygote spends roughly a week floating
down the Fallopian tube to the uterus. Cell division begins 24 to 36 hours after
conception; within 2 to 3 days, there are several dozen cells and the whole mass is
about the size of the head of a pin.

Approximately 4 days after conception, the mass of cells, now called a blastocyst,
begins to subdivide, forming a sphere with two layers of cells around a hollow
center. The outermost layer will form the various structures that will support the
developing organism, while the inner layer will form the embryo itself. When it
touches the wall of the uterus, the outer cell layer of the blastocyst breaks down at
the point of contact. Small tendrils develop and attach the cell mass to the uterine
wall, a process called implantation.

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 When implantation is complete (normally 10 days to 2 weeks after conception),
the blastocyst has perhaps 150 cells (Tanner, 1990). The sequence is illustrated
schematically in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Migration of
Zygote
This schematic
diagram shows the normal progression of development for the first 10 days of gestation, from conception to
implantation.

The Embryonic Stage

The embryonic stage begins when implantation is complete. The blastocyst’s

outer layer of cells specializes into two membranes, each of which forms critical
support structures. The inner membrane becomes a sac or bag called the amnion,
filled with liquid (amniotic fluid) in which the embryo floats.

The outer membrane, called the chorion, develops into two organs, the
placenta and the umbilical cord. The placenta, which is fully developed by about 4
weeks of gestation, is a platelike mass of cells that lies against the wall of the uterus.
It serves as the liver and kidneys for the embryo until the embryo’s own organs
begin to function. It also provides the embryo with oxygen and removes carbon
dioxide from its blood.

Connected to the embryo’s circulatory system via the umbilical cord, the
placenta also serves as a critical filter between the mother’s circulatory system and
the embryo’s. Nutrients such as oxygen, proteins, sugars, and vitamins from the
maternal blood can pass through to the embryo or fetus; digestive wastes and
carbon dioxide from the infant’s blood pass back through to the mother, whose own
body can eliminate them.

At the same time, many (but not all) harmful substances, such as viruses or
the mother’s hormones, are filtered out because they are too large to pass through

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the various membranes in the placenta. Most drugs and anesthetics, however, do
pass through the placenta, as do some disease organisms.

While the support structures are developing, the mass of cells that will form
the embryo itself is differentiating further into several types of cells that form the
rudiments of skin, sense receptors, nerve cells, muscles, circulatory system, and
internal organs—a process called organogenesis.

A heartbeat can be detected roughly 4 weeks after conception; the

beginnings of lungs and limbs are also apparent at this time. By the end of the
embryonic period, rudimentary fingers and toes, eyes, eyelids, nose, mouth, and
external ears are all present, as are the basic parts of the nervous system; these and
other developmental milestones are summarized in Table 2. The embryonic stage
ends when organogenesis is complete and bone cells begin to form, typically about 8
weeks after conception.

The Fetal Stage

Once organogenesis is complete, the developing organism is known as a

fetus and the final phase of prenatal development, the fetal stage, begins (lasting
from approximately 8 weeks until birth). From a weight of about 1⁄4 ounce and a
length of 1 inch, the fetus grows to a baby weighing about 7 pounds and having a
length of about 20 inches, who is ready to be born. In addition, this stage involves
refinements of the organ systems that are essential to life outside the womb.

By the end of week 23, a small number of babies have attained viability, the
ability to live outside the womb (Moore & Persaud, 1993). However, most babies
born this early die, and those who do survive struggle for many months. Remaining
in the womb just 1 week longer, until the end of week 24, greatly increases a baby’s
chances of survival.

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 The extra week probably allows time for lung function to become more
efficient. In addition, most brain structures are completely developed by the end of
the 24th week. For these reasons, most experts accept 24 weeks as the average age
Table 1

of

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 viability. For more understanding, see table 1 below.

Table 2

Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal Development

Teratology is the field that investigates the causes of congenital defects. A

teratogen is that which causes birth defects. It is from the Greek word “tera” which
means “monster”.

Below are clusters of Problems in Prenatal Development

1. Genetic Disorders

Many disorders appear to be transmitted through the operation of dominant

and recessive genes. Autosomal disorders are caused by genes located on the
autosomes. The genes that cause sex-linked disorders are found on the X
chromosome.

Autosomal Disorders

Phenylketonuria (PKU). Most recessive autosomal disorders are diagnosed

in infancy or early childhood. For example, one recessive gene causes a baby to have
problems digesting the amino acid phenylalanine. Toxins build up in the baby’s brain
and cause mental retardation. This condition is called phenylketonuria (PKU). If a
baby consumes no foods containing phenylalanine, however, she will not become
mentally retarded. Milk is one of the foods PKU babies cannot have, so early
diagnosis is critical. For this reason, most doctors require all babies to be tested for
PKU soon after birth.

Sickle-Cell Disease. It is a recessive disorder that causes red blood cell

deformities (Raj & Bertolone, 2010). In sickle-cell disease, the blood cannot carry
enough oxygen to keep the body’s tissues healthy. However, with early diagnosis
and antibiotic treatment, more than 80% of children diagnosed with the disease
survive to adulthood (Raj & Bertolone, 2010). Persons with sickle-cell trait carry a
single recessive gene for sickle-cell disease, which causes a few of their red blood
cells to be abnormal. Doctors can identify carriers of the sickle-cell gene by testing
their blood for sickle-cell trait. Once potential parents know that they carry the gene,
they can make informed decisions about future childbearing.

Huntington’s Disease. Disorders caused by dominant genes, such as

Huntington’s disease, are usually not diagnosed until adulthood (Amato, 1998).
This disorder causes the brain to deteriorate and affects both psychological and
motor functions. Until recently, children of people with Huntington’s disease had to
wait until they became ill themselves to know for sure that they carried the gene.
Now, doctors can use a blood test to identify the Huntington’s gene. Thus, people
who have a parent with this disease can make better decisions about their own

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childbearing and can prepare for living with a serious disorder when they get older.

Sex-Linked Disorders

Color Blindness. Most sex-linked disorders are caused by recessive genes.

One fairly common sex-linked recessive disorder is red-green color blindness. People
with this disorder have difficulty distinguishing between the colors red and green
when they are next to each other. Most people learn ways of compensating for the
disorder and thus live perfectly normal lives.

Hemophilla. A more serious sex-linked recessive disorder is hemophilia. The

blood of people with hemophilia lacks the chemical components that cause blood to
clot. Thus, when a person with hemophilia bleeds, the bleeding does not stop
naturally. Approximately 1 in 5,000 baby boys is born with this disorder, which is
almost unknown in girls (Agaliotis, Zaiden, & Ozturk, 2009).

Fragile-X Syndrome. About 1 in every 4,000 males and 1 in every 8,000

females has a sex-linked disorder called fragile-X syndrome (Jewell, 2009). A person
with this disorder has an X chromosome with a “fragile,” or damaged, spot. Fragile-X
syndrome can cause mental retardation that becomes progressively worse as
children get older (Jewell, 2009). Fragile-X syndrome is also strongly associated with
autism, a disorder that interferes with children’s capacity to form emotional bonds
with others (Cohen et al., 2005). Fortunately, fragile-X syndrome is one of several
disorders that can be diagnosed before birth (see Developmental Science in the Real
World).

