Whati

sacomput
er?
Acomputerisanelectr
oni
cdevi
cethataccept
sdatafr
om theuser,pr
ocessesit
,
pr
oducesresul
ts,
displ
ayst
hem t
otheuser
s,andst
orest
her
esult
sforfut
ureusage.
Dataisacoll
ecti
onofunorganizedf
act
s&f i
gur
esanddoesnotpr
ovi
deanyf ur
ther
i
nformati
onregardi
ngpat
terns,cont
ext
,et
c.Hencedat
ameans"unst
ruct
uredfacts
andfigur
es"
.
I
nfor
mati
oni
sastruct
ureddatai.
e.organi
zedmeani
ngfulandpr
ocesseddat
a.To
pr
ocesst
hedat
aandconver
tint
oinfor
mat i
on,
acomputeri
sused.

Funct
ionsofComput
ers
Acomput
erper
for
mst
hef
oll
owi
ngf
unct
ions−

Recei
vi
ngI
nput
Datai
sf edintocomputert
hroughvari
ousi
nputdevi
cesli
kekeyboar
d,mouse, di
git
al
pens,
etc.Inputcanal
sobef edthr
oughdev
icesl
ikeCD-ROM,pendri
ve,scanner,
etc.

Pr
ocessi
ngt
hei
nfor
mat
ion
Oper
ati
onsont
hei
nputdat
aar
ecar
ri
edoutbasedont
hei
nst
ruct
ionspr
ovi
dedi
nthe
pr
ograms.

St
ori
ngt
hei
nfor
mat
ion
Af
terpr
ocessi
ng,t
hei
nfor
mat
ionget
sst
oredi
nthepr
imar
yorsecondar
yst
orage
ar
ea.

Pr
oduci
ngout
put
Theprocessedinf
ormat
ionandotherdet
ail
sarecommuni
cat
edt
otheout
sidewor
ld
thr
oughoutputdevi
cesl
ikemoni
tor,pr
int
er,
etc.

Ty
pesofComput
er
Wecancategor
izecomput
eri
ntwoway
s:ont
hebasi
sofdat
ahandl
i
ngcapabi
l
iti
es
andsi
ze.

Ont
hebasi
sofdat
ahandl
ingcapabi
li
ti
es,
thecomput soft
eri hreet
ypes:

o Anal
ogueComput
er
 o Di
git
alComput
er
o Hy
bri
dComput
er

1)Anal
ogueComput
er
Anal
oguecomput er
sar edesi opr
gned t ocessanaloguedata.Anal
oguedat ais
cont
inuousdat
athatchangescont i
nuousl
yandcannothavedi
scret
evalues.Wecan
saythatanal
oguecomput er
sar eusedwherewedon' tneedexactvaluesal
ways
suchasspeed,t
emperatur
e,pressureandcurr
ent
.

Analoguecomputersdir
ect
lyacceptt
hedatafrom themeasuri
ngdev icewi
thoutfir
st
converti
ngitint
onumber sandcodes.Theymeasur ethecont inuouschangesi n
physicalquanti
ty and general
lyrender output as a reading on a di alor
e.Speedomet
scal erandmercury thermomet erare exampl es of anal ogue
comput er
s.

Adv
ant
agesofusi
nganal
oguecomput
ers:

o I
tal
l
ows r
eal
-t
ime oper
ati
ons and comput
ati
on att
he same t
ime and
cont
inuousr
epr
esent
ati
onofal
ldat
awi
thi
nther
ageoft
heanal
oguemachi
ne.
o I
nsomeappl
i
cat
ions,
ital
l
owsper
for
mingcal
cul
ati
onswi
thoutt
aki
ngt
hehel
p
oft
ransducer
sforconv
ert
ingt
hei
nput
sorout
put
stodi
git
alel
ect
roni
cfor
m
andv
icev
ersa.
o The pr
ogr
ammercan scal
ethe pr
obl
em f
ort
he dy
nami
crange oft
he
anal
oguecomput
er.I
tpr
ovi
desi
nsi
ghti
ntot
hepr
obl
em andhel
psunder
stand
t
heer
ror
sandt
hei
ref
fect
s.

Ty
pesofanal
oguecomput
ers:

o Sl
ide Rul
es:I
tis one of t
he si
mpl
estt
ypes ofmechani
calanal
ogue
comput
ers.I
twasdev
elopedt
oper
f m basi
or cmat
hemat
icalcal
cul
ati
ons.I
t
i
smadeoft
wor
ods.Toper
for
mthecal
cul
ati
on,
thehashedr
odi
ssl
i
dtol
i
ne
upwi
tht
hemar
kingsonanot
herr
od.
o Di
ff
erent
ialAnal
yser
s:I
twasdev
elopedt
oper
f m di
or ff
erent
ialcal
cul
ati
ons.
I
tper
for
msi
ntegr
ati
onusi
ngwheel
-and-
discmechani
smst
osol
vedi
ff
erent
ial
cal
cul
ati
ons.
o Cast
leCl
ock:I
twasi
nv edbyAl
ent -Jar
azi
.Itwasabl
etosav
epr
ogr
ammi
ng
i
nst
ruct
ions.I
tshei
ghtwasar
ound11f
eetandi
twaspr
ovi
dedwi
tht
he
di
spl
ayoft
ime,t
hezodi
ac,andt
hesol
arandl
unaror
bit
s.Thi
sdev
iceal
so
coul
dal
l
owuser
stosett
hel
engt
hoft
hedayaspert
hecur
rentseason.
 o El
ect
roni
cAnal
ogueComput
er:I
nthi
sty
peofanal
oguecomput
er,el
ect
ri
cal
si
gnal
s f
low t
hrough capaci
tor
s and r
esi
stor
s t
o si
mul
ate phy
sical
phenomena.Her
e,t
hemechani
cali
nter
act
ionofcomponent
sdoesnott
ake
pl
ace.Thev
olt
ageoft
heel
ect
ri
cal
signal
gener
atest
heappr
opr
iat
edi
spl
ays.

2)Di
git
alComput
er
Digi
talcomput erisdesignedtoper f
orm cal
culati
onsandl ogicaloperat
ionsathi
gh
speed.Itacceptstherawdat aasi nputi
nt heform ofdi
git
sorbi nar
ynumbers(0and
1)andpr ocessesi twit
hpr ogramsst oredinitsmemor ytopr oducetheoutput
.All
moder ncomput erslikelaptops,desktopsi ncludi
ngsmar tphonest hatweuseat
homeorof ficearedigit
alcomput ers.

Adv
ant
agesofdi
git
alcomput
ers:

o I
tal
l
owsy
out
ost
oreal
argeamountofi
nfor
mat
ionandt
oret
ri
evei
teasi
l
y
whenev
ery
ouneedi
t.
o Youcaneasi
l
yaddnewf
eat
urest
odi
git
alsy
stemsmor
eeasi
l
y.
o Di
ff
erentappl
i
cat
ionscanbeusedi
ndi
git
alsy
stemsj
ustbychangi
ngt
he
pr
ogr
am wi
thoutmaki
nganychangesi
nhar
dwar
e
o Thecostofhar
dwar
eisl
essduet
otheadv
ancementi
ntheI
Ctechnol
ogy
.
o I
tof
fer
shi
ghspeedast
hedat
aispr
ocesseddi
git
all
y.
o I
tishi
ghl
yrel
i
abl
easi
tuseser
rorcor
rect
ioncodes.
o Repr
oduci
bil
i
tyofr
esul
tsi
shi
gherast
heout
puti
snotaf
fect
edbynoi
se,
t
emper
atur
e,humi
dit
y,andot
herpr
oper
ti
esofi
tscomponent
s.

3)Hy
bri
dComput
er
Hy br
idcomput erhasf eatur
esofbot hanal ogueanddi git
alcomput er.I
tisfastlike
ananal oguecomput erandhasmemor yandaccur acylikedigit
alcomput er
s.Itcan
processbot hconti
nuousanddi scr
et edata.Itacceptsanaloguesi gnal
sandconv ert
them into digi
talform bef or
e processing.So,i tis widelyused i n speci
ali
zed
appli
cationswherebot hanalogueanddi gitaldat
ai spr ocessed.Forexampl e,a
processorisusedinpet rolpumpst hatconv ert
sthemeasur ement soffuelfl
owi nto
quantit
yandpr i
ce.Simi l
arl
y,theyar eusedi nair
planes,hospi t
als,andscientifi
c
appli
cations.

Adv
ant
agesofusi
nghy
bri
dcomput
ers:

o I
tscomput
ingspeedi
sver
yhi
ghduet
otheal
l
-par
all
elconf
igur
ati
onoft
he
anal
oguesubsy
stem.
 o I
tpr
oducespr
eci
seandqui
ckr
esul
tst
hatar
emor
eaccur
ateandusef
ul.
o I
thast
heabi
l
ityt
osol
veandmanagebi
gequat
ioni
nreal
-t
ime.
o I
thel
psi
ntheon-
li
nedat
apr
ocessi
ng.

Ont
hebasi
sofsi
ze,
t ercanbeoff
hecomput ivet
ypes:

1)Super
comput
er
Supercomputers ar
et hebiggestand fastestcomput ers.Theyare desi
gned to
processhugeamountofdat a.Asupercomput ercanprocesstr
il
li
onsofinst
ruct
ions
i
nasecond.I thasthousandsofint
erconnectedprocessors.

Supercomputer
s ar e par t
icularl
y used i nscient
if
ic and engi neeri
ng
appli
cati
onssuchasweat herf
or ecasti
ng,sci
ent
if
icsi
mulati
onsandnucl
earener
gy
resear
ch.Thefi
rstsuper
computerwasdev opedbyRogerCr
el ayi
n1976.

