Bio Unit Study Guide

Tuesday, November 7th

Topic one
Biodiversity
The amount of variation in species in a given environment or ecosystem. All components in an
ecosystem are important, and trying to change it can be detrimental.

Variations
DIfferences between individuals of a species. Variations are the building blocks of adaptations. If
a certain animal has an advantageous variation, it will eventually be more successful. It will then
have offspring, and the offspring that also carry the variation will be also more likely to breed
and pass on their genes. Soon, the variation will be a feature of the species.

Species
A species is a group of organisms that are able to breed together, and create fertile offspring.
For example when a male donkey and female horse mate, their offspring will be a mule. A mule
and another mule are not able to mate, and the only way to create another mule is to mate
another donkey and horse. Although there have been a few cases of reproduction, this is
generally the rule.

Speciation
Speciation occurs when a single species breeds in certain groups for so long, that each group
eventually becomes its own species. After so many adaptations, they eventually share so little
that they are their own species.

Adaptations

● Structural- A physical adaptation or change. Like a plant changing the shape of its
leaves over time to promote photosynthesis.
● Behavioral- A mental or behavioral change. This could be a bird species changing which
trees they nest in, or beginning to hunt earlier in the mornings because of increased prey
activity.
Diversity Index
The diversity index of an area is determined by measuring the amount of diversity of species in
an ecosystem compared with the total number of organisms. It can be used to determine the
health or growth of an ecosystem. An area with no biodiversity is called a monoculture.

Topic Two

Competition
There is a limited amount of resources in an ecosystem, and species and individual organisms
within a species must compete for them. This encourages adaptation and variation, because
certain organisms may be at advantage, and will eventually take over.

Environment
As you get closer to the equator, there will be higher biodiversity, more biomass, and niches will
be broader.

Niches

Specialists

Pros:
● Are very successful if their ecosystem if unchanged
● Are able to survive in harsh environments

Cons
● If there is a slight change in environment, the whole species may be unable to recover
and adapt, and may go extinct.

Generalists

Pros:
● Bounce back quickly, and are able to adapt to environmental changes easily

Cons
● Usually unable to survive and thrive in harsh environments
Interspecies Relationships

Parasitism/Predation
A relationship where one organism benefits, but the other is harmed. Examples are fleas and
ticks on humans or other mammals.

Mutualism
A relationship where both organisms benefit from one another. An example is oxpeckers, who
stand on the backs of many safari animals and eat the bugs. The animal benefits by the bugs
being removed, and the oxpeckers receive food relatively easily.

Commensalism
A relationship where one organism benefits, and the other is not benefited nor harmed. An
example is a bird making a nest in a tree. The bird's nest is protected way up in the tree, but the
tree is not harmed.

Topic Three

Asexual Reproduction and Cloning

Binary Fission
Binary fission is the process of a cell duplicating itself and then splitting in two. Many amoebas
reproduce this way.

Spores
Spores are the most common form or asexual reproduction, and are produced by a single
parent to be genetically identical.

Budding
Budding is the process of a parent organism growing a smaller version of itself, and breaks off
eventually to become an independent organism.

Vegetative Reproduction
The process of taking a part of a plant and it becoming a separate organism. You might take a
cutting of a plant, re plant it, and have it grow independently. Budding, spores and binary fission
when curing in plants are all Asexual vegetative reproduction.
Sexual Reproduction
Requires two parents, who’s genetic material come together and create a new organism 50% of
one and 50% of the other

Bacteria
Although bacteria do not reproduce sexually, they still do share genetic material with each other.
Two bacteria may join and transfer genetic information between the two.

Plants
Pollen from the Anther (part of the stamen) is transferred to the Stigma, and pollination occurs.
It then forms a pollen tube, and fertilizes an egg in the ovary. The embryo is then formed, and
the embryo is supplied by the cotyledons. The seed structure is then created, and if it
germinates, a plant with 50% of genetic material from each parent grows.

