COMPOST

PRODUCTION
AND UTILIZATION
A GROWERS' GUIDE

A joint publication of the

Califomia Department of Food and Agriculture and the
Uni1.,1ersity of California Dit1ision of Agriculture and Natural Resources
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COMPOST
PRODUCTION
AND UTILIZATION
A GROWERS' GUIDE

Mark V an Horn
Student Experimental Farm
University of California, Davis

A joint publication of
Fertilizer Research and Education Progran1
Ca l ifornia Department of Food and Agriculture
and
University of California
Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources
1995

Pub licat ion 21514

Table of Contents
Introduction ..... 1
What Is C on1post? 2
Different types of composting
Advantages and disadvantages of aerobic composting
Con1post Utilization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Effects of compost on th e soil
Be havior of nitrogen and other nutrie nts in applied compost
Co1npost quality
Aerobic Composting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 8
Starting materials and pile construction
Managing the composting process
Behavior of nitroge n during composting
Coin posting equip1nent
Composting regulations
Sample Calculations . . ... 14
Re fe rences and Resources. 17

Acknow l e d gnients
Th e auth or wo uld like to th ank Ca<;ey Walsh Cady, D a\'id E. Chancy, Jacques Franco,
Oki-. (.liebe, Cynthia M. Hav<;tad, a nd J. Carol Hillhouse fo r th eir assista n ce and
e n courageme nt in th e production of thi s publicat i o n.
Cover photos: compo t turnin g equipmen t , tark Van Horn; measuring i nternal
temperatures of compo<;t pile, Scott McCa rth y; compost application t o vi n eyard, Gregg
Young.
<.;n1phic D esi g n : Pri tchard Adve rti sing, Sacra m e nto, CA.
This publication was funded by the Fertili zer Research and Ed u cation Program,
Ca li fo rni a Depart m ent o f Food a nd g ri c u l ture. The Fertilizer Research and Education
Program was created to adva n ce the e n vironmen t a ll y sa fe and agronom ically sound
u<ie and h a ndl i ng o f ferti l izer materials.
INTRODUCTION
Compost is the result of a dynan1ic, biological process of decornpos­
ing organic matter. It is used to irnprove soil properties and to supp ly
nutrients. It is a variable commodity, and compost u ser need to be
aware of the general guidelines regarding its production, purchase,
and application. Growers also need to know how to assess the quality
of these 1naterial and how best to use them in their production
practices.
The purpose of this publication is to provide farn1ers and agricultura l
adv isors with practical infonnation on the production and use of
con1post, including an understanding of the benefits of compost, the
basic biological processes involved in its production, and a technique
to determine the proportions of various materials needed to make a
quality blend.

l
WHAT IS COMPOST?
Compost is the biologically active material that results fro1n microbial
decomposition of organic matter under controlled conditions. The
production and use of compost in agriculture has many potential
benefits including nutrient recycling, soil improvement, and enhanced
crop growth. However, some composts of inferior quality may actually
have detrimental effects on crops or soils. Understanding the
co1nposting process and the nature of various composts can help
growers evaluate and use compost in ways that maximize its benefits.
Starting materials for a compost may be agricultural (e.g., manure,
animal bedding, crop and processing residues), or non-agricultural
(e.g., green waste, wood by-products, sewage sludge). In addition,
many different composting syste1ns are in use, and the management
of these systems can vary. As a result, individual composts may differ
significantly in their quality and their suitability for various agricul­
tural and horticultural uses.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF COMPOSTING
Three general types of composting are commonly recognized: aerobic
(with oxygen), anaerobic (without oxygen), and vermicomposting
(composting that uses certain types of earthworms). In aerobic
composting, a wide range of oxygen-requiring microbes decomposes
n1ost of the original organic matter and synthesizes new organic
compounds (fig. 1 ). High temperatures usually are generated for an
extended time, and a large amount of carbon is lost as carbon diox­
ide. Gaseous nitrogen losses also may be significant.
The turned windrow method of aerobic composting is the 1nost
co1nmon co1nposting process for agricultural applications in Califor­
nia and is the primary method discussed in this publication.
{ H 2 0 and 0 2

2H
20 .
H eat. CO and

(Ti m e, Management) L____j

Raw Organic Materials Finished Compost
(inclu<.li n g microbes)

Figure 1. AEROBIC COMPOST] G can start with a wide range of

organic materials. With a well-balanced carbon-to-nitrogen ratio
(C:N) and proper management to ensure continuously sufficient
water and oxygen, aerobic microbes transform the organic
matter into chemically more complex and stable fonns (humus),
generate high temperatures, and reduce the amount of total
material by about one-half.