Char
act
eri
sti
csorappl
i
cat
ionsofsuper
comput
ers:

o I
thast
heabi
l
ityt
odecr
ypty
ourpasswor
dtoenhancepr
otect
ionf
orsecur
it
y
r
easons.
o I
tpr
oducesexcel
l
entr
esul
tsi
nani
mat
ions.
o I
tisusedf
orv
irt
ual
test
ingofnucl
earweaponsandcr
it
ical
medi
cal
test
s.
o I
tcanst
udyandunder
standcl
i
mat
epat
ter
nsandf
orecastweat
hercondi
ti
ons.
I
t can r
un i
n NOAA'
s sy
stem (
Nat
ional Oceani
c and At
mospher
ic
Admi
nist
rat
ion)t
hatcanex
ecut
eanyt
ypeofsi
mpl
eandl
ogi
cal
dat
a.
o I
thel
psi
ndesi
gni
ngt
hef
li
ghtsi
mul
ator
sforpi
l
otsatt
hebegi
nnerl
evelf
or
t
hei
rtr
aini
ng.
o I
thel
psi
next
ract
ingusef
uli
nfor
mat
ionf
rom dat
ast
oragecent
resorcl
oud
sy
stem.Forexampl
e,i
ninsur
ancecompani
es.
o I
thaspl
ayedav
italr
olei
nmanagi
ngt
heonl
i
necur
rencywor
ldsuchasst
ock
mar
ketandbi
tcoi
n.
o I
thel
psi
nthedi
agnosi
sofv
ari
ouscr
it
icaldi
seasesandi
npr
oduci
ngaccur
ate
r
esul
tsi
nbr
aini
njur
ies,
str
okes,
etc.
o I
thel
psi
nsci
ent
if
icr
esear
char
easbyaccur
atel
yanal
ysi
ngdat
aobt
ained
f
rom expl
ori
ngt
hesol
arsy
stem,
sat
ell
i
tes,
andmov
ementofEar
th.
o I
tal
sousedi
nasmogcont
rolsy
stem wher
eitpr
edi
ctst
hel
eveloff
ogand
ot
herpol
l
utant
sint
heat
mospher
e.
2)Mai
nfr
amecomput
er
Mainfr
amecomput ersaredesignedt osuppor thundredsort housandsofuser s
si
multaneousl
y.Theycansuppor tmul
tipl
epr ogramsatthesamet i
me.I tmeansthey
can execut
e dif
ferentprocesses si
multaneously.These feat
ures ofmai nf
rame
computersmaket hem i
dealforbigorganizati
onsli
kebankingandt el
ecom sectors,
whichneedtomanageandpr ocesshi
ghv olumeofdata.

Mainfr
amecomput ersaredesi gnedt osuppor thundredsort housandsofuser s
simult
aneously
.Theycansuppor tmultipl
epr ogramsatt hesamet i
me.I tmeans
theycanexecutedi
ff
erentprocessessi multaneously
.Thesef eatur
esofmai nfr
ame
comput er
smakethem idealforbigorganizati
onslikebankingandt elecom sector
s,
whichneedt omanageandpr ocessahi ghv olumeofdat athatr equir
esi nt
eger
operat
ionssuchasi
ndex i
ng,compar i
sons,etc.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofMai
nfr
ameComput
ers:

o I
tcanpr
ocesshugeamountofdat
a,e.
g.mi
l
li
onsoft
ransact
ionsi
nasecond
i
nthebanki
ngsect
or.
o I
thasav
eryl
ongl
i
fe.I
tcanr
unsmoot
hlyf
orupt
o50y
ear
saf
terpr
oper
i
nst
all
ati
on.
o I
tgi
vesexcel
l
entper
for
mancewi
thl
argescal
ememor
ymanagement
.
o I
thast
heabi
l
ityt
oshar
eordi
str
ibut
eit
swor
kloadamongot
herpr
ocessor
s
andi
nput
/out
putt
ermi
nal
s.
o Ther
ear
efewerchancesofer
rororbugsdur
ingpr
ocessi
ngi
nmai
nfr
ame
comput
ers.I
fanyer
roroccur
sitcanf
ixi
tqui
ckl
ywi
thoutaf
fect
ing t
he
per
for
mance.
o I
thast
heabi
l
ityt
opr
otectt
hest
oreddat
aandot
herongoi
ngexchangeof
i
nfor
mat
ionanddat
a.

Appl
i
cat
ionsofmai
nfr
amecomput
ers:

o nheal
I thcar
e,i
tenabl
edhospi
tal
stomai
ntai
nar
ecor
doft
hei
rmi
l
li
onsof
pat
ient
sinor
dert
ocont
actt
hem f
ort
reat
mentorr
elat
edt
othei
rappoi
ntment
,
medi
cineupdat
esordi
seaseupdat
es.
o I
nthef
iel
dofdef
ence,i
tal
l
owst
hedef
encedepar
tment
stoshar
eal
arge
amountofsensi
ti
vei
nfor
mat
ionwi
thot
herbr
anchesofdef
ence.
o I
nthef
iel
dofeducat
ion,
ithel
psbi
guni
ver
sit
iest
ost
ore,
manageandr
etr
iev
e
dat
arel
atedt
othei
rcour
ses,admi
ssi
ons,st
udent
s,t
eacher
s,empl
oyeesand
af
fi
li
atedschool
sandcol
l
eges.
 o I
nther
etai
lsect
or,t
her
etai
lcompani
est
hathav
eahugecust
omerbaseand
br
anches use mai
nfr
ame comput
erst
o handl
e and execut
einf
ormat
ion
r
elat
ed t
othei
rinv
ent
orymanagement
,cust
omermanagement
,and huge
t
ransact
ionsi
nashor
tdur
ati
on.

3)Mi
nif
rameorMi
nicomput
er
I sami
ti dsi
zemul t i
processi
ngcomput er
.Itconsi
stsoftwoormor eprocessor
sand
cansupport4to200user satonet i
me.Mi nif
ramecomput er
sar eusedininst
it
utes
anddepartmentsf ortaskssuchasbi l
li
ng,accounti
ngandi nv
entorymanagement .A
minicomputerl
iesbet weent hemainframeandmi crocomputerasiti
ssmal l
erthan
mainframebutlargerthanami crocomputer.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofmi
nif
rameormi
nicomput
er:

o I
tisl
i
ghtwei
ghtt
hatmakesi
teasyt
ocar
ryandf
itany
wher
e.
o I
tisl
essexpensi
vet
hanmai
nfr
amecomput
ers.
o I
tisv
eryf
astcompar
edt
oit
ssi
ze.
o I
tremai
nschar
gedf
oral
ongt
ime.
o I
tdoesnotr
equi
reacont
rol
l
edoper
ati
onal
env
ironment
.

Appl
i
cat
ionsofmi
nicomput
ers:

Ami ni
comput
eri
smai
nlyusedt
oper
for
mthr
eepr
imar
yfunct
ions,whi
char
eas
f
oll
ows:

o Pr
ocesscont
rol
:Itwasusedf
orpr
ocesscont
roli
nmanuf
act
uri
ng.I
tmai
nly
per
for
mst
wopr
imar
yfunct
ionst
hatar
ecol
l
ect
ingdat
aandf
eedback.I
fany
abnor
mal
i
tyoccur
sint
hepr
ocess,i
tisdet
ect
edbyt
hemi
nicomput
erand
necessar
yadj
ust
ment
sar
emadeaccor
dingl
y.
o Dat
amanagement
:Iti
sanexcel
l
entdev
icef
orsmal
lor
gani
zat
ionst
ocol
l
ect
,
st
oreandshar
edat
a.Localhospi
tal
sandhot
elscanusei
ttomai
ntai
nthe
r
ecor
dsoft
hei
rpat
ient
sandcust
omer
srespect
ivel
y.
o Communi
cat
ionsPor
tal
:Itcanal
sopl
ayt
her
oleofacommuni
cat
iondev
ice
i
nlar
gersy
stemsbyser
vingasapor
talbet
weenahumanoper
atoranda
cent
ral
processororcomput
er.

4)Wor
kst
ati
on
Wor
kst
ati sasi
oni ngl
eusercomput
ert
hati
sdesi ort
gnedf echni
calorsci
ent
if
ic
appli
cat i
ons.Ithasafastermicr
opr
ocessor,alar
geamountofRAM andhi ghspeed
graphic adapters.It gener
alyper
l forms a specifi
cj ob wi
th great expert
ise;
accordingly,t
hey are ofdiffer
enttypes such as gr
aphi
cs workst
ati
on,musi c
workstationandengi
neeringdesi
gnworkstat
ion.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofwor
kst
ati
oncomput
er:

o I
tisahi
gh-
per
for
mancecomput
ersy
stem desi
gnedf
orasi
ngl
euserf
or
busi
nessorpr
ofessi
onal
use.
o I
thasl
argerst
oragecapaci
ty,
bet
tergr
aphi
cs,
andmor
epower
fulCPUt
hana
per
sonal
comput
er.
o I
tcanhandl
eani
mat
ion,dat
aanal
ysi
s,CAD,audi
oandv
ideocr
eat
ionand
edi
ti
ng.

