ENGLISH GRAMMAR NOTES

For Junior College

Compiled by
Meenal Abhay Deshmukh
N. M. College, Vile Parle West, Mumbai

1
List of Grammar topics
(As per the new grammar syllabus for junior college effective from June 2019)
• Tenses
• Non-finite Verbs
• Clauses
• Types of sentences
• Synthesis of sentences
• Modal Auxiliaries
• Articles
• Direct – Indirect speech
• Prepositions
• Active – Passive voice
• Degrees of comparison
• Conversions on...
(Activities based on conversions and corrections of errors)
o Use of ‘too’ and ‘enough’
o Frame ‘wh’ question
o Change part of speech of the word in sentence
o Use of ‘as well as’, ‘either – or’, ‘not only – but also’
o If not – unless
o Add a question tag
• Grammar topics useful for correction of the errors

2
Tenses
*Forms of Verbs
V1- main verb in original form or ‘- s/-es’ added to the verb with the 3rd person
singular subject
V2- main verb in the 2nd form, past form or ‘– ed’ form
V3- main verb in the 3rd form, perfect form or ‘– en’ form
V4- main verb in the 4th form or ‘– ing’ form
*Structure and Uses

I. Simple Present Tense

Verb phrase - V1, no helping verb
Uses
▪ For a state of being in present time
Ex. He is very happy today.
▪ To mention regular /habitual activities
Ex. My mother helps me with my studies.
▪ For the universal truths and quotes
Ex. The sun gives us light and warmth.
▪ For a fixed future event
Ex. The match starts at 5 o’clock tomorrow.

II. Present Continuous Tense

Verb phrase – am/is/are + V4
Uses

▪ For an action in progress at the time of speaking

Ex. I am writing an essay.
▪ For any action happening temporarily in the present time

3
 Ex. I am learning various new skills these days.
▪ For a planned future action
Ex. I am visiting that site in the evening.
III. Present Perfect Tense

Verb phrase – have/ has + V3

Uses:

▪ For a past action which has created an impact or which is relevant in

the present as well (an experience)

Ex. I have watched that movie many times.

▪ For a recently completed activity

Ex. I have spoken to her about it today in the morning.

▪ For an action, started in the past and continued till the moment of
speaking

Ex. I have not seen him since morning.

IV. Present Perfect Continuous Tense

*Verb phrase – have/has +been +V4

*Uses:

▪ For an action which has started in the past, is going on at the moment
and may continue

Ex. I have been working on the project since January.

Ex. Someone has been stealing my money.

4
 V. Simple Past Tense

Verb phrase - V2, no helping verb

Uses:

▪ For a fully completed activity in the past

Ex. He danced with great enthusiasm.

▪ For the recent past action out of the two past activities

Ex. When he reached there, most of the guests had already arrived at the
venue.

VI. Past Continuous Tense

Verb phrase – was /were + V4

Uses:

▪ For the activity in progress for some time period in the past

Ex. He was helping her in her project.

VII. Past Perfect Tense

Verb phrase – had + V3

Uses:

▪ For an action which got over long ago

Ex. We had visited many places to find a particular venue for the function.

▪ For the previous past action out of the two past activities

Ex. The train had left when I entered the station.

5
VIII. Past Perfect Continuous Tense

Verb phrase – had + been + V4

Uses:

▪ For the previous past action which was in progress for some time
period, in case of two past actions

Ex. I was very nervous about my first live performance even though I had
been practicing for it for the last few months.

▪ To show the middle point of action in the past

Ex. I had been working with them for a few years at that time.

IX. Simple Future Tense

Verb phrase – shall / will +V1

Uses:

▪ For an action which is to take place in future

Ex. They will join us tomorrow.

Ex. I shall work on the solutions.

X. Future Continuous Tense

Verb phrase – shall /will + be + V4

Uses:

▪ For a future activity which will certainly happen /strongly possible

Ex. My mother will be waiting for me.

▪ For a future action which will be going on for some time period
6
 Ex. He will be working on the project for the next couple of weeks.

XI. Future Perfect Tense

Verb phrase – shall / will +have + V3

Uses:

▪ For an action which will get completed at a certain time in future

Ex. I shall have completed this assignment by tomorrow.

▪ For the previous action in case of two future actions happening in

connection

Ex. I shall have escaped before you catch me.

XII. Future Perfect Continuous Tense

Verb phrase – shall /will + have + been + V4

Uses:

▪ To mention the middle point of an action in future

Ex. They will have been working on the project in 2030.

Sequence of tenses

▪ Present Perfect Continuous + Present Perfect

Ex. I have been working on my assignment from the last couple of days but I
have not finished it yet.

▪ Present Perfect +Simple Present

Ex. I have not watched that movie yet but I am interested in watching it.

▪ Past Perfect + Simple Past

7
Ex. They had already handled the situation successfully when we reached there
to help them.

▪ Past Perfect Continuous + Simple Past

Ex. We had been struggling for a long time when some people finally came to
help us.

▪ Future Perfect + Simple Present

Ex. They will have completed their work before we go to pick them up.

8
Non-finite Verbs: Infinitive, Gerund and Participles
o The main verbs which function as noun, adjective or adverb.
o They do not change their form as per the tense or subject.
o They do not indicate any particular tense.