2. Chromosomal Errors

There are different chromosomal anomalies that have been identified, and
most result in miscarriage. When babies do survive, the effects of chromosomal
errors tend to be dramatic.

Trisomies. A trisomy is a condition in which an individual has three copies of

a particular autosome. The most common is Down syndrome (also called trisomy
21), in which the child has three copies of chromosome 21. Roughly 1 in every 800-
1,000 infants is born with this abnormality (Chen, 2010). These children have
distinctive facial features, most notably a flattened face and somewhat slanted eyes
with an epicanthic fold on the upper eyelid (an extension of the normal eyelid fold),
reduced total brain size, and often other physical abnormalities such as heart
defects. Typically, they have mental retardation.
The risk of bearing a child with trisomy 21 varies with the age of the mother.
Among women over 35, the chances of conceiving a child with the disorder are 1 in
385 (Chen, 2010). At 40, the risk rises to 1 in 106, and at 45, the chances are 1 in
30. Paternal age is a factor as well (Fisch et al., 2003). Interestingly, with mothers
younger than 35, the father’s age has no effect on trisomy 21 risk. However, a man
over 40 who conceives a child with a woman over 35 is twice as likely to father a
child with Down syndrome as a younger father is.

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 Sex-Chromosome Anomalies. A second class of anomalies, associated
with an incomplete or incorrect division of either sex chromosome, occurs in roughly
1 out of every 400 births (Berch & Bender, 1987). The most common is an XXY
pattern, called Klinefelter’s syndrome, which occurs in approximately 1 out of
every 1,000 males. Affected boys most often look quite normal, although they have
characteristically long arms and legs and underdeveloped testes. Most do not have
mental retardation, but language and learning disabilities are common. Somewhat
rarer is an XYY pattern. These children also develop as boys; typically they are
unusually tall, with mild retardation.
A single-X pattern (XO), called Turner’s syndrome, and a triple-X pattern
(XXX) may also occur, and in both cases the child develops as a girl. Girls with
Turner’s syndrome— perhaps 1 in every 3,000 live female births (Tanner, 1990)—
show stunted growth and are usually sterile. Without hormone therapy, they do not
menstruate or develop breasts at puberty. Neuroimaging studies show that Turner
syndrome is associated with abnormal development in both the cerebellum and the
cerebrum (Brown et al., 2002). These girls also show an interesting imbalance in
their cognitive skills: They often perform particularly poorly on tests that measure
spatial ability but usually perform at or above normal levels on tests of verbal skill
(Golombok & Fivush, 1994). Girls with an XXX pattern are of normal size but are slow
in physical development. In contrast to girls with Turner’s syndrome, they have
markedly poor verbal abilities and overall low IQ, and they do particularly poorly in
school compared with other children with sex-chromosome anomalies (Bender et al.,
1995; Rovet & Netley, 1983).

3. Teratogens: Maternal Diseases

Deviant prenatal development can also result from variations in the
environment in which the embryo and fetus is nurtured. A particular teratogen, such
as a drug or a disease in the mother, will result in a defect in the embryo or fetus
only if it occurs during a particular period of days or weeks of prenatal life. The
general rule is that each organ system is most vulnerable to disruption at the time
when it is developing most rapidly (Moore & Persaud, 1993).

Rubella. The first few weeks of gestation comprise a critical period for a
negative effect from rubella (also called German measles). Most infants exposed to
rubella in the first trimester show some degree of hearing impairment, visual
impairment, and/or heart deformity (Ezike & Ang, 2009). Fortunately, rubella is
preventable. A vaccine is available, and it should be given to all children as part of a
regular immunization program (American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology
[ACOG], 2002). Adult women who were not vaccinated as children can be vaccinated
later, but the vaccination must be done at least 3 months before a pregnancy to
provide complete immunity. Moreover, the vaccine itself can be teratogenic, another
good reason to wait several weeks before attempting to conceive.

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) & Acquired Immune

Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). Mother-to-child transmission of HIV is the spread
of HIV from a woman with HIV to her child during pregnancy, childbirth (also called

10
labor and delivery), or breastfeeding (through breast milk).
Pregnant women with HIV must receive HIV medicines during pregnancy and
childbirth to prevent mother-to-child transmission of HIV. In some situations, a
woman with HIV may have a scheduled cesarean delivery (sometimes called a C-
section) to prevent mother-to-child transmission of HIV during delivery.
Babies born to women with HIV should receive HIV medicines for 4 to 6 weeks
after birth. The HIV medicines reduce the risk of infection from any HIV that may
have entered a baby’s body during childbirth.
Because HIV can be transmitted in breast milk, women with HIV should not
breastfeed their babies. Baby formula is a safer alternative.
If a woman takes HIV medicines during pregnancy and childbirth and her baby
receives HIV medicines for 4 to 6 weeks after birth, the risk of transmitting HIV can
be lowered to 2% or less (The RINJ Foundation of Women, 2020).

Chronic Illnesses. Conditions such as heart disease, diabetes, and lupus,

can also negatively affect prenatal development (Ross & Mansano, 2010). And recent
research indicates that prenatal exposure to some maternal health conditions, such
as the fluctuations in metabolism rate characteristic of diabetes, may predispose
infants to developmental delays (Levy-Shiff, Lerman, Har-Even, & Hod, 2002). One
of the most important goals of the new specialty of fetal-maternal medicine is to
manage the pregnancies of women who have such conditions so that the health of
both mother and fetus will be supported.

Environmental Hazards. There are a number of substances found in the

environment that may have detrimental effects on prenatal development. For
example, women who work with mercury (e.g., dentists, dental technicians,
semiconductor manufacturing workers) are advised to limit their exposure to this
potentially teratogenic substance (March of Dimes, 2011). Consuming large amounts
of fish may also expose pregnant women to high levels of mercury (because of
industrial pollution of the oceans and waterways). Fish may also contain elevated
levels of another problematic industrial pollutant known as polychlorinated biphenyls,
or PCBs. For these reasons, researchers recommend that pregnant women limit their
consumption of fish, especially fresh tuna, shark, swordfish, and mackerel (March of
Dimes, 2011).
There are several other environmental hazards that pregnant women are
advised to avoid (March of Dimes, 2011):
• Lead, found in painted surfaces in older homes, pipes carrying drinking
water, lead crystal glassware, and some ceramic dishes
• Arsenic, found in dust from pressure-treated lumber
• Cadmium, found in semiconductor manufacturing facilities
• Anesthetic gases, found in dental offices, outpatient surgical facilities, and
hospital operating rooms
• Solvents, such as alcohol and paint thinners
• Parasite-bearing substances, such as animal feces and undercooked meat,
poultry, or eggs

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 4. Teratogens: Drugs
There is now a huge literature on the effects of prenatal drugs, especially
controlled substances such as heroin and marijuana (Barth, 2001). Sorting out the
effects of drugs has proved to be an immensely challenging task because many
women use multiple substances: Women who drink alcohol are also more likely than
nondrinkers to smoke; those who use cocaine are also likely to take other illegal
drugs or to smoke or drink to excess, and so on. In addition, many women who use
drugs have other problems, such as depression, that may be responsible for the
apparent effects of the drugs they use (Pajulo, Savonlahti, Sourander, Helenius, &
Piha, 2001). Furthermore, the effects of drugs may be subtle, visible only many
years after birth in the form of minor learning disabilities or increased risk of
behavior problems.