Anycomputert
hathasthefol
l ngf
owi ivef
eat
ures,
canbet
ermedasawor
kst
ati
onor
canbeusedasawor kst
ati
on.

o Mul
ti
plePr
ocessorCor
es:
Ithasmor
epr
ocessorcor
est
hansi
mpl
elapt
opsor
comput
ers.
o ECC RAM:I
tispr
ovi
ded wi
thEr
ror
-cor
rect
ing codememor
ythatcanf
ix
memor
yer
ror
sbef
oret
heyaf
fectt
hesy
stem'
sper
for
mance.
o RAI
D(RedundantAr
rayofI
ndependentDi
sks)
:Itr
efer
stomul
ti
plei
nter
nal
har
ddr
ivest
ost
oreorpr
ocessdat
a.RAI
D canbeofdi
ff
erentt
ypes,f
or
exampl
e,t
her
ecanbemul
ti
pledr
ivest
opr
ocessdat
aormi
rr
oreddr
ives
wher
eifonedr
ivedoesnotwor
kthanot
herst
art
sfunct
ioni
ng.
o SSD:I
tisbet
tert
hanconv
ent
ionalhar
d-di
skdr
ives.I
tdoesnothav
emov
ing
par
ts,
sot
hechancesofphy
sical
fai
l
urear
ever
yless.
o Opt
imi
zed,Hi
gherendGPU:I
treducest
hel
oadonCPU.E.
g.,CPUhast
odo
l
esswor
kwhi
l
epr
ocessi
ngt
hescr
eenout
put
.

5)Mi
crocomput
er
Microcomput erisalso known asaper sonalcomputer.Itisagener al
-pur
pose
comput erthatisdesignedforindi
vidualuse.Ithasami cr
oprocessorasacent r al
processingunit,memor y,stor
agear ea,i nputuni
tandout putuni t
.Laptopsand
desktopcomput er
sar eexamplesofmi crocomputers.Theyaresuit
ableforpersonal
workt hatmaybemaki nganassi gnment ,watchi
ngamov i
e,oratof fi
ceforoffice
work.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofami
crocomput
er:
 o I
tist
hesmal
l
esti
nsi
zeamongal
lty
pesofcomput
ers.
o Al
i
mit
ednumberofsof
twar
ecanbeused.
o I
tisdesi
gnedf
orper
sonalwor
kandappl
i
cat
ions.Onl
yoneusercanwor
kata
t
ime.
o I
tisl
essexpansi
veandeasyt
ouse.
o I
tdoesnotr
equi
ret
heusert
ohav
especi
alski
l
lsort
rai
ningt
ousei
t.
o Gener
all
y,comeswi
thsi
ngl
esemi
conduct
orchi
p.
o I
tiscapabl
eofmul
ti
taski
ngsuchaspr
int
ing,scanni
ng,br
owsi
ng,wat
chi
ng
v
ideos,
etc.

Hi
stor
yofComput
er
hehistoryoft hecomput erdat esbacktoseveraly
ear s.Ther
earef i
vepr ominent
generat
ionsofcomput ers.Eachgener ati
onhaswi tnessedseveraltechnological
advanceswhi chchanget hef unct
ional
i
tyofthecomput er
s.Thi
sr esul
tsi nmor e
compact ,powerful
,robustsy stemswhicharelessexpensive.Thebr i
efhistoryof
computer si
sdiscussedbel ow−

Fi
rstGener
ati
on(
1940-
1956)
Thef
ir
stgener
ati
oncomput
ershadt
hef
oll
owi
ngf
eat
uresandcomponent
s−

Har
dwar
e
The hardwar
e used in t
he f
ir
st gener
ati
on of comput
ers was:
Vacuum
TubesandPunchCar
ds.
Feat
ures
Fol
l
owi
ngar
ethef
eat
uresoff
ir
stgener
ati
oncomput
ers−
 I
tsupportedmachinelanguage.
 I
thadslowper f
ormance
 I
toccupiedlar
gesizeduet otheuseofvacuum t
ubes.
 I
thadapoorst oragecapacit
y.
 I
tconsumedal otofelect
rici
tyandgener
atedalotofheat
.
Memor
y
Thememor
ywasof4000bi
ts.

Dat
aInput
Theinputwasonlyprov
idedt
hroughhard-
wir
edpr
ogr
amsi
nthecomput
er,most
ly
thr
oughpunchedcar
dsandpapertapes.

Exampl
es
Theexampl
esoff
ir
stgener
ati
oncomput
ersar
e−

 ENI
AC
 UNI
VACTBM 701

SecondGener
ati
on(
1956-
1963)
Sever
aladvancementsinthefi
rst
-gencomput
ersledtothedevel
opmentofsecond
generat
ioncomputers.Fol
lowi
ngarevari
ouschangesinfeat
uresandcomponents
ofsecondgenerat
ioncomputer
s−

Har
dwar
e
Thehar
dwar
eusedi
nthesecondgener
ati
onofcomput
erswer
e−

 Tr
ansist
ors
 Magneti
cTapes
Feat
ures
I
thadf
eat
uresl
i
ke−
 Batchoperat
ingsyst
em
 Fasterandsmall
erinsi
ze
 Reli
ableandenergyef
fici
entt
hantheprevi
ousgener
ati
on
 Lesscostl
ythantheprevi
ousgenerat
ion
Memor
y
Thecapaci
tyoft
hememor
ywas32,
000bi
ts.

Dat
aInput
Thei
nputwaspr
ovi
dedt
hroughpunchedcar
ds.

Exampl
es
Theexampl
esofsecondgener
ati
oncomput
ersar
e−

 Honey
wel
l400
 CDC1604
 I
BM 7030

Thi
rdGener
ati
on(
1964-
1971)
Fol
lowi
ng ar
ethe v
ari
ous component
s and f
eat
ures oft
he t
hir
d gener
ati
on
comput
ers−

Har
dwar
e
Thehar
dwar
eusedi
nthet
hir
dgener
ati
onofcomput
erswer
e−
 Int
egrat
edCircui
tsmadef
rom semi-
conduct
ormat
eri
als
 Largecapaci
tydi
sksandmagneti
ctapes
Feat
ures
Thef
eat
uresoft
het
hir
dgener
ati
oncomput
ersar
e−
 Supportsti
me-shar
ingOS
 Faster, smal
l
er, more rel
i
abl
e and cheaper t
han t
he pr
evi
ous
generati
ons
 Easytoaccess
Memor
y
Thecapaci
tyoft
hememor
ywas128,
000bi
ts.

Dat
aInput
Thei
nputwaspr
ovi
dedt
hroughkey
boar
dsandmoni
tor
s.

Exampl
es
Theexampl
esoft
hir
dgener
ati
oncomput
ersar
e−

 I
BM 360/
370
 CDC6600
 PDP8/11

Four
thGener
ati
on(
1972-
2010)
Four
thgener
ati
oncomput
ershav
ethef
oll
owi
ngcomponent
sandf
eat
ures−

Har
dwar
e
TheHar
dwar
eusedi
nthef
our
thgener
ati
onofcomput
erswer
e−

 I
CswithVeryLargeScaleI
ntegr
ati
on(
VLSI
)technol
ogy
 Semi
conductormemor y
 Magnet
ictapesandFloppy
Feat
ures
I
tsuppor
tsf
eat
uresl
i
ke−

 Mul
ti
processi
ng&di
str
ibut
edOS
 Obj
ect-
or i
entedhighlev
elprogramssupport
ed
 Small
&easyt ouse;hand-heldcomputer
shaveevol
ved
 Noexternalcooli
ngrequir
ed&af for
dable
 Thi
sgener at
ionsawt hedev el
opmentofnet
worksandthei
nter
net
 I
tsawt hedev el
opmentofnewt r
endsinGUI
sandmouse
Memor
y
Thecapaci
tyoft
hememor
ywas100mi
l
li
onbi
ts.

Dat
aInput
Thei
nputwaspr
ovi
dedt
hroughi
mpr
ovedhandhel
ddev
ices,
key
boar
dandmouse.

Exampl
es
Theexampl
esoff
our
thgener
ati
oncomput
ersar
e−

 Appl
eII
 VAX9000
 CRAY1(supercomput
ers)

Fi
ft
hGener
ati
on(
2010-
Present
)
These arethe modern and advanced computer
s.Signi
fi
cantchanges i
nthe
componentsandoperat
ionshavemadef i
fthgener
ati
oncomputer
shandyandmore
rel
i
abl
et hant
heprevi
ousgenerat
ions.

Har
dwar
e
TheHar
dwar
eusedi
nthef
if
thgener
ati
onofcomput
ersar
e−
 Int
egratedCi
rcuit
swi t
hVLSIandNanot echnol
ogy
 Largecapaci
tyharddiskwi t
hRAIDsupport
 Powerfulser
vers,I
nternet
,Clust
ercomputi
ng
Feat
ures
I
tsuppor
tsf
eat
uresl
i
ke−
 Powerf
ul,
cheap,r
eliableandeasytouse.
 Port
abl
eandf ast
erduet ouseofparall
elpr
ocessor
sandSuperLar
ge
Scal
eInt
egrat
edCircuits.
 Rapi
dsoftwar
edev elopmentispossi
ble.
Memor
y
Thecapaci
tyoft
hememor
yisunl
i
mit
ed.

Dat
aInput
Theinputisprov
idedthr
oughCDROM,Opt
icalDi
skandot
hert
ouchandv
oice
sensi
ti
vei
nputdev
ices.

Exampl
es
Theexampl
esoff
if
thgener
ati
oncomput
ersar
e−

o I
BM 2.Pent
ium 3.PARAM

Char
act
eri
sti
csOfComput
er
Thechar
act
eri
sti
csoft
hecomput
ersy
stem ar
easf
oll
ows−

Speed
Acomput erwor
kswit
hmuchhi gherspeedandaccuracycompar edtohumanswhi le
perf
ormi ngmathemati
calcal
culat
ions.Computer
scanpr ocessmi l
li
ons(
1,000,000)
ofinstructi
onspersecond.Thet imet akenbycomputersf orthei
roperat
ionsi s
microsecondsandnanoseconds.

Accur
acy
Computersperf
orm calculat
ionswi
th100%accur
acy
.Er
ror
smayoccurduet
odat
a
i
nconsi
stencyorinaccuracy.

Di
l
igence
Acomputercanper
for
m mill
ionsoft
asksorcal
cul
ati
onswit
hthesameconsi
stency
andaccur
acy.I
tdoesn’
tfeelanyfat
igueorl
ackofconcent
rat
ion.I
tsmemor
yal so
makesi
tsuper
iort
othatofhumanbei
ngs.