• Infinitive

Form: V1 /original form of the main verb (with or without ‘to’)

Function: noun or adjective

Ex. 1. He loves to dance. (noun)

2. This is not the time to play. (Part of the noun phrase)

3. To err is human but to forgive is Devine. (noun)

4. Dry fruits are good to eat. (Part of the adjective phrase)

5. It is necessary to discuss things openly. (Part of the noun phrase)

6. It requires great strength to change the wrong habits. (Part of the noun
phrase)

7. His greatest desire is to perform live. (Part of the noun phrase working as
a complement)

8. The children were eager to go home. (Part of the adjective phrase)

• Gerund

Form: V4 / ‘- ing’ form of the main verb

Function: noun

9
 Ex. 1. The beginning of the movie was promising but the ending was
disappointing. (nouns)

2. Cheating will never be tolerated here. (noun)

3. He loves dancing. (noun)

4. We were prevented from playing cricket there. (Part of the noun phrase)

5. Marketing helps to increase the sale. (noun)

• Participles
❖ Types

I. Present participle

Form: V4 / ‘- ing’ form of the main verb

Function: adjective or adverb

Ex. 1. Working women need the skill of time management. (adjective)

2. Developing countries face many issues due to lack of sufficient resources.

(adjective)

3. Disturbing facts can not be ignored. (adjective)

4. Thinking it’s safe, he crossed the road. (adverb)

5. Playing various games, he gained health. (adverb)

6. Playing cricket, he gained popularity. (adverb)

II. Past participle

Form: V3 /perfect form of the main verb

Function: adjective or adverb

10
Ex. 1. Advanced information will help you to perform well. (adjective)

2. Well connected network is the need of the day. (adjective)

3. Self created problems need self analysis to solve them. (adjective)

4. Recycled material will decrease the burden on the earth. (adjective)

5. A drunk man was driving the car. (adjective)

6. The documents should be signed by an authorised person. (adjective)

7. Armed forces were sent to rescue them. (adjective)

8. Fried food is not good for health. (adjective)

9. Driven by hunger, he stole a piece of bread. (adverb)

# Functions of noun: Subject, object, complement and object of the

prepositional phrase (Ex. He’s interested in collecting stamps.)

# Exercises for conversion

1. He loves to play football. (Remove the Infinitive and rewrite the sentence.)

2. Working with you is an honour. (Remove the gerund and rewrite the
sentence.)

3. Dealing with you is difficult. (Use an Infinitive and rewrite the sentence.)

#Answers

1. He loves playing football.

2. It is an honour to work with you. / To work with you is an honour.
3. It is difficult to deal with you.

11
Clauses
Clause is a group of words that includes a subject and a verb which is usually a
part of a sentence.
Types
• Main Clause:
• Subordinate Clause:
Subordinate Clause is further divided into the following types.

1. Noun clause:
i. As a subject: Ex. What he said was true.
ii. As an object: Ex. He says that he won’t leave me alone.
iii. As an object of the preposition: Ex. There is no point in what you are
doing.
iv. As a complement of the verb: Ex. His greatest fear is that he may get
arrested there.
2. Adjective clause:
Ex. He’s the man whom I can trust completely.
Ex. They are looking for a hero who will save them from their miseries.
Ex. He wants to play a role that will change his image.
Ex. He is trying to get a job which will tap his true potential.
3. Adverb clause:
i. Time: Ex. He will complete the work when the equipment is available.
ii. Place: Ex. They should invest their money in a scheme where it will grow
faster.
iii. Purpose: Ex. I will give you guidelines so that you can complete the work
on your own.

12
 iv. Reason / Cause: Ex. They worked hard because they wanted to achieve
success.
v. Condition: Ex. If it rains, we will have to cancel our plan.
vi. Result: Ex. He is such a good man that all respect him.
vii. Comparison: Ex. He is taller than his brother.
viii. Concession: Ex. Though he was angry, he kept quiet.
ix. Manner: Ex. She behaves as if she’s a queen.

13
Types of Sentences

I. SIMPLE, COMPOUND and COMPLEX

1. Simple sentence – A sentence which has only one subject and predicate/
only one main clause

Ex. He works hard on every aspect of the plan.

2. Compound sentence – A sentence which has two or more main /principal

clauses

Ex. He is new here and wants to know this place more.

3. Complex sentence – A sentence which has one main clause and one or
more subordinate clauses.

Ex. If you don’t work hard, you can not survive here.

Conversions

I. Simple –> Compound

• Convert the non-finite verb into a finite verb in appropriate tense and
frame a main clause. Use a suitable coordinating conjunction.

Ex. You must work hard to create a place for yourself in the organisation.

Ans. You must work hard and create a place for yourself in the organisation.

• Expand a word or phrase into a main clause and use a suitable

coordinating conjunction

Ex. In an exciting match, they won by 3 wickets.

Ans. It was an exiting match and they won by 3 wickets.

14
 II. Compound –> Simple
• Frame the sentence, using a non finite form of any of the main
verbs. Remove the conjunction. Use any suitable phrase (Ex. In
spite of..., in case of..., in the event of..., along with..., besides...
etc.) or a suitable preposition (on, despite etc.) if necessary to
retain the meaning. A negative word might be necessary to balance
the meaning of the sentence.
Ex. She completed her work and left for her home.

Ans. Completing her work, she left for her home.

Ex. She tried to help her friends but she could not.

Ans. In spite of /Despite trying to help her friends, she could not.

Ex. You need to complete the assignment today or you will fail in the
examination.

Ans. In case of not completing the assignment today, you will fail in the
examination.

Ex. He not only helped the boy to find shelter but also gave him some money.

Ans. Besides / Along with helping the boy to find shelter, he also gave him
some money.

Ex. The solders arrived and the people were rescued.