Smoking. Research suggests that smoking during pregnancy may cause

genetic damage in the developing fetus (de la Chica, Ribas, Giraldo, Egozcue, &
Fuster, 2005). In addition, the link between smoking and low birth weight is well
established. Infants of mothers who smoke are on average about half a pound lighter
at birth than infants of nonsmoking mothers (Mohsin, Wong, Baumann, & Bai, 2003)
and are nearly twice as likely to be born with a weight below 2,500 grams (5 pounds
8 ounces), the common definition of low birth weight. The primary problem-causing
agent in cigarettes is nicotine, which constricts the blood vessels, reducing blood
flow and nutrition to the placenta.

Drinking. The effects of alcohol on the developing fetus range from mild to
severe. At the extreme end of the continuum are children who exhibit a syndrome
called fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). These children, whose mothers were usually
heavy drinkers or alcoholics, are generally smaller than normal, with smaller brains
and often with distinct physical anomalies or deformities. They frequently have heart
defects, and their faces have certain distinctive features (visible in the two photos
below), including a somewhat flattened nose and nose bridge and often an unusually
long space between nose and mouth. However, the disorder is often difficult to
diagnose. Watch this video about the effects of smoking and drinking to pregnancy
found in this link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=faz8TgD_Js8. You are strongly
encouraged to watch this video if you have connectivity.

Cocaine. Early studies found a number of associations between prenatal

cocaine exposure and developmental problems such as low birth weight and brain
damage (Ornoy, 2002). However, most such studies ignored the fact that most
cocaine-using pregnant women are poor and abuse multiple substances, making it
difficult to separate the effects of cocaine from those of poverty and other drugs.
Cocaine can lead to pregnancy complications, such as disruption of placental function
and premature labor that may adversely affect the developing fetus.

Marijuana and Heroin. Prenatal exposure to marijuana appears to interfere

with a child’s growth (Marrou, 2009). Even at age 6, children whose mothers used
the drug during pregnancy are smaller on average than their non-drug-exposed

12
peers (Cornelius et al., 2002). Researchers also have evidence suggesting that
prenatal exposure to marijuana adversely affects the developing brain (Wang et al.,
2004).

5. Other Teratogens and Maternal Factors

A variety of additional factors, from vitamins to environmental pollutants to

maternal emotions, can affect prenatal development. A few are listed in Table 3, and
others are discussed in more detail in this section.

Table 3

Prescription and Over-the-Counter Drugs. In general, doctors advise against

taking any unnecessary medicines during pregnancy. But some pregnant women
must take drugs in order to treat health conditions that may be threatening to their

13
own and their unborn child’s life. For instance, pregnant women with epilepsy must
take antiseizure medication because the seizures themselves are potentially harmful
to the unborn child. Other drugs that pregnant women may have to risk taking, even
though they can be harmful, include medications that treat heart conditions and
diabetes, those that control asthma symptoms, and some kinds of psychiatric drugs.
In all such cases, physicians weigh the benefits of medication against potential
teratogenic effects and look for a combination of drug and dosage that will
effectively treat the mother’s health condition while placing her unborn child at
minimal risk

Diet. Both the general adequacy of a pregnant woman’s diet, measured in

terms of calories, and the presence of certain key nutrients are critical to prenatal
development (Christian & Stewart, 2010). Dietitians recommend that expectant
mothers take in about 300 calories more per day than before they were pregnant
(March of Dimes, 2011). When a woman experiences severe malnutrition during
pregnancy, particularly during the final 3 months, she faces a greatly increased risk
of stillbirth, low infant birth weight, or infant death during the first year of life (Di
Mario, Say, & Lincetto, 2007). Autopsies show that infants born to malnourished
mothers have smaller brains, with fewer and smaller brain cells than normal
(Georgieff, 1994).
There are also risks associated with gaining too much weight during
pregnancy. In particular, women who gain too much weight are more likely to have a
cesarean section delivery (Takimoto, 2006); they are also prone to postpartum
obesity, which carries a whole set of health risks, including heart disease and
diabetes (Amorim et al., 2007). Gains within the recommended ranges appear
optimal, although there is wide variability from one woman to the next.

Age. In most cases, older mothers have uncomplicated pregnancies and

deliver healthy babies, but the risks associated with pregnancy do increase
somewhat as women get older (Martin et al., 2010). Their babies are also at greater
risk of weighing less than 5.5 pounds at birth, a finding that is partly explained by
the greater incidence of multiple births among older mothers. Still, infants born to
women over the age of 35, whether single or multiple births, are at higher risk of
having problems such as heart malformations and chromosomal disorders.
At the other end of the age continuum, when comparing the rates of
problems seen in teenage mothers with those seen in mothers in their 20s, almost all
researchers find higher rates of problems among the teens. However, teenage
mothers are also more likely to be poor, less likely to receive adequate prenatal care,
less likely to be married, and more poorly educated about pregnancy and birth than
older mothers are (Martin et al., 2005). Thus, it is very hard to sort out the causal
factors.

Stress and Emotional State. The idea that emotional or physical stresses
are linked to poor pregnancy outcomes is firmly established in folklore (DiPietro,
2004). Results from studies in animals suggest that these beliefs are justified:
Exposure of the pregnant female to stressors such as heat, light, noise, shock, or

14
crowding significantly increases the risk of low birth-weight offspring as well as later
problems in the offspring (Schneider, 1992).
Likewise, studies in humans show that stressful life events, emotional
distress, and physical stress are all linked to slight increases in problems of
pregnancy, such as low birth weight (DiPietro, 2004). Moreover, studies involving
experimentally induced stressors (e.g., requiring a pregnant woman to take some
kind of cognitive test) show that they seem to cause short-term changes in fetal
activity, heart rate, and other responses (DiPietro, Costigan, & Gurewitsch, 2003).

Poverty. The basic sequence of fetal development is clearly no different for

children born to poor mothers than for children born to middle-class mothers, but
many of the problems that can negatively affect prenatal development are more
common among the poor. Poor women are also likely to have their first pregnancy
earlier and to have more pregnancies overall, and they are less likely to be
immunized against such diseases as rubella. They are also less likely to seek prenatal
care, and if they do, they seek it much later in their pregnancies (Spencer, 2003).

APPLICATION & ASSESSMENT

1. Prepare a Pregnancy Health Care Info graphic which you can distribute
among the pregnant women or expectant mothers in your place to help them
ensure a normal and healthy pregnancy and development of the embryo and
fetus. Please be guided by the rubric given below.

Info graphic Rubric

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 2. What behaviors must a woman avoid engaging in when she decides to try to
become pregnant, or when she finds out she is pregnant? Do you think the
ability of a mother to engage in healthy behaviors should influence her choice
to have a child?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Answer the following questions as a check on how well you understood the lesson.

1. What are the three stages of pre-natal development and what happens in
each of the stages of prenatal development?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

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 _______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________.

2. Give some hazards related to pre-natal development. Use the mind map
template given below. You may also create your own model of a mind map.

REFEREN
CES

All Health TV (2018). Smoking and drinking during pregnancy video.