Animals

Mammals
An egg is fertilized in the uterus and the embryo then forms, and birth occurs. The entire
process occurs in a protected area inside the organism.

Amphibians and others

Both a male and female must release the gametes from their body, and they mix together and
fertilization this process allows many more offspring to occur.
Topic Four

Inheritance

Discreet
There are only two options, either a yes or no, one or the other. A person either has attached
earlobes or disconnected ones, that is discrete variation

Continuous
There are a variety and seemingly infinite number of options. Almost like a spectrum. Skin
colour, hair colour and eye colour are all continuous.

Extinction
There are no more of this species on Earth.

Extrapolation
There are none or very few of this species in an area

Selection

Artificial
Species is bred by humans to have the most valuable traits to us

Natural
Species evolve because of small variations that a certain organism may have that is
advantageous.

Theory:
● All organisms overproduce offspring
● There is much variation within a species
● Some of these variations increase the change an organism survive to reproduce
● They can over time result in more drastic variations within a species
Genes
A gene is a set of instructions coding a certain attribute of an organism. It is a section on DNA
that codes something specific, and we have one for every heritable part of ourselves.

Phenotype
The way the gene presents itself. Example, blue eyes are a phenotype.

Genotype
The alleles that code the trait. Example is an Bb genotype.

Changes in Genes
Our environment can have an effect on our genes, and they can be altered slightly throughout
our life. These changes are called mutagents. Cancer is an example of harmful genetic
mutation, causing a cell to rapidly multiply, but many mutations have little to no effect on the
organism.

Alleles
A code for a certain attribute, each person receives two. An allele determines which traits are
presented in offspring, if conflicted ones are provided. If each allele from parents are the same,
this is called homozygous, but conflicting ones are called heterozygous.

Dominant
Will override recessive allele. Represented by capital letters associated with specific genes.
Polydactyl (extra finger) is dominant, but rare.

Recessive
Will be overridden by dominant allele, but can still be passed down to offspring. The only way for
a recessive trait to be expressed is if both parents carry the trait, and the offspring has both
recessive alleles.

Codominance/Incomplete dominance
Two alleles expressed in combination. Example, a rose with RW alleles may be pink, due to
codominance
Punnett Squares

In the above example, no matter what square ends up begging expressed, the offspring will
exhibit the dominant trait. However, if the offspring receives an unexpressed recessive allele
and reproduces with either a person with homozygous recessive or heterozygous allies, their
offspring may exhibit the recessive trait.

Environmental changes
Characteristics are either environmental or genetic, or a mix of both. Personality is not 100%
environmental, or 100% genetic. Genetic traits include eye colour or blood type, personality,
height and blood pressure are a mix of both.

Topic Five
Chromosomes
In the nucleus of almost every cell in our body, we have 46 chromosomes. These chromosomes
come in 23 pairs, and we get one in each pair from each parent. In each chromosome, we have
strands of Deoxyribonucleic Acid, or DNA. first extracted by Swedish scientist Johann Miescher.

DNA
Dna is in the shape of a double helix, and is formed like a zipper. The building blocks of dna are
nucleotides, made of a phosphate and sugar, and a nitrogenous base. The phosphate and
sugar form the sting that the nitrogens attach to, and then the nitrogen connect to each other,
hence the zipper. The adenine and thymine nitrogens connect, and the cytosine and guanines
connect.
Genes
A section of DNA that codes for a specific trait is called a gene.

Cell Replacement and Regeneration

Before a cell divides, it duplicates a copy of its genetic material. Human cells that are not
gametes are called somatic cells, and contain 46 chromosomes, in 23 pairs.

Meiosis

Meiosis starts out with one singular parent cell with 46 chromosomes in humans. They then
multiply and divide over and over again, until the chromosomes are mixed together, and then
split into four gametes, each with 23. The mixing is necessary so the offspring receives genetic
material from both grandparents, and contains a complete mix. This is why same sex siblings
have differences, because of the mixing that occurs. They are not identical. When an egg and
sperm come together, it is called a zygote

Mitosis
Mitosis is the process of creating two identical cells from a single one. Starting and ending with
46 chromosomes.