Ans. The soldiers having arrived, the people were rescued. /On arrival of the
soldiers, the people were rescued.

III. Simple –> complex

15
 • Expand any word or phrase into a subordinate clause

Ex. A dangerous looking man was staring at them.

Ans. A man who looked / was looking dangerous, was staring at them.

• Use any suitable dummy subject and frame the sentence.

Ex. I wanted to buy this book.

Ans. This is the book I wanted to buy. /This is the book which I wanted to
buy.

IV. Complex –> Simple

• Convert the subordinate clause into a phrase or a word.

Ex. Great leaders have something in them that gives motivation to people.

Ans. Great leaders have something in them, giving motivation to people.

• Remove the dummy subject and rewrite the sentence.

Ex. It is the consumer who pays for the advertisement.

Ans. The consumer pays for the advertisement.

• Convert any appropriate main verb into a non finite verb and frame
the sentence.

Ex. Birds use different sounds which indicate different emotions.

Ans. Birds use different sounds indicating different emotions.

V. Compound = Complex
• Interchange the conjunctions or use a connecting word with similar
meaning as per the type of sentence.

16
 • Rearrange the sentence if necessary.
• Use the following table for reference.

Coordinating conjunctions Subordinating conjunctions / connecting words

And As, when, as soon as, since, because, so... that, who,
whom, that, which etc.
But Though, if, even if, than etc.
Or If... not, unless

Ex. He was very good in sports and he has won the first prize in all the
races.

Ans. As/ Since he was very good in sports, he has won the first prize in
all the races.

Ex. They reached there as early as possible but they were late for the
function.

Ans. Though they reached there as early as possible, they were late
for the function.

Ex. You should come with us or you will miss out the fun.

Ans. Unless you come with us, you will miss out the fun.

17
II. ASSERTIVE, INTERROGATIVE, IMPERATIVE, EXCLAMATERY
1. Assertive sentence/ Statement:

Used for giving information, describing or narrating something,

conveying emotions

Ex. We watched an interesting movie.

Ex. He is interested in reading novels.

2. Interrogative sentence/ Question:

Used for asking information or creating dramatic effect

Types: There are three types of interrogative sentences

A. ‘Wh’ question
Starts with a ‘Wh’ word usually followed by the helping verb
Ex. What are you doing here?
How many students are participating in the quiz?
B. Verbal question /yes-no question
Starts with a helping verb
Ex. Are you interested in joining our team?
C. Rhetorical question
A question where answer is not expected, it is used to give
emotional or dramatic effect. It can be a verbal or ‘Wh’ question.
The meaning of a rhetorical question can be given in an assertive
sentence.
Ex. Shouldn’t you pay attention?
Ans. You should pay attention.
18
Exercises: Conversion of a rhetorical question into an assertive sentence

1. What is the use of helping these ungrateful people?

2. Isn’t it your responsibility to take care of your health?
3. Why should we waste so much time on social media?
4. Who can deny their contribution in our success?

Answers:

1. There is no use of helping these ungrateful people. / Helping these

ungrateful people is of no use.
2. It is your responsibility to take care of your health.
3. We should not waste so much time on social media.
4. No one can deny their contribution in our success.

3. Imperative sentence:

It starts with a main verb, the subject of the imperative sentence is,
‘you’, using the subject is avoided and the subject is called ‘understood
you’. It is used for requests, commands or suggestions etc.

Ex. Start working on the project.

Take a left turn after 2 km.

Come in.

Come here quickly.

Please help me in finding a new job.

19
4. Exclamatory sentence:

Used to show excitement or emotional expression like anger, fear, joy,

surprise etc.

Ex. What a beautiful picture it is!

Ans. It is a very beautiful picture.

Ex. How impressive the work is!

Ans. The work is very impressive.

20
III. AFFIRMATIVE – NEGATIVE
• Use opposite words in conversion of sentences.
• Words like hardly, almost, rarely, but, too, except, as soon
as, in vain, unable, as well as etc. can be used when
Opposite words cannot be used while framing an
affirmative sentence.

Ex. He is always on time. (Affirmative)

Ans. He is never late. (Negative)

Exercises for practice. (Rewrite as a negative/ affirmative sentence.)

1. We wanted to stay back.

2. He couldn’t break the wall.
3. Not many students are there in the class.
4. He’s not only smart but also kind.

Answers:

1. We didn’t want to leave. (Negative)

2. He was unable to break the wall. (Affirmative)
3. There are only a few students in the class or There are hardly any
students in the class. (Affirmative)
4. He’s smart and/ as well as kind. (Affirmative)

21
Synthesis of Sentences

Combination of two or more sentences into a simple, complex or compound

sentence

1. For a simple sentence

• By using a non-finite verb to frame the sentence

Ex. He jumped off the window. He ran away.

Ans. Jumping off the window, he ran away.

Ex. He completed her work. He wanted to help her.

Ans. He completed her work in order to help her.

Ex. I have an appointment with the doctor tomorrow. I need to get my

check up done.

Ans. I have an appointment with the doctor tomorrow to get my check up

done.

Ex. The doctor reached there. The patient was treated in time.

Ans. The doctor having reached there, the patient was treated in time.

Ex. The game was very interesting. We all enjoyed it a lot.

Ans. The game being very interesting, we all enjoyed it a lot.

• By using a noun or noun phrase in apposition

Ex. She is my friend. Her name is Namrata.

Ans. She is my friend, Namrata.

Ex. I have seen Paris. It is one of the most beautiful cities in the world.

22
 Ans. I have seen Paris, one of the most beautiful cities in the world.

• By using a prepositional phrase.