17
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=faz8TgD_Js8.
Corpus, B., Lucas, M. R., Borabo, H.G. and Lucido, P. (2018). The child and
adolescent learners and learning principle. Lorimar Publishing Inc., Quzen
City Metro Manila
Pearson.higher.com (nd.) Prenatal development. Retrieved from:
https://www.pearsonhighered.com/assets/samplechapter/
0/2/0/5/0205256023.pdf
Minnesota Citizens Concerned for Life (nd). Life before birth. Retrieved from
https://a9beac89-0dd6-4475-b797- a9868170e7bd.filesusr.com/ugd/4af37f
_10748893219c44d19b16442b9bd240a2.pdf
The RINJ Foundation of Women (January 26, 2020). Philippines responds to WHO
warnings on HIV/AIDS. Retrieved from https://rinj.org/interactive/patriarc-
duterte-murder-child-abuse-rape/philippines-finally-responds-warnings-hiv-
aids/amp/?gclid=EAIaIQobChMIy7i334uc6wIVGDUrCh11XQVcEAAYASAAEgKx
s_D_BwE

UNIT II. PRENATAL PERIOD, INFANCY &

TODDLERHOOD
Lesson 2. Physical, Cognitive, and Socio-Emotional
Development of Infants and Toddlers

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 (0.5 week - 1.5 hours)

INTRODUCTI
ON

T he first two years of life is the time of many firsts;

first step, first word, first birthday, etc. Many
dramatic changes occur which many parents want to document. The baby book is
kept, the lock of hair during the first haircut is also preserved, among others. For
many, this is a very interesting period wherein a newborn who is totally helpless
becomes a person who asserts one’s own autonomy within a short span of time.

LEARNING
OUTCOMES

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. critically discuss the milestones of physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional

development during the infancy and toddlerhood years.
2. apply understanding of child development stages to your own life and others.
3. integrate the concepts for a holistic understanding of human development.

ACTIVI
TY
PAINT A STORY THROUGH PICTURES

P ictures paint a thousand stories. Study the pictures* of Arabella carefully. These
cover the 1st two years of her life as arranged sequentially. What do they tell
you? What story can you make out of the pictures?

ARABELLA IN PICTURES

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ew days after birth One month old Two months old

Six months old Eight months old Nine months old

First Birthday 1 year and 2 months 1 year and 6 months

Second Birthday 2nd Birthday Party Two years and 3 months

*Pictures courtesy of J.A.R. Montano

ANALY
SIS

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Based on the pictures, write a two-paragraph observation report regarding Arabella’s
growth and development during the first years of life.

MY OBSERVATIONS

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ABSTRACTI
ON

I nfancy and toddlerhood cover the first two years of postnatal life. For the first
two weeks of life the newborn seems to be totally dependent on others on
survival and there are a number of sensory capacities that are being demonstrated.
Behavior is largely reflexive but as the weeks progress, the baby’s capacities
improve.

It is very normal for newborns to lose weight shortly after birth by about 5 to 10
percent of their original body weight. This is due to the adjustments that the
newborn has to make to the new environment. It has been observed that breastfed
babies are typically heavier through the first six months than bottle-fed ones.
However, after six months, the breast-fed babies weigh less than the bottle-fed
babies. The length of the baby increases by 30 percent in the first five months. The
baby’s weight generally triples during the first year but slows down in the second

21
year of life.

Among the important changes during the first two years of life is in brain
development. There is the strengthening of connections of the dendrites.
Myelination or myelinization which is the process by which axons are covered
and insulated by layers of fats cells (myelin) begins during the prenatal period and
continues after birth. This increases the speed at which information travels through
the nervous system. At birth, the newborn’s brain is about 25% of its adult weight.
By the time the baby is in the second year, the brain is about 75% of its adult
weight. The baby’s brain continues to produce trillions of neural connections that it
can possibly use. However, connections which are seldom or not at all used are
eliminated. Newborns who were born to malnourished mothers need to be
remediated in order to produce positive results in brain development. Depressed
brain activity has been found in children who grew up in a depressed environment
(Santrock, 2002).

Physical and Motor Development

Newborns and toddlers progress from using reflexes to gross motor skills to fine
motor skills. Motor skills can be divided into three rough groups: locomotor patterns
such as walking and running, nonlocomotor patterns such as pushing and pulling,
and manipulative like grasping and throwing (Malina in Bee, 1998).

Table 1 presents the summary of the different reflexes which have survival value to
the newborn and Table 2 gives the milestones of motor development in the first two
years.

Table 1. Summary of Newborn Reflexes

Reflex Stimulus Description Significance

Rooting An object touching The head turns in the This has a survival
the infant’s cheek direction of the value because it
stimulation, mouth enables the infant to
opens, and sucking locate food.
actions begin. This
appears within an hour
after birth.

Sucking An object touching The infant makes If absent, immaturity

the lips sucking movements. or possible brain
This response becomes damage may be
more efficient with indicated.
time.

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Reflex Stimulus Description Significance

Withdrawal Heat (from a feeding Crying and recoiling Absence may

bottle) or pinprick from pain. indicate immaturity
or damage to the
nervous system.

Grasp or Palmar An object placed on The infant closes the Absence may
the palms hand around the object indicate a nervous
with a firm grip. The system problem.
grip may be secure
enough to raise the
infant to a standing
position. This reflex
disappears by about
the first birthday.

Moro or startle Loud noise or sudden The infant throws the If this reflex is weak
change in body arms and fingers out in or absent, the central
position full extension and nervous system may
arches its back and be disturbed. If
extends the legs. The present, the new
hands are then born has an
returned to the midline awareness of
of the body. The reflex equilibrium.
disappears between
the third and fifth
months.

Babinski Stimulation of the The toes fan out and Absence may
sole of the foot the foot twists inward. indicate immaturity
After six months of of the central
age, this reflex nervous system,
disappears and infant’s defects of the spinal
toes curl inward when cord, or a lesion in
touched. the motor area of the
brain.

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 Reflex Stimulus Description Significance

Tonic neck or This reflex occurs The arm on the side An important sign of
fencer’s position when the head of a where the head is nervous system
child who is relaxed facing reaches away development and
and lying face up is from the body with the function.
moved to the side. hand partly open. The
arm on the side away
from the face is flexed
and the fist is clenched
tightly.Turning the
baby's face in the
other direction
reverses the position.

The side of the The infant will twitch An important sign of

infant's spine is the hips toward the nervous system
stroked or tapped touch in a dancing development and
while the infant lies movement. function.
on the stomach.

Galant

Table 2. Milestones of Motor Development in the First Two Years

Age in Months Locomotor Skills Nonlocomotor Skills Manipulative Skills

1 Stepping reflex Lifts head slightly; follows Holds object when

slowly moving objects with placed in hand
eyes

2-3 Lifts head up to 90 degrees Begins to swipe at

when lying on stomach objects in sight

4-6 Rolls over; sits with Holds head erect in sitting Reaches for and
some support; moves position grasps objects
on hands and knees
(creeps)

7-9 Sits without support; Transfers object from

crawls one hand to the other

10-12 Pulls himself to Squats and stoops Some signs of hand

standing position; preference; grasps a
walks grasping spoon across palm but
furniture (cruising); has poor aim of food
then walks without to mouth.
help

13-18 Walks backward and Rolls ball to adult Stacks two blocks;
sideways; runs (14-20 puts object into small
mos.) 24 containers and dumps
them.
It is to be remembered that there might be slight differences in terms of the
appearance of these skills among newborns and babies because of individual
variation. Please take note that there is the tendency to refer to the baby as infant
while younger and toddler if approaching two years or more. The terms tend to be
used loosely.