X and Y
There are two chromosomes determining sex. They are different from the other sets of
chromosomes, and there are two sets. If a zygote contains XX chromosomes, it will be assigned
female, and XY is male. It is another example of variation.

Topic Six

Biotechnology
Using biology to solve problems or edit the world around us. Can be used for medicine, or for
farming.

Artificial Insemination
Sperm is directly implanted into the uterus, and the egg is fertilized inside.

In Vitro Fertilization
An egg is fertilized in a lab, and is inserted into the uterus.

Artificial Selection
The oldest form of biotechnology, the process of selecting which organisms breed based on
desirable traits.

Cloning
The process of splitting an organism into two or more identical organisms.

Genetic Engineering/Transgenic
The process of moving a gene from one organism to the other artificially.
Legal and Ethical Issues

Legal
If a company or individual patients a gene they created, all organisms with that gene are
technically under their control. This becomes an issue if the organism is released into the wild or
into another farm, because it is their property.

Ethical
There are ethical issues with biotechnology for a few main reasons, especially with humans.
Sometimes, biotechnology is considered for use preventing issues like dementia, autism and
down syndrome. The problem with this is that it is possible for this to become a slippery slope. If
you’re editing a baby to prevent down syndrome, why not make them really strong, or extremely
smart? Because of capitalism, it will more than likely become something that costs a lot, and
theme there will be an even bigger class divide. Politics and science are, unfortunately, very
closely connected.

Monocultures
When we farm with the exact same seeds, or raise identical livestock, it prevents them from
developing natural variation. If a monoculture occurs and a fungus or disease breaks out that
kills the organism, it will wipe the whole population out.

Farming

Livestock
Some farmed fish have been genetically engineered to contain genes to make them produce a
natural antifreeze, and a gene that produces excess growth hormone. If these fish escape, it
may disrupt the ecosystem.

Crops
Genetic engineers have edited the genes of many crops to make them resistant to pesticides or
herbicides, so they can kill parasites and not damage their crops.

Medical
Biotechnology, and especially genetic editing, can be used to prevent or remove various medical
issues. It can also be used for other medical purposes, like genetically editing bacteria to be
bale to produce insulin for people with diabetes.
Topic Seven

Bioindicator Species
A species that is very sensitive to change (narrow niche), and can be an indication of human
impact on a ecosystem

Population Shifts

Extinction
Global eradication of a species. Causes are habitat loss (most common), overexploitation,
introduction of toxins, disease, and pollution.

Extirpation
An eradication of a species from a certain area.

Human Impact
The wooly mammoth is said to be the first species to go fully extinct due to human impact.
Today, rainforests and areas closest to the equator with the largest amount of biodiversity, are
being cleared to make room for a developing nations economy. Additionally, emissions impact
the climate, and therefore change ecosystems.

Topic Eight

Role of Zoos and Parks

Zoos protect and breed endangered animals, and create a system of breeding between zoos,
protecting genetic diversity and increasing population. Protected parks preserve the natural
ecosystem of an area, as undisturbed and protected from human interference.

Seed banks
Seed banks are large collections of seeds, kept to preserve species if something were to
happen to them. The global goal is to collect 10% of seeds, and all are stored at -20 degrees
celsius
Global Efforts
Treaties between nations have been formed to protect endangered species, and try to stop
poaching and trading of endangered species. For example, if a siberian tiger crosses the
boarder between Russia and China, the tiger will be protected.

Sources
National Human Genome Research Institute
Science Focus 9 Textbook
Peer notes
Biodiversity Outcomes
Cleveland Clinic
Parts Of A Flower Identified & Explained: Diagram & Photos
Punnett square - Labster

Good luck everyone!!! If there is any mistakes, please let me know :)