Ver
sat
il
it
y
Versat
il
it
yref
erstothecapabil
it
yofacomput
ert
oper
for
m di
ff
erentki
ndsofwor
ks
wit
hsameaccur acyandef
fi
ciency.

Rel
i
abi
l
ity
Acomputeri
srel
iabl
easitgiv
esconsist
entr
esul
tforsimi
l
arsetofdatai
.e.
,ifwe
gi
vesamesetofi
nputanynumberoft
imes,wewil
lgett
hesameresul
t.
Aut
omat
ion
Computerper
for
msal
lthet
asksaut
omat
ical
l
yi.
e.i
tper
for
mst
askswi
thoutmanual
i
nter
venti
on.

Memor
y
A computerhas bui
lt
-i
n memorycal
l
ed pr
imar
ymemor ywher eitstores dat
a.
Secondar
ystor
ageareremovabl
edevi
cessuchasCDs,pendr
ives,et
c.,whichare
al
sousedt ost
oredat
a.

Basi
cComponent
sofComput
er

Acomput erdev
iceismadeupofvari
ouselementswhi
chhel
pinitsef
fect
ivef
unct
ioning
andpr ocessi
ng.Therear
efiv
ebasi
ccomponent soft
hecomputerwhi
chhelpinmakingthi
s
processingofdataeasi
erandconv
enient
.
Inthi
sart
icl
e,weshall
discussthebasi
ccomput ercomponentsalongwi
ththei
rfuncti
ons.
Also,
forcandi
datespr
eparingComputerKnowledgeforupcomingcompeti
ti
veexams,
samplequesti
onsbasedont hi
sconcepthavebeengivenfurt
herbelowi
nthisar
ticl
e.
Bydefini
ti
on,componentsofacomput
ersyst
em ar
ethepri
mar
yel
ementswhi
chmaket he
funct
ioni
ngofanelectr
onicdev
icesmoot
handfaster
.Ther
ear
efi
vebasi
ccomponent
s
whichincl
ude:

1.I
nputUnit
2.OutputUnit
3.Memor yUnit
4.Control
Uni t
5.Ari
thmeticalandLogi
cal
Uni
t

Gi
venbel
owar
ethe5component
sofacomput
eral
ongwi
tht
hei
rpur
poseandf
unct
ions.
  I
nputUni
t
Acomputerwi
ll
onlyrespondwhenacommandi sgi
vent
othedev
ice.Thesecommandscanbe
gi
venusi
ngtheinputuni
torthei
nputdev
ices.

Forexample:
Usingakey
boar
dwecant ypethi
ngsonaNotepadandthecomput
erpr
ocesses
theenter
eddataandt
hendi
splay
stheoutputoft
hesameofthescr
een.

Thedataenter
edcanbeintheform ofnumbers,alphabet,i
mages,etc.Weentertheinf
ormati
on
usi
nganinputdevi
ce,t
heprocessinguni
tsconvertiti
ntocomput erunder
standablel
anguages
andthenthefi
nal
outputi
sreceiv
edbyahuman- understandabl
elanguage.

 Out
putUni
t
Whenwecommandacomput ert
operfor
m atask,
itr
evert
sfortheacti
onperformedandgiv
es
usaresul
t.Thi
sresul
tiscal
ledoutput
.Ther
earevari
ousoutputdevi
cesconnectedtot
he
computer
.Themostbasicofwhichisamonitor
.Whateverwewr i
teusi
ngakey boar
dorcl
ick
usi
ngamouse, i
salldi
splay
edont hemonit
or.

Thus,
theoutputuni
tgiv
esust
hef
inal
resul
toncet
heent
ir
epr
ocessi
ngi
sdonewi
thi
nthe
mechani
sm ofadevice.

Forexample:
whenwevisi
tanATM, weent
erourdetail
sli
kelanguage,pin,
amounttobe
wit
hdrawn,et
c.andt
henthefi
nalmoneywhichthecashdispenserr
eleasesisourout
come.I
n
thi
scase,t
hecashdi
spenseract
sasanoutputunit
.

Togetal
istofcomputeri
nputandout
putdev
icesandt
hef
unct
ionoft
hev
ari
ousI
/Odev
ices,
vi
sitt
hel
i
nkedar t
icl
e.

Forbet
terunderst
andi
ngandmor eint
eracti
veanal
ysi
soft hecomponent
softhecomputer
,
candi
datescancheckthevideogi
venbelowandgetdetail
edinfor
mati
onreadi
ngthef
ivemajor
componentsresponsi
blef
orthefunct
ioni
ngofacomput erdevi
ce.

 Memor
yUni
t
Whenweent ert
hedataint
othecomputerusi
nganinputdevi
ce,theenteredinformation
i
mmedi at
elyget
ssavedinthememoryunitoft
heCentral
ProcessingUnit(CPU) .Becauseofthe
presenceofsomeexisti
ngprogr
amming,theMemoryUnittr
ansmi tst
hedat afurthertotheot
her
partsoftheCPU.

Si
mil
arl
y,whent
heout
putofourcommandisprocessedbyt
hecomput
er,
iti
ssav
edi
nthe
memoryuni
tbef
oregi
vi
ngtheoutputt
otheuser
.

 Cont
rol
Uni
t
Thi
sisthecoreunitwhi
chmanagestheenti
ref
uncti
oni
ngoft
hecomput
erdev
ice.I
tisoneoft
he
mostessent
ialcomponent
softhecomputersy
stem.

TheControl Uni
tcoll
ect
sthedataenter
edusingtheinputuni
t,l
eadsi
tonforprocessi
ngand
oncethatisdone,recei
vestheout
putandpresentsitt
otheuser.I
tcanbesaidtothecent
reof
al
lprocessingacti
onstaki
ngplaceinsi
deacomput erdevi
ce.

Basi
cal
l
y,t
hei
nst
ruct
ionst
aken,
int
erpr
etat
ionofent
ereddat
a,i
ssui
ngsi
gnal
stoex
ecut
ethe
dat
aandt
henf
inal
l
yret
ri
evi
ngt
hedat
aisal
ldonei
ntheCont
rol
Uni
t.

 Ar
it
hmet
ic&Logi
cal
Uni
t
Asthenamesuggest
s,al
lthemathemat
ical
cal
cul
ati
onsorar
it
hmet
icoper
ati
onsar
eper
for
med
i
ntheArit
hmet
icandLogi
cal Uni
toft
heCPU.

Itcanalsoperf
orm acti
onsl
ikeacompari
sonofdataanddecisi
on-
makingacti
ons.TheALU
comprisescir
cuitsusi
ngwhichaddi
ti
on,
subtr
act
ion,mult
ipl
i
cati
on,di
vi
sionandothernumer
ical
basedcalcul
ationscanbeperfor
med.

Cent
ral
Processi
ngUni
t(CPU)
TheCentr
alProcessi
ngUni
tist
hecoreofanycomputerdevi
ces.I
tcompr
isest
hreemaj
or
componentsofthecomput
erwhichhav
ebeendiscussedabove:

 Memor
yUni
t

 Cont
rol
Uni
t

 Ar
it
hmet
icandLogi
cal
Uni
t
Al
lthesethr
eeunit
sareelementsofCPUandt oget
herhel
pintheeff
ici
entworki
ngand
pr
ocessingofdat
a.Iti
salsoknownasthe“BrainofComputer
”andnoact i
oncanbeconduct
ed
byadevicewit
houttheex
ecutionandper
missionoftheCentr
alPr
ocessingUnit
.

Thedevi
ceisaclose-
kni
tcir
cui
tcompari
sonmi cr
oprocessorwhi
chhelpsi
nfet
chi
ngthedat
a
andprov
ingsui
tabler
esul
tstot
heuser.Thus,
CPUi sthemai npr
ocessi
nguni
toft
hecomputer
.

Al
so,whil
ediscussi
ngthevari
ouscomponentsofcomputer
s,i
tmustbeknownthatadevi
ce
whichi
ssocompl exandint
ri
catel
ymadeusingcir
cui
tsandwirescompr
isesv
ari
ousother
el
ements,whichaff
ect
sitsoveral
lpr
ogr
ammi ngandper
formance

Memor
yinComput
erSy
stem
Acomput erisadev i
cet hatiselectronicandt hatacceptsdat a,processes
thatdata,andgivest hedesi r
edout put.Itper
for mspr ogrammed
comput ati
onwi t
hgr eataccur acy&hi gherspeed.Ori not herwor ds,the
comput ertakesdataasi nputandst oresthedat a/i
nstructi
onsi nt hememor y
(usethem whenr equi r
ed) .I
tthenpr ocessesthedat aandconv ertsitint
o
usefuli
nformat i
on.Finally,i
tgivestheout put.Here,inputreferst otheraw
datathatwewantt hemachi netopr ocessandr et
urnt ousasar esult,
outputreferstotheresponset hatthemachi nepr ovi
desi nresponset othe
rawdataent eredandt hepr ocessingofdat amayi nvolveanalyzing,
searchi
ng, di
stri
buti
ng, stori
ngdat a,etc.Thus, wecanal socal lacomput er
dataprocessingsyst em.
Whati
sMemor
y?

Comput ermemoryisj
ustlikethehumanbr ain.Iti
susedtostore
data/i
nformat
ionandinstr
ucti
ons.Iti
sadat ast or
ageunitoradatast
orage
devicewheredatai
stobepr ocessedandinst r
ucti
onsrequir
edfor
processingar
estor
ed.Itcanstorebotht
hei nputandoutputcanbestored
here.
Char
acter
ist
icsofMai nMemor y
:
 I
tisfast
ercomput ermemor yascomparetosecondar
ymemor
y.
 I
tissemiconductormemor i
es.
 I
tisusuall
yav ol
atil
ememor y.
 I
tisthemai nmemor yofthecomputer
.
 Acomput ersyst
em cannotrunwit
houtpri
marymemor y.