The Sensory Capacities

Sight

The newborn’s vision is about 10-30 times lower than normal adult vision. By 6
months of age, vision improves and by the first birthday, the baby’s vision
approximates that of an adult (Santrock in Corpuz, et al., 2018). It was found out
that babies prefer to look at patterns such as faces and concentric circles rather than
at color or brightness. It is very fast for babies to recognize the mother’s face as the
mother is often attending to the needs of the baby.

Audition

The newborn hears sounds. Do babies hear organized sound patterns as in speech or
music? Research shows that babies show preferential orientation to speech and
music and as early as the prenatal development and infancy there are evidences
pointing toward the newborn’s preference for the mother’s voice , and her native
language . So the newborn arrives with a bias to speech and music and this reflects
coherent perception.

Smell

Newborn babies can discriminate various smells. It was found out that when
newborns were presented with a new smell, activity level, heart rate and breathing
pattern changed. If the smell continued, the newborn becomes habituated to it and
learned to take no notice. The newborn also showed a favorable bias to the mother’s
smell as evidenced by taking notice of the breast pad which absorbed some milk
(Schiamberg, 1982).

Taste

There is evidence that the sense of smell has been present even during the prenatal
period. When given different solutions, the reactions of the newborn would vary
depending on the strength of the solution. Sensitivity to taste is certainly present in
the newborn but not nearly as precise as in the adult.

Touch (including pain)

Touch is the most highly developed sense, particularly in the forehead, lips, tongue
and ears. Generally speaking it is an accepted idea that newborns are not as
sensitive to pain as they will be later in life.

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Cognitive Development

Cognitive development includes age-related changes that occur in mental activities

such as attending, perceiving, learning, thinking and remembering. The discussion of
cognitive development will be from the perspective of Jean Piaget (1896-1980), a
Swiss scholar who began to study intellectual development in the 1920s.

Influenced by his background in biology, Piaget defined intelligence as a basic life

process that helps an organism to adapt to his environment. As children mature,
they acquire more complex cognitive structures that help them in adapting to their
environment. A cognitive structure, as called by Piaget as a scheme or schema, is
an organized pattern of thought or action that is used to cope with or explain some
aspect of experience. The earliest schemes are simple motor habits such as reaching
and grasping.

Piaget claimed that babies have no inborn knowledge or ideas about reality. Instead,
he viewed children as constructivists who actively create new understandings of
the world based on their experiences. Children by nature are curious and active
explorers. Their mind is not simply a passive receiver of information but an active
processor of experience.

Children are able to construct new schemes because they have two intellectual
functions, which are organization and adaptation. Organization is the process by
which children combine existing schemes into new and more complex intellectual
structures. It is considered by Piaget as innate and automatic and the goal of
organization is to further the process of adaptation. Adaptation is the process of
adjusting to the demands of the environment. In addition, adaptation involves two
complementary functions: assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is the
process of by which children interpret new experiences by incorporating them to
existing schemes while accommodation is the process by which children modify
their existing schemes in order to incorporate or adapt to new experiences. There
are times that a disequilibrium occurs. This is an imbalance between one’s thought
processes and environmental events. By contrast, there is equilibrium if there is a
harmonious relationship between one’s cognitive structures and the environment.

Table 3. Six Substages of Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage of Cognitive Development

Substages Ages Description Behavior

1. Use of reflexes Birth to 1 Infants exercise their inborn Patricia starts sucking
month reflexes and gain some control over when her mother’s
them. They do not coordinate breast is in her

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Substages Ages Description Behavior

information from their senses. They mouth.

do not grasp an object they are
looking for.

2. Primary circular 1-4 months Infants repeat pleasurable When given a bottle,
reactions behaviors that first occur by chance Patricia, who is
(such as thumb sucking). Activities usually breast-fed is
focus on the infant’s body rather able to adjust her
than the effects of the behavior on sucking to the rubber
the environment. Infants make first nipple.
acquired adaptations; that is, they
suck different objects differently.
They begin to coordinate sensory
information and grasp objects.

3. Secondary circular 4-8 months Infants become more interested in Patricia pushes pieces
reactions the environment; they repeat of dry cereal over the
actions that bring interesting results edge of her high chair
(such as shaking a rattle) and tray one at a time and
prolong interesting experiences. watches each piece as
Actions are intentional but not it falls to the floor.
initially goal-directed.

4. Coordination of 8-12 Behavior is more elaborate and Patricia pushes the

secondary schemes months purposeful ( intentional) as infants button on her musical
coordinate previously learned nursery rhyme book
scheme (such as looking at and and Twinkle, Twinkle
grasping a rattle) and use Little Star plays. She
previously learned behaviors to pushes the button
attain their goals (such as crawling over and over again,
across the room to get a desired choosing it instead of
toy). They can anticipate events. the button for the
other songs.

5. Tertiary circular 12-18 Toddlers show curiosity and When Patricia’s big
reactions months experimentation; they purposefully brother holds her
vary their actions to see results (for favorite board book
example, by shaking different up to her crib bars,
rattles to hear their sounds). They she reaches for it. Her
actively explore their world to first efforts to bring
determine what is novel about an the book into her crib
object, event or situation. They try fail because the book
out new activities and use trial and is too big. Soon,
error in solving problems. Patricia turns the book
sideways and hugs it,
delighted with her
success.

Mental combinations 18-24 Because toddlers can mentally Patricia plays with her

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 Substages Ages Description Behavior

months represent events, they are no shape box, searching

longer confined to trial and error to carefully for the right
solve problems. Symbolic thought hole for each shape
enables toddlers to begin to think before trying and
about events and anticipate their succeeding.
consequences without always
resorting to action. Toddlers begin
to demonstrate insight. They can
use symbols, such as gestures and
words, and can pretend.

Source: Martorell, 2018

Piaget’s Sensorimotor Development

Stage 1 (Birth to 1 month)

Throughout most of the first stage, behavior is largely reflexive. They respond to the
world mostly in terms of the reflexes that they are born with.

Stage 2 (1-4 months)

The second stage begins with the alterations in reflexive behaviors. New behaviors
such as hand-mouth coordination (e.g. repeated thumb sucking); eye coordination
(ability of the eyes to follow moving objects), and eye-ear coordination (ability to
move head toward the head in the direction of sounds) appear.

Stage 3 (4 to 8 months)

It can be observed that prior to Stage 3 most of the baby’s behavior is directed
toward the self. In addition, the baby cannot distinguish itself from the objects in the
environment. The baby cannot also coordinate eye-hand coordination, but during
Stage 3, all these things change. The baby’s behaviors are increasingly directed to
events or objects beyond its body. The baby can likewise recognize the difference
between self and other objects and the baby grasps or manipulates objects it can
reach. This now illustrates eye-hand coordination.

Another important milestone of Stage 3 is that the baby seems to repeat events that
are interesting. This paves the way for intentional action on the part of the baby.

Stage 4 (8-12 months)

During Stage 3, three very interesting and related things begin to happen. First, the
baby uses means to attain ends that may not be attainable in a direct way. The baby
intentionally selects appropriate or available means to achieve a goal. Second, the
baby begins to anticipate events. Certain signals or signs seem to be associated with
actions that follow. And third, the baby recognizes that objects (besides itself) can
cause things to happen. The baby now realizes that external objects can be the

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cause of actions.