Ex. He was planning to go for a movie. He didn’t want to take his younger
sister with him.

Ans. He was planning to go for a movie without his younger sister.

• By using a word or phrase made from the key word of the other
sentence.

Ex. He achieved success. He deserved it.

Ans. He achieved success deservedly. / He achieved well deserved

success.

2. For a compound sentence

• By using a suitable coordinating conjunction

Ex. And, not only... but also, for, so, but, still, yet, nevertheless, or, either...or,
neither... nor, as well as, else etc.

Ex. We went to market. We bought some vegetables.

Ans. We went to market and bought some vegetables.

3. For a complex sentence

• By using a subordinate clause, made out of another sentence i.e.,
Noun, adjective or adverb clause

Exercises

1. He was worried about his job. I didn’t know about it.

23
 2. She has a good collection of paintings at home. The paintings are
very expensive.
3. He took his daughter to a garden. His daughter enjoyed a lot there.
4. I watched my favourite movie last night. I enjoyed it thoroughly.

Answers

1. I didn’t know that he was worried about his job. (Noun clause)
2. At her home she has a good collection of paintings which are very
expensive. (Adjective clause)
3. He took his daughter to a garden where his daughter enjoyed a lot.
(Adverb clause)
4. Last night I watched my favourite movie which I enjoyed
thoroughly. (Adjective clause)

24
Modal Auxiliaries
Modal Auxiliaries are the helping verbs which are always followed by the
main verb in its original form and they support the meaning of the main
verb. They have only one form and do not change the form as per the
subject or tense.

Modal Auxiliary Uses / meanings

1. Can • Ability
Ex. I can easily break these sticks.
• Possibility
Ex. It can rain today as the sky is cloudy.

2. Could • Ability in the past

Ex. I could easily walk 10 kms. at a stretch when I was young.
• Polite request in a question
Ex. Could you please give me some information?
3. May • Weak possibility
Ex. It may rain today even if it’s not so clouded.
• Permission
Ex. May I come in, ma’am?
Ex. You may go now.
• Wish / blessings
Ex. May all your dreams come true.
• Offer to help
Ex. May I carry your bags for you?
4. Might • Weaker possibility

25
 Ex. It might rain today even if it’s sunny out there because it’s
the rainy season.
5. Must • Obligation/ compulsion
Ex. You must show your I card at the entry gate.
• Certainty
Ex. He must be busy now.
6. Ought to • Moral obligation
Ex. We ought to respect the elders.
7. Shall • Future time
Ex. I shall complete the work tomorrow.
• Formal suggestion in a question
Ex. Shall we proceed to the next round of the competition?
8. Should • Advice
Ex. You should take your medicines on time.
9. Will • Future time
Ex. He will join us tomorrow.
• Certainty
Ex. It will rain today as the sky is heavily clouded.
• Determination
Ex. I will complete my work in time.
10 Would • Habitual action in the past
Ex. We would visit my grandparents every year during our
summer holidays.
• Weakest possibility in a hopeless situation
Ex. It would be possible only if all are ready to work together.

26
Other modal auxiliaries

Ex. Dare – Courage

Mostly used with negative meaning in a question form.

Ex. How dare you...?

Need – Necessity

Use: Needn’t = was not needed but done

Don’t / didn’t need = was not needed so wasn’t done

Semi-modals

The main verbs which have the features of the modals

Ex. Used to, have to, able to, wish to, want to etc.

27
Articles (A, An & The)
• Use of article ‘A’
Used before a singular common noun starting with a consonant sound,
before a noun without any reference, special importance and is
introduced for the first time in a given situation
Ex.1. A man was standing at the gate.
2. A flower bloomed in the garden.
3. She visited a European country every year.
4. They saw a one eyed man staring at them.
5. The movie has a universal theme.
6. She has a unique story idea.
7. They are a united group of people.
8. She is working for a UK based company.
9. He saw a ewe grazing in the lawn.
10. She wanted to see a unicorn.
11. It was a useful article.
13. He needed a one-rupee coin.
• Use of article ‘An’

Used before a singular common noun starting with a vowel sound, before
a noun without any reference, special importance and is introduced for
the first time in a given situation

Ex. 1. He has an MBA degree.

2. She is an honest woman.

3. He is an LIC agent.

28
 4. He is an heir to a large fortune.

5. We need an NOC from government.

• Use of article ‘The’

a. Before someone /something particular, special, important or some
earlier reference

Ex. 1. The pen you gave me is really good.

2. It was the moment; we were all waiting for.

3. She is the friend I told you about.

4. This is the book which changed my life.

b. Before a noun which is only one in the given situation

Ex. 1. The railway station in our town is always crowded.

2. The manager of our company is out of town.

3. The principal of our college has started many new activities.

4. The prime minister will bring radical changes in the country.

5. The market in our village does not have many shops.

c. Before superlative adjective

Ex. It is the best shopping website to buy electronic gadgets.

d. Before the unique things

Ex. The earth rotates around the sun.

e. Before some proper nouns e.g. The names of most of the

geographical phenomenon (mostly oceans, rivers, canals, deserts,

29
 group of islands, mountain ranges) Before the proper nouns which
are originally descriptive nouns (usually phrases or group of small
elements)

Ex. 1. The Ganga is considered a holy river in India.

2. The Himalayas are spread across many states.

3. The Deccan plateau was considered to be earthquake proof.

4. The United States of America (USA) has become a super power after
the fall of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR).

5. The Infosys Foundation works in the field of education for poor

children.