I
ngener
al,
memor
yisoft
hreet
ypes:

Pri
marymemor y
Secondarymemory
Cachememor y
Nowwediscusseachty
peofmemor
yonebyonei
ndet
ail
:
1.Pri
maryMemor y
:Itisalsoknownast hemainmemor yofthe
computersy
stem.Iti
susedt ost or
edataandpr ogramsori nst
ructi
ons
duri
ngcomputeroperati
ons.Itusessemiconductortechnologyandhenceis
commonlycall
edsemi conductormemory.Pri
mar ymemor yisoftwotypes:

(i
)RAM ( Random AccessMemor y):Itisav olati
lememor y.Volat i
lememor y
storesinformat ionbasedont hepowersuppl y.Ifthepowersuppl yfail
s/
i
nterrupted/ stopped, allt
hedata&i nformationont hi
smemor ywi l
lbelost.
RAM i susedf orboot i
nguporst artthecomput er.Ittemporarilystores
programs/dat awhi chhast obeexecut edbyt hepr ocessor.RAM i soft wo
ty
pes:
 SRAM ( StaticRAM):Itusest ransi
storsandt hecircuitsofthis
memor yar ecapableofr etainingtheirstateasl ongast hepoweris
applied.Thi smemor yconsi stsoft henumberoff l
ipflopswi t
heach
fl
ipflopst oring1bit.Ithasl essaccesst i
meandhence, i
tisfast
er.
 DRAM ( Dy namicRAM) :I
tusescapaci torsandt ransistorsand
storest hedat aasachar geont hecapaci t
ors.Theycont ai
n
thousandsofmemor ycells.Itneedsr efreshingofchar geon
capaci t
oraf terafewmi l
l
iseconds.Thi smemor yisslowert hanS
RAM.

(i
i
)ROM ( ReadOnl yMemory):Iti
sanon- v
olat
il
ememor y.Non-vol
ati
l
e
memor ystoresinfor
mati
onev enwhent herei
sapowersuppl yfai
l
ed/
i
nter
rupted/stopped.ROM i
susedt ostoreinf
ormationt
hatisusedto
oper
atethesy stem.Asit
snamer ef
erstoread-onl
ymemor y
, wecanonl
y
readt heprogramsanddat at
hati sst oredonit.I
tcontainssomeel ect
roni
c
fusest hatcanbeprogrammedf orapi eceofspecifi
ci nfor
mati
on.The
i
nf ormationstor
edintheROM i nbi naryformat.I
tisalsoknownas
per manentmemor y.ROM isoff ourt y
pes:
 MROM( MaskedROM) :Har d-wir
eddev i
ceswi thapre-
programmed
col
lect
ionofdataorinstructionsweret hef
irstROMs.Masked
ROMsar eatypeoflow- costROM t hatworksi nthi
sway .

 PROM (Progr
ammabl eReadOnl yMemory):Thisread-
onlymemory
i
smodi f
iabl
eoncebyt heuser.TheuserpurchasesablankPROM
andusesaPROM pr ogram t
oputtherequir
edcont ent
sintot
he
PROM.Itscontentcan’
tbeerasedoncewr i
tten.

 EPROM ( Erasabl
eProgrammableReadOnlyMemor y)
:Iti
san
extensiontoPROM wher eyoucaneraset
hecontentofROM by
exposingittoUlt
rav
ioletray
sfornearl
y40minut
es.

 EEPROM ( Elect
ri
call
yErasableProgr
ammabl eReadOnly
Memor y):Herethewr i
tt
encontentscanbeerasedel
ectr
ical
l
y .You
candeleteandr epr
ogrammeEEPROM upt o10,000ti
mes.Erasing
andprogr ammingtakev eryl
i
ttl
etime,i
.e.
,near
ly4-10
ms(mill
iseconds).AnyareainanEEPROM canbewi pedand
progr
ammedsel ecti
vely.

2.SecondaryMemor y:Iti
sal soknownasauxi li
arymemor yandbackup
memor y.Iti
sanon-volati
l
ememor yandusedt ost orealar
geamountofdat
a
orinfor
mat i
on.Thedataori nfor
mationstoredinsecondar ymemor yi
s
permanent ,
anditi
sslowert hanprimarymemor y.ACPUcannotaccess
secondarymemor ydir
ectly.Thedata/i
nformationf rom t
heauxil
i
arymemory
i
sf i
rsttr
ansfer
redtothemai nmemor y,
andt hent heCPUcanaccessi t
.

Char
acter
ist
icsofSecondar yMemor y:
 I
tisaslowmemor ybutreusabl
e.
 I
tisareliableandnon-volat
il
ememor y.
 I
tischeapert hanpri
mar ymemor y.
 Thestoragecapacityofsecondarymemor yislar
ge.
 Acomput ersyst
em canrunwi t
houtsecondarymemory
.
 I
nsecondar ymemory,dataisstor
edpermanent l
yev
enwhent
he
powerisof f.

Ty
pesofsecondar
ymemor
y:

(
i) Magnet
icTapes:Magnet
ict
ape i
sa l
ong,nar
row st
ri
p of
 pl
ast i
cfi
lm wi t
hat hi
n,magneti
ccoat ingoni tt
hatisusedf or
magnet i
cr ecording.Bit
sar erecordedont apeasmagnet ic
patches called RECORDS t hat run al ong many t racks.
Typical
ly,7or9bi tsarerecordedconcur rent
ly.Eacht r
ack
hasoner ead/wr i
tehead,whichal l
owsdat atober ecorded
andr eadasasequenceofchar acters.Itcanbest opped,
start
edmov i
ngf orwardorbackward,orr ewound.

(
ii
) Magnet i
cDisks:Amagnet i
cdisci sacir
cularmetalora
pl
asticplat
eandt heseplat
esar ecoatedwithmagnet ic
material
.Thediscisusedonbot hsides.Bitsar
estor edin
magnet i
zedsurfacesi
nlocati
onscal l
edtracksthatruni n
concentri
cri
ngs.Sectorsaret
y pical
l
yusedt obreaktr acks
i
ntopieces.

Har
ddiscsaredi
scst
hatar
eper
manent
lyat
tachedandcannotber
emov
ed
byasi
ngleuser
.
(
ii
i) OpticalDi
sks:It
’salaser-
basedstoragemedium t
hatcanbe
writt
entoandr ead.I
tisreasonabl
ypr i
cedandhasalong
l
ifespan.Theopt i
caldi
sccanbet akenoutofthecomputerby
occasionalusers.Ty
pesofOpt i
calDisks:

(
a)CD–ROM:
 I
t’scal
ledCompactDi sk.Onl yr eadfr
om memor y
.
 I
nformationiswr i
ttent othedi scbyusingacont rol
l
edlaserbeam
toburnpitsont hediscsur face.
 I
thasahi ghlyrefl
ectingsur face, whi
chisusuall
yaluminum.
 Thediamet erofthedi scis5. 25inches.
 16000tracksperi nchi sthet rackdensi
ty.
 ThecapacityofaCD- ROM is600MB, witheachsectorstor
ing2048
bytesofdata.
 Thedatat r
ansferratei sabout4800KB/ sec.&thenewaccesst i
me
 i
sar
ound80mi
l
li
seconds.

(
b)WORM-(WRI TEONCEREADMANY) :
 Au sercanonl ywri
tedat aonce.
 T heinformationiswritt
enont hediscusi
ngalaserbeam.
 Itispossibletoreadt hewr i
tt
endat aasmanyt i
mesasdesired.
 T heykeepl asti
ngrecordsofi nformati
onbutaccessti
meishigh.
 Itispossibletorewr i
teupdatedornewdat at
oanotherpar
tofthe
disc.
 Da tathathasal r
eadybeenwr itt
encannotbechanged.
 Us ualsize–5. 25inchor3. 5inchdiameter
.
 T heusual capacit
yof5. 25inchdi ski
s650MB, 5.
2GBetc.

(
c)DVDs:
 Theterm“ DVD”st andsfor“ DigitalVersati
le/
VideoDisc,”andthere
aretwosor t
sofDVDs: (i
)DVDR( wri
table)and(ii
)DVDRW ( Re-
Writ
able)
 DVD-ROMS( Digi
talVer satil
eDi scs):Thesear eread-
onlymemor y
(ROM)di scsthatcanbeusedi nav ari
et yofways.Whencompar ed
toCD-ROMs, theycanst oreal otmor edata.Ithasat hi
ck
poly
carbonatepl asticlayerthatser vesasaf oundationfortheother
l
ayers.It
’sanopt icalmemor yt hatcanr eadandwr it
edat a.
 DVD-R:Itisawr itableopticaldi scthatcanbeusedj ustonce.It’
sa
DVDt hatcanber ecorded.It’sal otli
keWORM.DVD- ROMshav e
capacit
iesrangingf rom 4.7t o17GB.Thecapaci t
yof3. 5inchdisk
i
s1.3GB.

3.CacheMemor y
:Iti
sat ypeofhi
gh-
speedsemiconductormemorythatcan
hel
ptheCPUr unfast
er.Betweent
heCPUandt hemainmemor y,
itservesas
abuffer.I
tisusedtostorethedat
aandprogr
amst hattheCPUusest he
mostf r
equentl
y.
Advantagesofcachememor y:
 I
tisfasterthanthemainmemor y.
 Whencompar edtothemainmemor y
,itt
akesl
esst
imetoaccessi
t.
 I
tkeepst heprogramsthatcanberuninashor
tamountoft
ime.
 I
tstoresdat ai
ntemporaryuse.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofcachememor
y:
 Becauseoft
hesemiconduct
orsused,i
tisv
eryexpensi
ve.
 Thesizeoft
hecache(amountofdatai
tcanstor
e)isusual
lysmal
l
.
A
comput
i
sat
er
ool
Pr
obl
em Sol
vi
ngusi
ng
tosol
probl
v
ea
em. Computer
Problem
solvi
ngistheprocessoftransfor
mingthedescr
ipt
ionofaprobl
em i
ntoasol
uti
onby
usingourknowledgeofthepr obl
em domainandbyrel
yi
ngonourabil
it
ytosel
ect
anduseappr opr
iat
eproblem-solvi
ngstr
ategi
es,t
echni
quesandtool
s.