Stage 5 (12 – 18 months)

The baby is now able to develop new means (through experimentation) to attain
goals. New strategies are developed through trial and error. The baby while playing
in the bath tub may experiment pushing objects underwater and splashing as if in a
minor squall.

Stage 6 (18-24 months)

The baby toward the end of the sensorimotor stage moves to the representational
level of thinking. Representation is the ability to symbolize objects or events
mentally. The ability to represent objects and events internally enhances the concept
of causality.

One of the major developments at the close of the sensorimotor stage is the
attainment of object permanence. Object permanence is the ability to realize that
objects continue to exist even if not in view. The construction of the permanent
object is of major value because it signals the beginning of the ability to “think”about
what is not present or in immediate view.

Language Development

Language is used diversely throughout one’s life span. It serves as a mechanism of

self-stimulation and control of individual activity. It also functions as a self-guidance
mechanism for predicting and thinking about future behavior as well as a mechanism
that organizes social behavior and interactions of people with each other.

Language ,which is of verbal-symbolic form, is only one of the many forms of

communication. There are many ways of communicating one’s feelings, emotions,
and thoughts. Infants begin to make vocal sounds at birth. It is initially
undifferentiated, however, infants may be able to develop a variety of cries.

Shortly after birth, the newborn is capable of making gestures and sounds. Crying is
the first form of communication and has a great adaptive value. By the time the
baby is about 3 -6 months old, cooing is heard especially when the baby is happy.
These sounds can match the sounds heard from people around them. Babbling
occurs between 6- 10 months old and gets to be mistaken as the first words.
Babbling is not real language because it does not hold meaning for the baby. The
first words appear between 10-14 months and these single word utterances are
called holophrases. As the months progress, babies can express in telegraphic
speech usually consisting of a few essential words. The words to be spoken are
usually nouns, followed by action words, then modifiers,, personal-social words and
function words.

A common phenomenon in almost every language is the child’s overextension of

the use of a certain word to refer to a broader category than appropriate to adult

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use. The word “dada” can be extended to other male adults who may bear a
resemblance to one’s father such such having a beard.

Language Milestones

Age in months Development

Birth Can perceive speech, cry, make some response to sound

1.5 to 3 Coos and laughs
3 Plays with speech sounds
5 to 6 Recognizes frequently heard sound patterns
6 to 7 Recognizes all phonemes* of native language
6 to 10 Babbles in strings of consonants and vowels
9 Uses gestures to communicate and plays gestures games
9 to 10 Intentionally imitates sounds
9 to 12 Uses a few social gestures
10 to 12 No longer can discriminate sounds not in own language
10 to 14 Says first word (usually a label for something)
10 to 18 Says single words
12 to 13 Understands symbolic function of naming; passive vocabulary grows
13 Uses more elaborate gestures
14 Uses symbolic gesturing
16 to 24 Learns many new words, expanding expressive vocabulary rapidly.
Going from about 50 words to as many as 400; uses verbs &
adjectives
18 to 24 Says first sentence (2 words)
20 Uses fewer gestures; names more things
20 to 22 Has comprehension spurt
24 Uses many two-word phrases; no longer babbles; wants to
talk
30 Learns new words almost everyday; speaks in combinations of
three or more words; understands very well; makes
grammatical mistakes
36 Says up to 1,000 words; 80 percent intelligible; makes some
mistakes in syntax**

*smallest units of sound in speech

**fundamental rules for putting sentences together in one’s language

Theories of Language Development.

1. Learning Theory. The learning theory explains speech and language
development as products of reinforcement of infant/baby responses. B.F.
Skinner, the foremost proponent of learning theory, maintained that
language, like other learning is based on experience and thus children learn
language through operant conditioning.
2. Social–learning theory. The theory maintains that babies learn language by
listening, observing and imitating the sounds they hear adults make and,
again, reinforced for doing so. It describes the presence of interactions
between parent or caregiver and child. Mutual imitation occurs and is a factor
in language development.

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 3. Psycholinguistic Theory. Psycholinguistics is the study of the development of
language from the cooing and babbling of the baby to the organized words
and sentences of older children. This theory emphasized the role of pre-
programmed or built-in structures as the major determinants of language
development. As such, human beings have an inborn capacity for language
acquisition emphasizing the active role of the learner. Noam Chomsky
(linguist), the major proponent, proposed that the human brain has an innate
capacity for acquiring language; babies learn to talk as naturally as they learn
to walk. He suggested that an inborn language acquisition device (LAD)
programs children’s brains to analyze the language they hear and figure out
its rules. Nativists point out that almost all children master their native
language in the same age-related sequence without formal teaching.
4. Adults may also have the tendency to talk to babies in a special kind of way ,
originally called as motherese by linguists but now called as infant-directed
speech. This simple language is spoken in a higher pitched voice and at a
slower pace than is talked between adults.

Socio-Emotional Development

How does the baby’s sense of self

develop? It develops in the context of
relationships with family members,
peers, and other people in the social
environment. During the first years of
life, the sense of self emerges from
the affectional relationship between
parents and baby, known as
attachment. The emotional bond is
characterized by a tendency to seek
and maintain closeness to a specific
figure, particularly during stressful situation.

According to John Bowlby, the beginnings of attachment occur within the first six
months with a variety of built-in signals that the baby uses to keep the caregiver
engaged. According to Ainsworth, these include looking & following, rooting &
sucking, adjustment of posture, listening, smiling at each other, baby vocalizing or
crying, and grasping & clinging. It is imperative that there is a lot of responsive
interaction between caregiver and the baby. The timing of the caregiver’s response
to the baby is important.

Mary Ainsworth categorized attachment of babies to caregivers in four ways:

1. Secure attachment. The baby often greets the mother warmly when she returns
and, if highly distressed, will often seek physical contact with her, which helps
alleviate the distress. The child may be outgoing with strangers while the mother is
present.

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2. Resistant attachment. The baby tries to stay close to the mother but explore very
little while she is present. They become very distressed as the mother departs. When
the mother returns, the baby is ambivalent; the baby remains near her but at the
same time seems angry at her for having left and are likely to resist physical contact
initiated by the mother. Resistant babies are wary of strangers when when the
mother is present. This shows insecure attachment.

3. Avoidant attachment. The baby also displays insecure attachment. The baby
shows little distress when separated from the mother and will generally turn away
from and may continue to ignore the mother even when she tries to gain baby’s
attention. Avoidant babies are often sociable with strangers but may occasionally
avoid or ignore them in much the same way that they avoid or ignore their mothers.

4. Disorganized/disoriented attachment. This seems to be a curious combination of

the resistant and avoidant patterns that reflect confusion about whether to approach
or avoid the caregiver. When reunited with their mothers, these babies may act
dazed and freeze; or they may move closer but then abruptly move away as the
mother draws near; or they may show both patterns in different reunion episodes.

Quality of caregiving, the character or emotional climate of their homes, and their
own health conditions and temperaments can contribute to the kinds of attachments
the babies establish.

Every baby has a distinct personality. In trying to describe infant personality,

researchers focus on the temperament. Temperament is the person’s characteristic
modes of emotional and behavioral responding to environmental events. Alexander
Thomas and Stella Chess came up with three temperamental profiles as a result of
their longitudinal study. These are:

1. Easy temperament. Easygoing children are even-tempered, are typically in a

positive mood, and are quite open and adaptable to new experiences. Their habits
are regular and predictable.