6. The United Arab Emirates (UAE) plays a major role in the fuel oils
supply to the world.

7. The European Union has a common currency.

f. Before the ordinal number followed by a noun.

Ex. He was the first man to initiate major changes in society.

g. Before the place where one is going for non obvious reasons. (Not
the primary purpose)

Ex. 1. He is visiting the churches in Mumbai to study their architecture.

2. She is going to the school to attend a PTA meeting.

h. Before the proper noun which is used as a common noun

Ex. He is the Shakespeare of India.

i. Before a singular or plural common noun indicating the class

30
 Ex. 1. The dog is a loyal animal.

2. The elephants have good memory.

j. Before the adjectives which are given the role of a noun

Ex. He helped the poor.

• No article situation
a) Before the abstract nouns, used in general sense (nouns which cannot
be understood with the help of five senses)

Ex. 1. For me, × friendship is a valuable bond.

2. We need to show × loyalty to him.

3. We should not let × hatred take over our positivity.

b) Before the proper nouns

Ex. We tried to contact × Sheetal but her phone was not reachable.

c) Before uncountable/material nouns used in general sense (use

measurements to count)

Ex. 1. We need to add × sugar for more sweetness.

2. You should avoid eating × salt.

3. Use × oil if necessary.

d) Before the noun indicating any place serving a certain purpose is visited
for their primary purpose. (School, college, church, hospital, market,
prison etc.)

Ex. She went to × church to pray for her son.

31
Direct – Indirect speech
# Tense change from direct speech to indirect speech

Direct speech Indirect speech

1 Present + Present Present + Present
2 Present + Past Present + Past
3 Past + Present Past + Past
4 Past + Past Past + Past Perfect

# Rules as per the type of sentence

5. Assertive sentences

Say to = Tell (Reporting Verb)

*Connecting word = that

Ex. He says, “I’m always happy.”

Ans. He says that he is always happy.

6. Interrogative sentences

Say = ask/ inquire / Question (Reporting Verbs)

*Connecting words = verbal questions – if /whether

No connecting word for ‘Wh’ questions

*Rule– Convert the question form to statement in indirect speech.

Ex. He said to her, “Why are you so worried today?”

Ans. He asked her why she was so worried that day.

32
 Ex. They said to him, “Are you hungry?”

Ans. They asked him if he was hungry.

7. Imperative sentences

Say = ask /order /request /command/ tell / suggest/ advise etc.

(Reporting Verbs)

Say to = tell

*Connecting word = to

Ex. Rita said to her daughter, “Take your medicines on time.”

Ans. Rita advised her daughter to take her medicines on time.

Ex. Sam said to them, “Don’t worry about me.”

Ans. Sam told them not to worry about him.

IV. Exclamatory sentences

Say = exclaim /cry or utter in wonder etc. (Reporting Verbs)
*Connecting word = that
*Rule – Convert the exclamation into a statement using very/ a very
Ex. Sonia said, “What a beautiful painting it is!”
Ans. Sonia exclaimed that it was a very beautiful painting.
Ex. Ronnie said, “How exciting the offer is!”
Ans. Ronnie exclaimed that the offer was very exciting.

33
 *Note: 1. Words expressing ‘nearness’ in direct speech are converted to
words expressing ‘distance’ in Indirect speech.
• Pronouns

This – That

These – Those

• Adverbs

Now – Then

Here – There

Ago – Before

Thus – So

So – that

Today - That day

Tonight - That night

Tomorrow – Next day / the day after

Yesterday – Previous day / the day before

Note: 2. Points to focus in conversion of direct and indirect speech

• Change in the reporting verb as per the situation.

• Change in the tense of the main verb in the inverted commas if necessary.
• Use of the connecting word if needed.
• Change in the structure of the sentence given inside the inverted commas
if needed.
• Change in the pronouns, adverbs etc. If needed.

34
 Prepositions
The words which are used to show connection or relation between two
things, people etc. are called Prepositions.

Types of Prepositions

1. Prepositions of time
• At – to show a definite point of time

Ex. Let us meet at 7 pm.

• On – to show more general period of time

Ex. I met her on Friday.

• In – to mention months, year, seasons or parts of the day or to mention

the period of time in future when some action will happen

Ex. I saw a newly bloomed flower in the morning.

Ex. We usually visit new places in summer.

Ex. They come to India in December every year.

Ex. I will finish reading this book in a week.

• By – to show a point of future time at which an action will be over.

Ex. The work will be submitted by Monday morning.

• For – to show the duration of action for mostly an incomplete action

Ex. I have been working here for the last few years.

• Since – to indicate the starting point of an action which has continued till
the point of speaking

35
Ex. I’m working with this firm since 2010.

• From – to show the starting point of the action started in the past and is
over now

Ex. He started working with us from 2015.

• Other Prepositions of time: After, during, till, before, between etc.

2. Prepositions of position / place
• In – to indicate a large space, big town or cities and countries

Ex. I stay in Mumbai

• At – to indicate smaller spaces or small towns, villages or suburbs of a city

Ex. I am waiting for you at the gate.

• Among – to show the position surrounded by many

Ex. She’s standing among the students.

• Above – to show the position higher than something

Ex. To get distinction in the examination, you need to score above 75%.

• Over – to indicate the vertically above position

Ex. The lamp was hanging over his head.

• Below – to show the position lower than something

Ex. He got hurt below the knees.

• Under – to indicate the vertically below position

Ex. The box lying under the table.

• Other Prepositions of place / position: between, from, to etc.