Programmingisaproblem sol
vi
ngact i
vi
ty.Whenwewri
teaprogram,wear
eactual
l
y
writ
inganinst
ruct
ionfort
hecomput ertosolv
esomethi
ngforus.Usi
ngacomputer
asapr obl
em sol
vi
ngtoolfoll
owingstepsareinv
olv
e

Thef
oll
owi
ngsi
xst
epsmustbef
oll
owedt
osol
veapr
obl
em usi
ngcomput
er.

1.Problem Anal
ysi
s
2.Program Desi
gn-Al
gori
thm,Fl
owchar
tandPseudocode
3.Coding
4.Compi l
ati
onandExecut
ion
5.DebuggingandTesti
ng
6.Program Document
ati
on

1.Pr
obl
em Anal
ysi
s:
Pr
obl
em anal
ysi
sist
hepr
ocessofdef
ini
ngapr
obl
em anddecomposi
ngov
eral
l
sy
stem i
ntosmal
l
erpar
tst
oident
if
ypossi
blei
nput
s,pr
ocessesandout
put
s
associ
atedwi
tht
hepr
obl
em.Thi
staski
sfur
thersubdi
vi
dedi
ntosi
xsubt
asks
namel
y:

1.Speci
fyi
ngt
heObj
ect
ive:

Fi
rst
,weneedt
oknowwhatpr
obl
em i
sact
ual
l
ybei
ngsol
ved.Maki
ngacl
ear
 st
atementoft
hepr
obl
em dependsupont
hesi
zeandcompl
exi
tyoft
he
pr
obl
em.Smal
l
erpr
obl
emsnoti
nvol
vi
ngmul
ti
plesubsy
stemscaneasi
l
ybe
st
atedandt
henwecanmov
eont
othenextst
epof“
Progr
am Desi
gn”
.
Howev
er,
apr
obl
em i
nter
act
ingwi
thv
ari
oussubsy
stemsandser
iesof
pr
ogr
amsr
equi
recompl
exanal
ysi
s,i
n-dept
hresear
chandcar
eful
coor
dinat
ionofpeopl
e,pr
ocedur
esandpr
ogr
ams.

2.Speci
fyi
ngt
heOut
put:

Bef
orei
dent
if
yingi
nput
srequi
redf
ort
hesy
stem,
weneedt
oident
if
ywhat
comesoutoft
hesy
stem.Thebestwayt
ospeci
fyout
puti
stopr
epar
esome
out
putf
ormsandr
equi
redf
ormatf
ordi
spl
ayi
ngr
esul
t.Thebestper
sont
o
j
udgeanout
putf
ormi
stheenduseroft
hesy
stem i
.e.t
heonewhousest
he
sof
twar
etohi
sbenef
it
.Var
iousf
ormscanbedesi
gnedbyt
hepr
ogr
ammer
whi
chmustbeexami
nedt
oseewhet
hert
heyar
eusef
ulornot
.

3.Speci
fyi
ngI
nputRequi
rement
s:

Af
terhav
ingspeci
fi
edt
heout
put
s,t
hei
nputanddat
arequi
redf
ort
hesy
stem
needt
obespeci
fi
edaswel
l
.Oneneedst
oident
if
ythel
i
stofi
nput
srequi
red
andt
hesour
ceofdat
a.Forexampl
e,i
nasi
mpl
epr
ogr
am t
okeepst
udent
’s
r
ecor
d,t
hei
nput
scoul
dbet
hest
udent
’sname,
addr
ess,
rol
l
-number
s,et
c.The
sour
cescoul
dbet
hest
udent
sthemsel
vesort
heper
sonsuper
visi
ngt
hem.

4.Speci
fyi
ngPr
ocessi
ngRequi
rement
s:

Whenout
putandi
nput
sar
especi
fi
ed,
weneedt
ospeci
fypr
ocesst
hat
conv
ert
sspeci
fi
edi
nput
sint
odesi
redout
put
.Ift
hepr
oposedpr
ogr
am i
sto
r
epl
aceorsuppl
ementanexi
sti
ngone,
acar
eful
eval
uat
ionoft
hepr
esent
pr
ocessi
ngpr
ocedur
esneedst
obemade,
not
inganyi
mpr
ovement
sthat
coul
dmade.I
fthepr
oposedsy
stem i
snotdesi
gnedt
orepl
aceanexi
sti
ng
 sy
stem,
theni
tiswel
ladv
isedt
ocar
eful
l
yev
aluat
eanot
hersy
stem t
hat
addr
essesasi
mil
arpr
obl
em.

5.Ev
aluat
ingt
heFeasi
bil
it
y:

Af
tert
hesuccessf
ulcompl
eti
onofal
ltheabov
efourst
epsoneneedst
osee
whet
hert
het
hingsaccompl
i
shedsof
ari
nthepr
ocessofpr
obl
em sol
vi
ngar
e
pr
act
ical
andf
easi
ble.Tor
epl
aceanexi
sti
ngsy
stem oneneedst
odet
ermi
ne
howt
hepot
ent
ial
impr
ovement
sout
per
for
msexi
sti
ngsy
stem orot
hersi
mil
ar
sy
stem.

6.Pr
obl
em Anal
ysi
sDocument
ati
on

Bef
oreconcl
udi
ngt
hepr
ogr
am anal
ysi
sst
age,
iti
sbestt
orecor
dwhat
ever
hasbeendonesof
ari
nthef
ir
stphaseofpr
ogr
am dev
elopment
.Ther
ecor
d
shoul
dcont
aint
hest
atementofpr
ogr
am obj
ect
ives,
out
putandi
nput
speci
fi
cat
ions,
processi
ngr
equi
rement
sandf
easi
bil
i
ty.

2.Pr
ogr
am Desi
gn
The

secondst
agei
nsof
twar
edev
elopmentorpr
obl
em sol
vi
ngusi
ngcomput
ercy
clei
s
pr
ogr
am desi
gn.Thi
sst
ageconsi
stsofpr
epar
ingal
gor
it
hms,
flowchar
tsand
pseudocodes.Gener
all
y,t
hisst
agei
ntendst
omaket
hepr
ogr
am mor
euserf
ri
endl
y,
f
easi
bleandopt
imi
zed.Pr
ogr
ammerj
ustr
equi
resapenandpenci
li
nthi
sst
epi
n
whi
cht
het
asksar
efi
rstconv
ert
edi
ntoast
ruct
uredl
ayoutwi
thoutt
hei
nvol
vement
ofcomput
er.I
nst
ruct
uredpr
ogr
ammi
ng,
agi
vent
aski
sdi
vi
dedi
ntonumberofsub-
t
askswhi
char
eter
medasmodul
es.Eachpr
ocessi
sfur
therdi
vi
dedunt
ilnof
urt
her
di
vi
sionsar
erequi
red.Thi
spr
ocessofdi
vi
dingapr
ogr
am i
ntomodul
esandt
heni
nto
sub-
modul
esi
sknownas“
topdown”desi
gnappr
oach.Di
vi
dingapr
ogr
am i
nto
modul
es(
funct
ions)br
eaksdownagi
venpr
ogr
ammi
ngt
aski
ntosmal
l
,independent
andmanageabl
etasks.

I
npr
ogr
am desi
gnwear
emai
nlyi
nter
est
edi
ndesi
gni
ng:

1.Algor
it
hms
2.Fl
owcharts
3.Pseudocodes

Al
gor
it
hm I
ntr
oduct
ion

Anal
gor
it
hm i
sanef
fect
ivest
ep-
by-
steppr
ocedur
eforsol
vi
ngapr
obl
em i
naf
ini
tenumber

ofst
eps.I
not
herwor
ds,
iti
saf
ini
tesetofwel
l
-def
inedi
nst
ruct
ionsorst
ep-
by-
step

descr
ipt
ionoft
hepr
ocedur
ewr
it
teni
nhumanr
eadabl
elanguagef
orsol
vi
ngagi
venpr
obl
em.

Anal
gor
it
hm i
tsel
fisdi
vi
si
onofapr
obl
em i
ntosmal
lst
epswhi
char
eor
der
edi
nsequence

andeasi
l
yunder
standabl
e.Al
gor
it
hmsar
ever
yimpor
tantt
othewaycomput
erspr
ocess

i
nfor
mat
ion,
becauseacomput
erpr
ogr
am i
sbasi
cal
l
yanal
gor
it
hm t
hatt
ell
scomput
erwhat

speci
fi
ctaskst
oper
for
minwhatspeci
fi
cor
dert
oaccompl
i
shaspeci
fi
ctask.Thesame

pr
obl
em canbesol
vedwi
thdi
ff
erentmet
hods.So,
forsol
vi
ngt
hesamepr
obl
em,
dif
fer
ent

al
gor
it
hmscanbedesi
gned.I
ntheseal
gor
it
hms,
numberofst
eps,
timeandef
for
tsmayv
ary

mor
eorl
ess.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofanAl
gor
it
hm

Anal
gor
it
hm mustpossessf
oll
owi
ngchar
act
eri
sti
cs:

1.Finiteness:Anal gori
thm shoul
dhavef i
nit
enumberofst epsandi tshoul
dend
afteraf ini
teti
me.
2.Input :Analgori
thm mayhav emanyinputsornoinputsatall.
3.Out put:Itshoul
dr esultatl
eastoneoutput.
4.Def i
ni t
eness:Eachst epmustbeclear,well
-def
inedandpr eci
se.Thereshoul
d
benoanyambi guity.
 5.Eff
ect
iveness:Eachst
epmustbesi
mpl
eandshoul
dtakeaf
ini
teamountof
ti
me.