2. Difficult temperament. Difficult children are active, irritable, and irregular in their
habits. They often react vigorously to changes in routine and are very slow to adapt
to new persons or situations.

3. Slow-to-warm up temperament. These children are quite inactive, somewhat

moody, can be slow to adapt to new persons and situations. But unlike the difficult
child, they typically respond to novelty in mildly rather than intensely negative ways.

The broader temperamental profiles may persist over time and influence a child’s
adjustment to a variety of settings someday.

Thomas and Chess identified nine dimensions or qualities that help indicate
temperament, including: activity level, rhythmicity, distractibility, approach or
withdrawal, adaptability, attention span and persistence, intensity of reaction,

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threshold of responsiveness, and quality of mood. By looking at these dimensions,
caregivers can not only determine what their babies' temperaments are like, but they
can also identify ways of interacting and dealing with certain aspects of their
temperament in order to foster a nurturing environment for that child and even
prevent many complications before they arise.

Nine different temperament categories

A. Activity level. Some babies are placid or inactive. Other babies thrash about a lot
and, as toddlers, they are always on the move. At this stage, they must be watched
carefully.

B. Mood. Some babies are very smiley and cheerful. Although securely attached to
their teachers, others have a low-key mood and look more solemn or unhappy.

C. Threshold for distress. Some babies are very sensitive and they become easily
upset when stressed. Other babies can comfortably wait when they need to be fed or
get attention.

D. Rhythmicity. Some babies get hungry or sleepy on a fairly regular and predictable
basis. Other babies sleep at varying times and follow an unpredictable pattern. They
are the ones who are hard to put on schedule.

E. Intensity of response. When a baby’s threshold for distress has been reached,
some babies are restless. Others act cranky or fret just a little. Some cry with terrific
intensity or howl with despair if they are stressed.

F. Approach to new situation. Some babies are more cautious while some others
approach new persons, new activities, or new play possibilities with zest and
enjoyment.

G. Distractibility. There are babies who can concentrate on a toy regardless of noise
in a room and there are babies who easily get distracted.

H. Adaptability of each child. Some children react to strange or difficult situations

with distress, but recover fairly quickly. Others adjust to new situations with difficulty
or after a very long period.

I. Child’s attention span. Some have a long attention span. They continue on a task
for a fairly long time. Others flit from one activity to the other.

Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

Erikson stressed that children are active explorers who adapt to their environments,
rather than passive slaves to biological urges who are molded by their parents. He

33
believed that at every stage of life people must cope with social realities in order to
adapt successfully and show a normal pattern of development. It is considered
psychosocial in nature because development is a result of the interaction between
inner instincts and outer cultural and social demands.

According to him, human beings face eight major crises or conflicts during the
course of their lives. Each conflict has its own time for emerging as dictated by both
biological maturation and social demands that developing people experience at
particular points in life. And each must be resolved successfully to prepare the
individual for a successful resolution of the next life crisis.

The focus of this discussion will be Stages 1 & 2 for they concern infancy and
toddlerhood.

Stage 1. Trust vs Mistrust (0-1 year)

Erikson believed that the behavior of
the major caregiver (usually the
mother) is critical to the child’s
establishing a sense of basic trust.
For the successful resolution of this
task, the parent must be consistently
loving and respond predictably and
reliably to the child. Those babies
Source: study.com whose early care has been erratic or
harsh may develop mistrust. In either case, the child carries this aspect of basic
identity through development affecting the resolution of later tasks.

Stage 2. Autonomy vs Shame or Doubt ( 1-3 years)

During this stage of development the baby learns to control their actions. It is typical
for children at this age to use the word ‘no’ more than the word ‘yes’, for instance.
Erikson argues that the child is developing the notion of control over objects and
events in their world and by saying
‘no’ the child is developing a sense of
autonomy. Autonomy can be seen in
other behaviors of a child. The child
may grab a toy from a sibling and not
give it back under pressure from their
brother or their parent. They may
demand to be held by a parent or to
be let down, seemingly at random. As
the child’s expression of need for
control increases, however, so the
parent starts to set parameters of Source: haikideck.com
what they consider acceptable behaviour. Toilet training is an important step toward
autonomy as well as the acquisition and use of language.

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Table 4. Highlights of Psychosocial Development
Approximate Psychosocial Potential Some Tasks and Activities of Corresponding
Age Crisis Strength to be the Stage Freudian Stage
Gained
0-1 year Basic Trust Hope Trust in mother or central Oral
versus Mistrust caregiver and in one’s ability to
make things happen. A key
element in an early secure
attachment.
2-3 years Autonomy Will New physical skills lead to free Anal
versus choice; child learns control but
shame/doubt may develop shame if not
handled properly.

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages

Sigmund Freud believed that people are born with biological drives that must be
redirected to make it possible to live in society. He proposed that personality is made
up of the id, the ego, and the superego. Newborns are governed by the id, which
operates under the pleasure principle. The ego, which represents reason gradually
developes during the first year of life or so operates under the reality principle. The
ego’s aim is to find realistic ways to gratify the id in ways that are acceptable to the
superego. The superego develops at about 5 or 6 years old. It includes the
conscience and incorporates socially approved standards of shoulds and should nots.
The superego operates under the moral principle.

Freud proposed that personality forms through unconscious childhood conflicts

between the urges of the id and the requirements of civilized life. These appear in
the sequential stages of psychosexual development in which sensual pleasure shifts
from one part of the body to another. At each stage, the behavior that is the chief
source of gratification (or frustration) likewise changes.

Freud considered the first three years of life as crucial for

personality development. For this particular discussion, focus will
be on the first two stages of psychosexual development that
corresponds to the early years of life.

The first stage is the oral stage. This stage encompasses the first
year of life. During this stage the main source of erotic stimulation
is the mouth (in biting, sucking, chewing). Freud contended that
too little or too much gratification in any of these stages can result
in fixation and may show up in adult personality. For example, a Source: shutterstock.com

baby whose oral needs were not met, when feeding was a main source of sensual
pleasure, may grow up to become nail biters or smokers or develop “bitingly”critical
personalities.

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The second stage is the anal stage. In their second year, children supposedly get
their erotic pleasure from their bowel movements, through either the expulsion or
retention of the feces. Generally, toilet training occurs during this period. A person
who, as a toddler, experienced very strict toilet training may become obsessively
clean, rigidly tied to schedules and routines, or defiantly messy.

http://dept.clcillinois.edu/psy/
Milestones of the Development of Emotions

Early Infancy (birth – six months)

Between six and ten weeks a social smile emerges, usually accompanied by other
pleasure-indicative actions and sounds. The social smile occurs in response to adult
smiles and interactions. As the baby becomes more aware of their environment,
smiling occurs in response to a wider variety of contexts. Laughter begins at around
three to four months and requires a level of cognitive development. Laughter
promotes social development since it allows for reciprocal interactions.

Later infancy months (7-12 months)

During the second half of the first year the baby begins to express others emotions
such as fear, disgust, and anger because of the maturing cognitive abilities. Anger,
often expressed by crying, is a frequent emotional response. It is commonly
observed among babies when compared to sadness.

Fear is aroused when the baby finds the self in an unfamiliar setting or situation as
well as encountering unfamiliar persons. When a baby meets a totally new person,
s/he may show fear that begins to be observed at seven months of age. Separation
anxiety is another fear that surfaces when 12-month old babies cry in fear when
the mother or caregiver leaves them in an unfamiliar place.