36
 3. Prepositions of direction
• To – to show the destination

Ex. They went to the station.

• Towards – to show the direction

Ex. He pointed towards the tree.

• Into – to show movement towards interior

Ex. The train was going into the tunnel.

• Out of – to show movement away from the interior

Ex. He took the books out of the cupboard.

• At – to indicate the point of aim

Ex. Don’t throw stones at the dog.

• For - to show the direction of the movement

Ex. He left for Delhi in the morning.

• Against – to show two surfaces where one is using the other for support

Ex. Keep the ladder against the wall.

• Off – to show separation from a surface

Ex. He fell off the roof.

Other types of prepositions

a. Prepositions of agency or medium

• At – She wanted to buy that bungalow at any cost.
• By- We went by bus.

37
• Through – We got the booking done through the app.
• with – He opened the lock with a pin.
• Without – He managed the work without any help.
b. Prepositions of manner
• By – He achieved success by working hard.
• With – They worked together with great determination.
c. Prepositions of reason or purpose
• For – She is working for a good cause.
• Of – They were tired of his excuses.
• From – She felt sick from tiredness.
• Through – They achieved success through hard work.
d. Prepositions of possession
• On – She is on our side.
• Of – This statue is of 15th century.
• With – He worked with great enthusiasm.

38
Active – Passive Voice
▪ Passive voice is used when...

We don’t know who is the doer of the action

It’s not important to know who is the doer of the action

The action happened is more important than the doer of the action

When the focus is on the outcome or the result

When the object is more important than the subject

▪ Active voice is used when...

The subject / doer of the action is important

▪ Sentence structures

Active voice: Subject + verb phrase + object /complement +....

Passive voice: Object + helping verb + form of ‘to be’ if any + main verb in
the 3rd form/ ‘- en’ form/ perfect form + by + subject +...

Rules of conversion

• If there are two objects in the given active voice sentence, it is

preferable to use the indirect object (living) as a subject in the passive
voice sentence.
• Change the form of the pronoun interchanging the subject and object
during the conversion. Ex. I = me, he = him etc.
• Main verb in passive voice is always in perfect form/ - en form
• Use the following table for verb phrase conversion into passive voice

39
Tense Helping verb (passive voice) Form of ‘to be’
(passive voice)
Simple Present Tense am/is / are ---
Simple Past Tense Was/ were ---
Present Continuous Tense Am /is /are Being
Past Continuous Tense Was/ were Being
Present Perfect Tense Have/ has Been
Past Perfect Tense Had Been
Future tense or Modal Will/ shall/ can/ could/ may/ Be
Auxiliary sentence might/ must/... etc. Whichever
is used in active voice

Exercises for practice: (Change the voice.)

1. Roma helped the children by funding their education.

2. Rajan gave them a lot of work to complete.
3. They helped each other to overcome the problems.
4. Rakesh did not invite Suresh for the party.
5. They decided it on their own.
6. Manali supported Arjun during the difficult phase of his life.
7. Leena trained the kids to solve their difficulties on their own.
8. Many activities were planned for the children.
9. Many solutions were rejected due to the limitations in implementing
them.
10. Well calculated risks reduce the possible damage.

40
Answers

1. The children were helped by Roma by funding their education.

2. They were given a lot of work to complete by Rajan. / A lot of work was
given to them by Rajan to complete.
3. They were helped by each other to overcome the problems.
4. Suresh was not invited for the party by Rakesh.
5. It was decided by them on their own.
6. Arjun was supported by Manali during the difficult phase of his life.
7. The kids were trained by Leena to solve their difficulties on their own.
8. They planned many activities for the children.
9. They rejected many solutions due to the limitations in implementing
them.
10. The possible damage is reduced by the well calculated risks.

41
 Degrees of Comparison
There are three degrees of comparison in English

1. Positive, 2. Comparative and 3. Superlative

They indicate the level of the adjective in comparison to others.

Meaning and tense should be retained in the conversions.

Exercises for practice

(Change the degree)

1. No other city in the world is as vibrant as Mumbai.

2. Mona is the most popular girl in college.
3. Amitabh is the fittest man among the men of his age.
4. Roshani is not as caring as her elder sister.
5. They are better than their competitors.
6. Most of the kids are not as disciplined as Raju.
7. This is the most attractive offer of the year.
8. This year the prices are not as low as last year.
9. My school days were one of the best days of my life.
10. My parents are the most liberal parents in the world.
11. This place is not as amazing as the places I have seen so far.
12. Ronak is better than any other employees in the office.
13. No other characters in the movie were as well portrayed as Padmavati.

Answers

1. Mumbai is the most vibrant city in the world. /Mumbai is more vibrant
than any other city in the world.

42
2. No other girl in college is as popular as Mona. /Mona is more popular than
any other girl in the college.
3. No other man of his age is as fit as Amitabh. /Amitabh is fitter than any
other man of his age.
4. Roshani’s elder sister is more caring than her.
5. Their competitors are not as good as they are.
6. Raju is more disciplined than most of the kids. /Raju is one of the most
disciplined kids.
7. No other offer of the year is as attractive as this offer. /This offer is more
attractive than any other offer of the year.
8. Last year the prices were lower than this year.
9. Only a few other days of my life are /were as good as my school days. Not
many days of my life were/ are better than my school days.
10. No other parents in the world are as liberal as my parents. /My parents
are more liberal than any other parents in the world.
11. The places I have seen so far are more amazing than this place.
12. No other employee in the office is as good as Ronak. /Ronak is the best
employee in the office.
13. Padmavati was the most well portrayed character in the movie.
/Padmavati was more well portrayed than any other character in the
movie.