Gui
del
inesf
orDev
elopi
nganAl
gor
it
hm

Fol
lowinggui
del
i
nesmustbef
oll
owedwhi
ledev
elopi
ngan
al
gori
thm :

1.Analgori
thm wil
lbeenclosedbySTART( orBEGIN)andSTOP( orEND) .
2.Toacceptdat af
rom user,
generall
yusedst at
ement sareINPUT,READ,GETor
OBTAIN.
3.Todispl
ayr esul
toranymessage, general
lyusedstatementsarePRINT,DISPLAY,
or
WRITE.
4.General
l
y ,COMPUTEorCALCULATEi susedwhi l
edescribi
ngmat hemati
cal
expr
essionsandbasedonsi tuat
ionrelevantoper
atorscanbeused.

Exampl
eofanAl
gor
it
hm

Al
gor
it
hm :Cal
cul
ati
onofSi
mpl
eInt
erest

St
ep1:
Start
St
ep2:
Readprinci
ple(
P),t
ime(T)andr
ate(
R)
St
ep3:
Calcul
ateI=P*T*R/100
St
ep4:
PrintIasI
nter
est
St
ep5:
Stop

Adv
ant
agesofanAl
gor
it
hm

Desi
gni
nganal
gor
it
hm hasf
oll
owi
ngadv
ant
ages:

1.Eff
ectiv
eCommuni cation:Sincealgori
thm i
swrit
teninEngl i
shl
i
kelanguage,
i
tissimpletounderstandst ep-by-
stepsolut
ionoftheproblems.
2.EasyDebugging:Well-designedalgorit
hm makesdebuggingeasysot hatwe
canidenti
fyl
ogical
errorint heprogram.
3.EasyannEf f
ici
entCodi ng:Anal gori
thm act
sasabl uepr
intofaprogr
am and
 helpsduri
ngprogram dev
elopment.
4.IndependentofProgrammingLanguage:Analgor
it
hm i
sindependentof
programminglanguagesandcanbeeasilycodedusi
nganyhighlevel
l
anguage.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofanAl
gor
it
hm

Anal
gor
it
hm hasf
oll
owi
ngdi
sadv
ant
ages:

1.Devel
opi ngal
gor
ithm f
orcomplexprobl
emswoul
dbeti
meconsumingand
di
ffi
culttounder
stand.
2.Understandi
ngcomplexlogi
cthroughal
gor
it
hmscanbever
ydi
ffi
cul
t.

Flowchartisbasi
cal
lyapi
ctor
ialordi
agrammati
c
represent
ationofanal
gor
it
hm usingstandar
dsymbol
s.

I
not
herwor
ds,
flowchar
tisagr
aphi
cal
repr
esent
ati
ont
hatexpl
ainst
hesequenceof
oper
ati
onst
obeper
for
medi
nor
dert
osol
veapr
obl
em underconsi
der
ati
on.

St
andar
dFl
owchar
tSy
mbol
s

Toexpr essdi
fferentoperati
onsint hefl
owchartvari
ousstandard
symbolsar eused.Al l
symbol sareconnectedamongt hemselvesin
ordertoshowt hef l
owofi nformationandprocessi
ng.Dif
ferent
symbolsaspr escribedbyAmer i
canNat i
onalStandardI
nsti
tute
(ANSI)whichar efrequentl
yrequiredwhil
edrawingflowchartar
e
tabul
atedbelow:
Fi
gur
e:Fl
owchar
tSy
mbol
s

Gui
del
inesf
orPr
epar
ingFl
owchar
t

Fol
l
owi
nggui
del
inesmustbef
oll
owedwhi
l
epr
epar
ingt
hef
lowchar
ts:

1.Standar
dsy mbol sshouldbeusedwhi l
edrawi ngfl
owchart.
2.EnsurethatflowcharthasSTART( orBEGI N)andSTOP( orEND).
3.Fl
owchar tshouldbeneat ,
cleanandeasyt of oll
ow.Thereshoul
dbenoany
ambiguit
y .
4.Theusual dir
ecti
onoff l
owchar ti
sfrom toptobot tom orf
rom l
eftt
or i
ght
.
5.Theterminalsymbol ,t
hatis,START/BEGI NorSTOP/ ENDshouldhav eonly
oneflowline.
6.Onlyonef l
owl i
neshouldcomeoutf rom processsy mbol.
7.Onlyonef l
owl i
neshouldent eradecisi
onsy mbol ,
buttwoorthreefl
ow-li
nes,
 onef oreachpossibleanswer,canleavethedecisionsymbol
.
8.Iftheflowchartisl
engthyandcompl exconnectorsymbolshoul
dbeusedt
o
reducet henumberoff l
owlines.
9.Avoidintersecti
onoffl
owl i
nes.
10.
Useannot ationsymboltodescribestepsmorecl ear
ly.

Exampl
eofFl
owchar
t

Fl
owchar
texampl
eforcal
cul
ati
ngsi
mpl
eint
eresti
sshownbel
ow:

Fi
gur
e:Fl
owchar
tforcal
cul
ati
ngsi
mpl
eint
erest

Adv
ant
agesofFl
owchar
t

Dr
awi
ngf
lowchar
twhi
l
esol
vi
nganypr
obl
em hasf
oll
owi
ngadv
ant
ages:

1.Effecti
veCommuni cat
ion:Flowchar t
sar ebet terwayofcommuni cati
ngthe
l
ogi cofthesy stem.
2.Effecti
veAnal ysis:Usingflowchartprobl em canbeanal yzedmor eeff
ici
ent
ly.
3.EasyDebuggi ngandEf fi
cientTesti
ng:TheFl owcharthelpsindebuggingand
testi
ngpr ocess.
4.Effi
cientCodi ng:Thef l
owchar t
sar everyusef ulduri
ngpr ogram devel
opment
phase.
5.ProperDocument at
ion:Flowchartsserv esasagoodpr ogr am
document ation,whichisneededf orvariouspur pose.
6.Effi
cientProgr am Maintenance:Mai ntenanceofoper at
ingpr ogr
ams
becomeseasywi ththehelpofflowchar t
.
 Di
sdv
ant
agesofFl
owchar
t

Fl
owchar
thasf
oll
owi
ngdi
sadv
ant
ages:

1.Compl exLogic:Forcomplicatedlogi
c,fl
owchartbecomescomplexand
cl
umsy .
2.Dif
ficult
yinModi f
icat
ions:Ifchangeisrequi
redinthelogi
cthenf
lowchar
t
needst oberedrawnandr equiresalotofti
me.

Pseudocode

Pseudocodei
sst
ruct
uredEngl
i
shf
ordescr
ibi
ngal
gor
it
hmsconci
sel
y.I
tismadeup
oft
wowor
ds,
namel
y,pseudomeani
ngi
mit
ati
onandcodemeani
ngi
nst
ruct
ions.As
t
henamesuggest
s,pseudocodedoesnotobeyt
hesy
ntaxr
ulesofanypar
ti
cul
ar
pr
ogr
ammi
ngl
anguagei
.e.i
tisnotar
eal
progr
ammi
ngcode.I
tal
l
owst
hedesi
gner
t
ofocusonmai
nlogi
cwi
thoutbei
ngdi
str
act
edbypr
ogr
ammi
ngl
anguagessy
ntax
.

Gui
del
inesf
orPr
epar
ingPseudocode

Fol
lowi
ngpoi
ntsshoul
dber
emember
edwhi
lepr
epar
ingpseudocode:

1.Pseudocodewil
lbeencl osedbySTART( orBEGIN)andSTOP( orEND).
2.Pseudocodeshouldbeconci sesoignoreunnecessarydetai
ls.
3.Toacceptdatafrom user,gener
all
yusedstatement sareI
NPUT, READ,GETor
OBTAIN.
4.Todispl
ayresul
toranymessage, gener
all
yusedst atementsarePRINT,
DISPLAY,orWRITE.
5.General
lyusedkeywordsar ecapi
tali
zedwhil
epr epari
ngpseudocode.

Exampl
eofPseudocode
Pseudocode:Cal
cul
ati
onofSi
mpl
eInt
erest

St
ep1:
START
St
ep2:
READP,T,R
St
ep3:
I=P*T*
R/100
St
ep4:
PRINTI
St
ep5:
STOP

Adv
ant
agesofPseudocode

Pr
epar
ingpseudocodewhi
lesol
vi
nganypr
obl
em t
hroughcomput
erhasf
oll
owi
ng
adv
ant
ages:

1.I
tallowst hedesignert ofocusonmai nlogi
cwi t
houtbei
ngdist
ract
edby
programmi nglanguagessy nt
ax.
2.Sinceitislanguagei ndependent,
itcanbetransl
atedtoanycomputer
l
anguagecode.
3.I
tallowsdesi gnertoexpr esslogi
cinplai
nnaturall
anguage.
4.I
tiseasiert owrit
eact ualcodeusingpseudocode.
5.Unlikealgori
thms, pseudocodesar econci
sesopseudocodesaremore
readableandeasi ertomodi fy.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofPseudocode

Pseudocodehasf
oll
owi
ngdi
sadv
ant
ages:

1.Therearenoacceptedst
andardsforwri
tingpseudocodesanddesigneruse
thei
rownstyl
ewhi l
ewrit
ingpseudocodes.
2.Pseudocodecannotbecompiledandexecutedsoitscorr
ectnesscannotbe
veri
fi
edbyusingcomputers.
 Codi
ng(
Progr
ammi
ng)
I
nthi
sst
age,
processofwr
it
ingact
ual
progr
am t
akespl
ace.Acodedpr
ogr
am i
s
mostpopul
arl
yref
err
edt
oasasour
cecode.Thecodi
ngpr
ocesscanbedonei
nany
l
anguage(
highl
evel
andl
owl
evel
).Theact
ual
useofcomput
ert
akespl
acei
nthi
s
st
agei
nwhi
cht
hepr
ogr
ammerwr
it
esasequenceofi
nst
ruct
ionsr
eadyf
orexecut
ion.
Codi
ngi
sal
soknownaspr
ogr
ammi
ng.