Socialization of emotion begins in infancy. This enables the baby to learn cultural and
social codes for emotional display, teaching them how to express their emotions, and
the degree of acceptability associated with different types of emotional behaviors.

Another important process that unfolds is social referencing. Babies begin to

recognize the emotions of others and use this information when reacting to novel
situations and people.

Toddlerhood (1-2 years)

During the second year, babies can express emotions such as shame,
embarrassment, and pride. The learning and use of language to express emotions
are essentially helpful in developing emotional self-regulation skills. Emotional self-
regulation includes strategies for managing emotions or adjusting emotional arousal
to a comfortable level of intensity. Effective emotional regulation involves an ability
to suppress, maintain, or even intensify emotional arousal in order to remain
productively engaged with the challenges faced or people encountered. Empathy
also appears in toddlerhood usually by age two. The development of empathy

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requires that children read others’emotional cues, understand that other people are
entities distinct from themselves and take the perspective of another person.

Age Emotional Expressiveness Emotional Understanding

Birth to 6  Social smile emerges  Detects emotions by matching the

months  Laughter appears caregiver’s feeling tone in face-to-face
 Expressions of happiness increase when communication
interacting with familiar people
 Emotional expressions gradually
become organized signals that are
meaningfully related to environmental
events
7-12 months  Anger and fear increase in intensity  Detects the meaning of
 Uses caregiver as a secure base others’emotional signals
 Regulates emotion by approaching and  Engages in social referencing
retreating from stimulation
1-2 years  Self-conscious emotions emerge but  Begins to appreciate that
depend on monitoring and others’emotional reactions may differ
encouragement of adults from one’s own
 Begins to use language to assist with  Acquires a vocabulary of emotional
emotional self-regulation terms
 Displays empathy
Table 5. Milestones in Emotional Development during the Babyhood Years

APPLICATION & ASSESSMENT

Look for a baby who’s two years old or a little over. Perhaps a cousin,
younger sibling, niece/nephew, family friend or neighbor can be a potential
source of your learning. Please get the permission of the mother or father or
parents and observe carefully the baby’s behavior. Please print and use
the checklist* objectively and tick the demonstrated behaviors in
various areas of development.

*Retrieved from
https://www.cdc.gov/NCBDDD/actearly/pdf/checklists/All_Checklists.pdf
THE CHILD AT 2 YEARS OLD

Name: (optional) Age:________ Date of

Observation________

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How the child learns, plays, speaks, acts and moves offers important clues about your child’s
development. Developmental milestones are things most children can do by a certain age.

Check the milestones that the child has reached by his or her 2 nd birthday. Please check (ü)
on the line if the milestone is present and mark X, if absent.

WHAT MOST CHILDREN CAN DO AT THIS AGE:

Socio/Emotional
____Gets excited with other children
____Shows more and more independence
____Copies others, especially adults and other children
____Shows defiant behavior (doing what he has been told not to)
____Plays mainly beside other children, but is beginning to include other children, such as
chase games

Language/Communication
____Says sentences with 2 to 4 words ____Points to things in a book
____Follows simple instructions
____Repeats words overheard in conversation
____Knows names of familiar people and body parts
____Points to things or pictures when they are named

Cognitive (learning, thinking, problem-solving)

____Begins to sort shapes and colors ____Plays simple make-believe games
____Builds towers of 4 or more blocks
____Might use one hand more than the other
____Completes sentences and rhymes in familiar books
____Finds things even when hidden under two or three covers
____Follows two-step instructions such as ‘pick up your shoes and put them in the closet.’
____Names items in a picture book such as a cat, bird, or dog.

Movement/Physical Development
____Stands on tiptoe ____Kicks a ball
____Begins to run ____Throws ball overhand
____Walks up and down stairs holding on
____Makes or copies straight lines and circles
____Climbs onto and down from furniture without help

What lessons have you learned from this activity?

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

Name of Student:
Answer the following questions by encircling or writing the correct answer.

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1. Compared to the first year of life, growth during the second year
A. proceeds at a slower rate.
B. continues at about the same time.
C. includes more insulating fat.
D. includes more bone and muscles.
2. When a newborn is startled by a noise, s/he will fling the arms outward and then
bring them together as if to hold on to something. This is an example of
A. a fine motor skill. B. a gross motor skill.
C. the Babinski reflex D. the Moro reflex
3. In Piaget’s terms, a schema is
A. an opportunity for interaction with the environment.
B. a general way of thinking about, and interacting with the environment.
C. a mental combination.
D. goal-directed behavior.
4. A baby who realizes that a rubber duck has fallen out of the tub must be
somewhere on the floor has achieved what Piaget called
A. object permanence
B. intermodal perception.
C. mental combinations.
D. cross-modal perception.
5. The emotional tie that develops between the baby and the primary caregiver is
called
A. self-awareness. B. affiliation.
C. Synchrony. D. attachment.
6. Compared to children who are insecurely attached, those who are securely
attached are
A. more independent. B. more cooperative.
C. more sociable. D. characterized by all of the above.
7. Social referencing refers to:
A. parenting skills that change over time.
B. changes in community values regarding for example the acceptability of using
punishment on children.
C. the support network for new parents provided by extended family members.
D. the baby response of looking to trusted adults for emotional cues in uncertain
situations.
8. Erikson feels that the development of a sense of trust in babyhood depends on
the quality of the
A. baby’s food. B. child’s genetic inheritance.
C. maternal relationship D. introduction of toilet training.
9. The proponent who said that human beings have a language acquisition device
(LAD) in the brain was
A. Noam Chomsky. B. Erik Erikson.
C. Jean Piaget. D. John Bowlby
10. If someone enjoys cutting classes because s/he gets a kick doing it, the person is
mostly driven by the

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 A. ego. B. superego.
C. id. D. conscience.

Nos. 11 and 12 are True or False questions.

11. ____ Emotional development affects cognitive development, and vice versa.
12. ____ Children all over the world learn to speak at approximately the same age.

REFEREN
CES

Bee, Helen. (1998). Lifespan development (2 nd edition). New York: Addison-Wesley

Educational Publishers, Inc.
Berk, Laura E. (2013). Child development. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.
Corpuz, Brenda, et al. (2018). The child and adolescent learners and learning
principles.Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing Inc.
Gillibrand, Rachel, et al. (2016). Developmental psychology (2 nd ed.). UK.: Pearson
Education, Inc.
Martorell, Gabriela. (2018). A child’s world: Infancy through adolescence. U.S.A:
McGraw-Hill Education.
Santrock, John. (2002). Life span development (8 th ed). New York: McGraw-Hill
Companies.
Schiamberg, Lawrence & Karl U. Smith. (1982). Human development. New York :
MacMillan Publishing Co.
Shaffer, David R. (2000). Social and Personality Development (4 th edition).
U.S.A.:Wadsworth
https://www.cdc.gov/NCBDDD/actearly/pdf/checklists/All_Checklists.pdf
https://www.mentalhelp.net/infancy/emotional-social-development-
temperament/#:~:te xt=Thomas%20and%20Chess%20identified
%20nine,responsiveness%2C%2 0and% 20quality%20of%20mood.
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003292.htm

Pictures from:
https://www.google.com

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