43
o Use of ‘too’ and ‘enough’
• ‘Too’ means more than enough.
• ‘Enough’ means as much as required.
• ‘Too’ and ‘enough’ are adverbs giving added information about the
adjective.
• ‘Too’ is used before the adjective and usually has a negative meaning.
• ‘Enough’ is used after the adjective and has a positive meaning.
• ‘Too’ or ‘enough’ can be replaced with ‘so – that’ structure. Negative word
is used while replacing ‘too’ to balance the meaning in ‘so – that’
sentence.
• Can / could / do /does/ did/will is used in the ‘so – that’ sentence as per
the meaning of the sentence while converting a too/ enough sentence.

Ex. 1. He is too old to work now. (Remove ‘too’ and rewrite the sentence.)

Ans. He is so old that he cannot work now.

2. She is wise enough to behave appropriately in such situations. (Remove

‘enough’ and rewrite the sentence.)

Ans. She is so wise that she behaves/ can behave appropriately in such
situations.

Exercises for practice:

Q. Remove ‘too’ / ‘enough’ and rewrite the sentences.

1. Mohan was too shocked to react to the incident.

2. Raju is kind enough to help the needy.
3. Maya was too shocked to notice the damage of her car after the
accident.
44
 4. Girija is too shy to perform on the stage.
5. Reshma is smart enough to solve all the questions correctly.

Answers:

1. Mohan was so shocked that he could not react to the incident.

2. Raju is so kind that he helps the needy.
3. Maya was so shocked that she could not notice the damage of her
car after the accident.
4. Girija is so shy that she did / could not perform on the stage.
5. Reshma is so smart that she can solve all the questions correctly.

Q. Use ‘too’ / ‘enough’ and rewrite the sentences.

a. He was so slow that he could not complete the race.

b. Sonia was so tired that she did not care about her work.
c. Ronald is so sensitive that he understands other people’s
feelings.
d. It was so dark that no one could see anything.
e. The room is so small that 10 people cannot sit there
comfortably.

Answers:

a. He was too slow to complete the race.

b. Sonia was too tired to care about her work.
c. Ronald is sensitive enough to understand other people’s
feelings.
d. It was too dark to see anything.
e. The room is too small for 10 people to sit there comfortably.

45
 o Frame a ‘wh’ question which will have the
underlined part of given sentences as answer.

Ex. There are 100 peacocks in the garden.

Ans. How many peacocks are there in the garden?

Exercises for practice:

i. People like to be praised for their good work.

ii. Instructions were written in five languages.
iii. The Identity cards were distributed on Monday.
iv. They decided to meet at the cafe.
v. Rajani respected her grandfather for his principles and values.

Answers

i. What do people like?

ii. In how many languages were the instructions written?
iii. When were the identity card distributed?
iv. Where did they decide to meet?
v. Why did Rajani respect her grandfather? /What did Rajani
respect her grandfather for?

46
 o Change the part of speech of the underlined word
and rewrite the given sentence.
Ex. Many people were freed from the jails. (Rewrite the sentence using the noun
form of the underlined word.)

Ans. Many people were given freedom from the jails.

Exercises for practice:

• I like to discuss various issues. (Rewrite the sentence using the noun form
of the underlined word.)
• The doctor gave a detail clarification of the doubts. (Rewrite the sentence
using the verb form of the underlined word.)

• His behaviour made her angry. (Rewrite the sentence using the verb form
of the underlined word.)

• They invented many useful things. (Rewrite the sentence using the noun
form of the underlined word.)

• They coloured the dots black. (Rewrite the sentence using the verb form
of the underlined word.)

• He was successful in completing the project on time. (Rewrite the

sentence using the adverb form of the underlined word.)

• He did all his work honestly. (Rewrite the sentence using the noun form
of the underlined word.)

Answers

• I like to discuss a variety of issues.

• The doctor clarified the doubts in detail.

47
• His behaviour angered her.
• They made inventions of many useful things.
• They blackened the dots.
• He successfully completed the project on time.
• He did all his work with honesty.

48
 o Use of ‘as well as’, ‘either – or’, ‘not only – but also’
Ex. He is a prolific writer and voracious reader. (Rewrite the sentence using ‘as
well as’ and ‘not only - but also’.)

Ans. He is a prolific writer as well as voracious reader.

Ans. He is not only a prolific writer but also a voracious reader.

Ex. He will join us tomorrow otherwise next week.

Ans. He will either join us tomorrow or next week.

Exercises for practice:

• Industrial revolution gave people opportunity to work and earn more

money. (Rewrite the sentence using ‘as well as’ and ‘not only – but also’.)
• Migration was required for their safety and better future. (Rewrite the
sentence using ‘as well as’ and ‘not only – but also.)
• They were fighting for equal rights and respect in society. (Rewrite the
sentence using ‘as well as’ and ‘not only - but also’.)
• You will get lucrative salary or work - life balance. (Use either – or and
rewrite the sentence.)
• The winners were given cash prizes and certificates. (Rewrite the
sentence using ‘as well as’ and ‘not only - but also’.)
• You can help me or complete your own project. (Use either – or and
rewrite the sentence.)

Answers:

• A) Industrial revolution gave people opportunity to work as well as

earn more money.

49
 B) Industrial revolution gave people opportunity not only to work
but also earn more money. / Not only did Industrial revolution give
people opportunity to work but also earn more money
• A) Migration was required for their safety as well as better future.

B) Migration was required for not only their safety but also better
future.