Goodpr
ogr
am possessesf
oll
owi
ngchar
act
eri
sti
cs:

1.Commentcl ausesi ntheprogram helptomaket hepr ogram r

eadableand
understandablebypeopl eotherthant heori
ginalprogrammer .
2.Itshouldbeef f
icient.
3.Itmustber eli
ableenought owor kunderal lr
easonableconditi
onstoprovi
de
acor r
ectoutput.
4.Itmustbeabl et odetectunreasonableerrorconditi
onsandr epor
tthem t
othe
enduserorpr ogr ammerwi thoutcrashingthesystem.
5.Itshouldbeeasyt omaintainandsuppor taft
erinstal
lati
on.

Compi
l
ati
onandExecut
ionPr
ocess
Gener
all
ycodi
ngi
sdonei
nhi
ghl
evel
languageorl
owl
evel
language(
assembl
y
l
anguage)
.Fort
hecomput
ert
ounder
standt
hesel
anguages,
theymustbet
ransl
ated
i
ntomachi
nel
evel
language.Thet
ransl
ati
onpr
ocessi
scar
ri
edoutbya
compi
l
er/
int
erpr
eter(
forhi
ghl
evel
language)oranassembl
er(
forassembl
y
l
anguagepr
ogr
am)
.Themachi
nel
anguagecodet
huscr
eat
edcanbesav
edandr
un
i
mmedi
atel
yorl
ateron.

I
nani
nter
pret
edpr
ogr
am,
eachpr
ogr
am st
atementi
sconv
ert
edi
ntomachi
necode
bef
orepr
ogr
am i
sexecut
ed.Theexecut
ionoccur
simmedi
atel
yonest
atementata
t
imesequent
ial
l
y.BASI
Cisoneoft
hef
requent
lyusedi
nter
pret
edl
anguage.I
n
cont
rastt
oint
erpr
eter
,acompi
l
erconv
ert
sagi
vensour
cecodei
ntoobj
ectcode.
Onceanobj
ectcodei
sobt
ained,
thecompi
l
edpr
ogr
amscanbef
ast
erandmor
e
ef
fi
cientt
hani
nter
pret
edpr
ogr
ams.

Compi
lat
ionPr
ocess

Asour
cecodemustgot
hroughsev
eral
stepsbef
orei
tbecomesanexecut
abl
e
pr
ogr
am.I
nthef
ir
stst
ept
hesour
cecodei
scheckedf
oranysy
ntaxer
ror
s.Af
tert
he
sy
ntaxer
ror
sar
etr
acedoutasour
cef
il
eispassedt
hroughacompi
l
erwhi
chf
ir
st
t
ransl
ateshi
ghl
evel
languagei
ntoobj
ectcode(
Amachi
necodenotr
eadyt
obe
execut
ed)
.Al
i
nkert
henl
i
nkst
heobj
ectcodewi
thpr
e-compi
l
edl
i
brar
yfunct
ions,
t
huscr
eat
inganexecut
abl
epr
ogr
am.Thi
sexecut
abl
epr
ogr
am i
sthenl
oadedi
nto
t
hememor
yforexecut
ion.Gener
alcompi
l
ati
onpr
ocessi
sshowni
nFi
gur
ebel
ow:
Fi
gur
e:Compi
l
ati
onPr
ocess

DebuggingandTest
ing(
Err
orand
TypesIncl
uded)
Tounder
standdebuggi
ngandt
est
ingmor
eint
uit
ivel
y,l
etsf
ir
stconsi
derl
ear
ning
aboutdi
ff
erentt
ypesofer
rort
hatoccur
swhi
l
epr
ogr
ammi
ng.
 Er
ror

Er
rormeansf
ail
ureofcompi
l
ati
onandexecut
ionoft
hecomput
erpr
ogr
am ornot
get
ti
ngexpect
edr
esul
tsaf
terexecut
ion.Debuggi
ngandt
est
ingar
esy
stemat
ic
pr
ocessdur
ingpr
ogr
am dev
elopmentcy
clet
oav
oider
ror
sint
hepr
ogr
am.Di
ff
erent
t
ypesofer
rort
hatweencount
erwhi
l
epr
ogr
ammi
ngar
eli
stedbel
ow:

Ty
pesofEr
ror
:

1.SyntaxError:Sy ntaxerr
orisav i
olati
onofpr ogrammingr uleswhil
ewr it
ingit.
Asy ntaxerrordoesnotal lowt hecodet orun.Sy nt
axerrorcanbeeasi ly
detecteddur i
ngt hecompi l
ationpr ocessusingcompiler.
2.LogicalErr
or :Logicalerr
oroccur swhenapr ogrammerhasappl i
edincor r
ect
l
ogicforsol vi
ngpr oblem orleftoutapr ogrammi ngprocedure.Whenl ogical
err
oroccur s,program executesbutf ai
lst
opr oduceacor rectr
esult
.
3.RunTi meEr ror:Runt i
meer roroccur sduri
ngt heexecuti
onofpr ogram.St ack
overfl
ow,div i
debyzer o,fl
oatingpoi nterr
oretc.areexampl esofrunti
meer r
or.

Debuggi
ng

Debuggi
ngi
sthepr
ocessoff
indi
nger
ror
sandr
emov
ingt
hem f
rom acomput
er
pr
ogr
am,
other
wiset
heywi
l
lleadt
ofai
l
ureoft
hepr
ogr
am.Ev
enaf
tert
aki
ngf
ull
car
e
dur
ingpr
ogr
am desi
gnandcodi
ng,
someer
ror
smayr
emai
nint
hepr
ogr
am and
t
heseer
ror
sappeardur
ingcompi
l
ati
onorl
i
nki
ngorexecut
ion.Debuggi
ngi
s
gener
all
ydonebypr
ogr
am dev
eloper
.

Test
ing

Test
ingi
sper
for
medt
over
if
ythatwhet
hert
hecompl
etedsof
twar
epackage
f
unct
ionsorwor
ksaccor
dingt
otheexpect
ati
onsdef
inedbyt
her
equi
rement
s.
Test
ingi
sgener
all
yper
for
medbyt
est
ingt
eam whi
chr
epet
it
ivel
yexecut
espr
ogr
am
wi
thi
ntentt
ofi
nder
ror
.Af
tert
est
ing,
li
stofer
ror
sandr
elat
edi
nfor
mat
ioni
ssentt
o
pr
ogr
am dev
eloperordev
elopment
eam.

Debuggi
ngv
sTest
ing

Maj
ordi
ff
erencesbet
weendebuggi
ngandt
est
ingar
epoi
ntedbel
ow:

I
tist
hepr
ocessoff
ixi
nger
ror
s.

I
tist
hepr
ocessoff
indi
ngasmanyer
ror
saspossi
ble.

Debuggi
ngi
sdonedur
ingpr
ogr
am dev
elopmentphase.

Test
ingi
sdonedur
ingt
est
ingphasewhi
chcomesaf
terdev
elopmentphase.

Debuggi
ngi
sdonebypr
ogr
am dev
eloper
.

Test
ingi
sgener
all
ycar
ri
edoutbysepar
atet
est
ingt
eam r
athert
hanpr
ogr
am
dev
eloper
.
Progr
am (
Progr
ammer
'sandUser
's)
Document
ati
on
Thepr
ogr
am document
ati
oni
sthepr
ocessofcol
l
ect
ingi
nfor
mat
ionaboutt
he
pr
ogr
am.Thedocument
ati
onpr
ocessst
art
sfr
om t
hepr
obl
em anal
ysi
sphaset
o
debuggi
ngandt
est
ing.Document
ati
onconsi
stst
wot
ypesofdocument
ati
on,
they
ar
e:

1.Progr
ammer'sDocument
ati
on
2.User'
sDocumentat
ion

Pr
ogr
ammer
'sDocument
ati
on

Pr
ogr
ammer
’sdocument
ati
oncont
ainsal
lthet
echni
cal
det
ail
s.Wi
thoutpr
oper
document
ati
oni
tisv
erydi
ff
icul
tev
enf
ort
heor
igi
nal
progr
ammert
oupdat
eand
mai
ntai
nthepr
ogr
am.Apr
ogr
ammer
’sdocument
ati
oncont
ainst
henecessar
y
i
nfor
mat
iont
hatapr
ogr
ammerr
equi
rest
oupdat
eandmai
ntai
nthepr
ogr
am.These
i
nfor
mat
ioni
ncl
udes:

1.Program analysisdocument,withaconcisest atementofpr ogram’s

objecti
ves,outputsandprocessingprocedur es.
2.Program designdocument swithappropriateflowchart
sanddi agr
ams.
3.Program veri
ficati
ondocument sforoutl
ining,checki
ng, t
estingandcorr
ecti
on
proceduresalongwi t
hthelistofsampledat aandr esul
ts.
4.Logusedt odocumentf utureprogram revisi
onandmai ntenanceacti
vi
ty.

User
'sDocument
ati
on

Userdocumentat
ionisrequiredfortheenduserwhoinst
all
sand
usestheprogr
am.Itconsistsinstr
ucti
onsfori
nstal
l
ati
onofthe
progr
am andusermanual .