• A) They were fighting for equal rights as well as respect in society.

B) They were fighting for not only equal rights but also respect in society.

• You will either get lucrative salary or work – life balance.

• A) The winners were given cash prizes as well as certificates.

B) The winners were given not only cash prizes but also certificates.

• You can either help me or complete your own project.

50
 o If – not = unless
Exercises for practice.

(Use if/ remove unless and rewrite the sentence.)

• Don’t go there unless you really need help.

• You can plan a road trip, unless you have any serious health
issues
• I don’t use the lift unless there is any urgency.
• He doesn’t like to entertain guests unless they are close friends.
• Unless we have common hobbies, it will be difficult to spend
time together.

Answers:

• Go there, if you really need help.

• You can plan a road trip, if you don’t have any serious health issues.
• I don’t use the lift, if there is no urgency.
• He doesn’t like to entertain guests, if they are not close friends.
• If we have common hobbies, it will not be difficult to spend time together.

(Use unless /remove if and rewrite the sentence.)

1. If you have any questions to ask, you need to stay back after the lecture.
2. You can join us, if you don’t have any other plans.
3. Covid – 19 cannot be defeated completely, if we don’t take the necessary
precautions.
4. If there is any serious problem, we will not plan our meeting.
5. You will not be able to achieve success if you don’t work hard.

51
Answers:

1. Unless you have any questions to ask, you need not to stay back
after the lecture.
2. You can join us, unless you have any other plans.
3. Covid – 19 cannot be defeated completely, unless we take the
necessary precautions.
4. Unless there is any serious problem, we will plan our meeting.
5. You will not be able to achieve success, unless you work hard.

52
Add a Question Tag

A question tag is a small question that is attached or ‘tagged’ to the end of a

sentence.

Question tags are most often used in spoken language to confirm something
that is said and also to encourage the listener to give an answer. A question tag
is added to a sentence to seek confirmation of the statement.

In the added part, the helping verb or the auxiliary verb used in the sentence is
used in the tag. If the statement is positive or affirmative, the question tag
should be negative, and if the statement is negative, the question tag used
should be positive. If a pronoun is used as the subject, use the same pronoun in
the question tag. If a noun or a noun phrase is the subject in the statement, use
a pronoun based on the gender/number in the question tag.

Examples:

• You are happy, aren’t you?

• You aren’t happy, are you?
• They were waiting for her, weren’t they?
• The students should accompany their parents for the meeting, shouldn’t
they?
• You have a pair of shoes, don’t you?
• He teaches Chemistry, doesn’t he?
• Harry and Ron played tennis, didn’t they?

53
Questions:

Add a question tag to the following sentences and rewrite them.

1. Sunaina is our new leader.

2. They have confirmed the information.
3. Arun and Varun are on their way to the airport.
4. Her father is a doctor.
5. The baby elephant that fell into the well was rescued by the
locals.
6. Arranging transport and accommodation for the guests had
been their first priority.
7. You like cookies.
8. Bring me some tissue papers.
9. They bought a new LED television.
10. You have been looking for an apartment.

Answers

1. Sunaina is our new leader, isn’t she?

2. They have confirmed the information, haven’t they?
3. Arun and Varun are on their way to the airport, aren’t they?
4. Her father is a doctor, isn’t he?
5. The baby elephant that fell into the well was rescued by the locals,
wasn’t it?
6. Arranging transport and accommodation for the guests had been
their first priority, hadn’t it?
7. You like cookies, don’t you?
8. Bring me some tissue papers, will you?

54
9. They bought a new LED television, didn’t they?
10. You have been looking for an apartment, haven’t you?

55
Grammar topics useful for correction of the errors
Collocation – Some pairs of words are always used together in English. The
pairing is not replicable. It can be a noun +noun, adjective + noun, noun +verb,
verb + preposition or any such combination

Ex. If weather permits, we can go for a picnic. (Not allows)

Ex. Strong coffee, commit - crime/sin/suicide, make - mistake,

handsome payment, kith and kin, power nap, congratulate – on etc.

Q. Choose the correct collocations from the brackets to make a meaningful

group of words.

1. (heavy, silent, meagre, unique)

____ mode, ____ snow, ____ creation ____ income

2. (home, market, office, gas)

____ burner, ____ appliances, ____ place, ____ staff

3. (keeping, walk, diving, polish, watering)

sky ____ nail ____ house ____ mouth ____ sleep ____

4. (deeply, patiently, gently, rashly, loudly, fluently)

drive ____ say ____ speak ____ rub ____ feel ____ wait ____

5. (rapidly, seriously, speedily, badly, prematurely, gently)

____ driven ____ abused ____ touched ____ born ____ read ____ affected

Verbs of perception – The main verbs associated with the five senses and the
natural functions of brain are called as verbs of perception. They are normally
not used in ‘-ing’ form or any type of continuous tense. ‘Can’ is used to show
56
that it’s current activity. (Ex. See, hear, smell, feel, taste, know, believe,
understand etc.)

Ex. I can hear some noise from outside. (Not, ‘am hearing’)

Ex. I can smell something burning. (Not, ‘am smelling’)

Ex. I know her from her childhood. (Not, ‘am knowing’)

Verbs of possession – The main verbs showing possession are generally not used
in ‘– ing’ form or continuous tense.

Ex. I have an excellent collection of books. (Not, ‘am having’)

If clause – The ‘if clause’ cannot be in future tense of any type. It can be in simple
or perfect tense.

Ex. If I am free, I will join you for the movie. (Not, ‘if I will be free...’)

57