2
In anaerobic systems, a different group of microbes partially digests,
or ferments, the organic matter in the absence of oxygen. Microbial
activity and decomposition are not as great as in properly managed
aerobic composting systems, and temperatures do not become
elevated. Anaerobic systems generate many organic acids and other
compounds that may be harmful to plants. These systems may also
produce biogas, which contains methane and may be used as an
energy source. Anaerobic systems conserve nitrogen, and anaerobic
compost may subsequently be composted aerobically to improve its
agricultural utility.
Vermicomposting is an aerobic process in which certain types of
earthworms digest organic 1natter. The product of this digestion is
com1nonly referred to as "earthworm castings," and can be a high­
quality material for enhancing soils and plant growth. Worms are
sensitive to anaerobic conditions, ammonia, extremes in tempera­
ture, and lack of moisture. Worms perform best in the 60° to 85°F
temperature range, and, in vermicomposting, temperatures remain
near ambient levels.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF AEROBIC COMPOSTING
The aerobic composting process has many benefits. It typically
reduces the weight and volume of the starting material by approxi­
mately SO percent, thus facilitating handling. Composting can
transform materials that are unsuitable for direct application to
agricultural land into a valuable soil amend1nent. For example, high­
carbon 1naterials (e.g., straw, woody 1naterials) can be blended with
high-nitrogen materials (e.g., most fresh manures) to produce a
compost with a balanced carbon-to-nitrogen (C:N) ratio. In addition,
the high levels of microbial activity and associated high temperatures
in well-managed compost piles can kill weed seeds and plant and
animal pathogens and can degrade organic contaminants such as
pesticide residues. Composting favors the production of humus, the
chemically complex and most stable fraction of organic matter.
Finished compost also can contain numerous microbes that serve
various beneficial functions in the soil ecosystem, such as suppres­
sion of soi l-borne plant pathogens.
There are also disadvantages to aerobic composting. It requires tin1e,
labor, and equipment, and many of the benefits are more difficult to
quantify than the costs . itrogen losses during the aerobic
composting process may be significant and, unfortunately, some of
the management techniques to minimize nitrogen losses may retard
the composting process or have other detrimental effects. In some
situations, the conversion of the nitrogen in a compost pile into
complex, organic forms that are not rapidly available to plants may
be considered a disadvantage.

3
COMPOST UTILIZATION
Compost is used most con1monly as a soil amendment to i1nprove
soil properties and to supply nutrients to crops. It can also be used in
container mixes, as a mulch, or in other ways. Compost is typically
applied to fields at rates of 3 to 6 tons/acre, although in so1ne areas,
composts or other bulk materials are applied at much higher rates
(30 to 50 tons/acre). In these latter situations, growers need to be
aware of the potential environmental risks.
Because con1post is bulky and is applied at relatively high rates, field
applications require equipment that can handle large volumes of
material. Standard manure spreading equipment can be used for
n1ost broadcast applications on open ground. Special spreading
equipment n1ay be required to fit into more confined spaces in
orchards and vineyards and for applications requiring specific place­
ment of the compost. S01ne enterprises that haul and spread con1post
have equipment designed specifically for such applications.
Because the benefits of con1post are greatest when it is mixed with
the soil, mechanical incorporation with a disc or sin1ilar implen1ent
is very con1n1on, particularly in annual cropping systems. Usually
the compost should be mixed into the top few inches of the soil ,
where conditions are most favorable for further aerobic decomposi­
tion. In some situations, such as in untilled orchards or vineyards,
mechanical cultivation is not practiced. However, direct application
of compost without mixing can still be beneficial. For exan1ple, some
untitled soils may contain earthworn1s that are very effective in
incorporating surface-applied coinpost and other organic residues.
When the appropriate earthworms are not present, other s1nall
anirnals and 111any microbes (e.g., fungi) can sirnultaneously decon1-
pose organic residues and mix then1 into the soil. Such biological
incorporation of organic n1aterials is closely linked to the availability
of water and is most rapid when there is moisture at the soil surface.
Therefore, compost place111ent in untilled orchards and vineyards
will often depend, at least in part, upon the type of irrigation systen1
in use and its wetting pattern.
EFFECTS OF COMPOST ON THE SOIL
The addition of compost to a soil can have numerous benefits, one of
the most obvious being the addition of organic matter. Many arid
region soils have low amounts of organic matter, especially when
under continuous cultivation. Added compost can have a significant
effect on soil organic matter content. For example, the addition of 5
tons/acre of compost to the top 10 inches of a surface soil containing
1 percent organic n1atter would increase the total organic 1natter
content of this surface soil by approximately 25 percent. This added
organic matter will continue to decompose, or n1ineralize, after being
incorporated into the soil. With n1ost composts, more than half of

4
the added compost will mineralize in the first year following incor­
poration, but a significant amount can also be expected to remain at
the end of the season.
Adding compost to the oil will also stin1ulate soil microbial diversity
and activity. The net effects of increasing soil organic n1atter and
biological activity can be very beneficial. Physical propertie of the
soil such as structure and aggregate tability can be increa ed. These
changes may, in turn, help improve soil porosity, water penetration
and n1ovement, and root growth. Suppression of oil-borne diseases
n1ay also resu lt. The diverse microbial comrnunities in composts and
compost-a111ended soils may include organisms that reduce the size
and/or activity of populations of the microbes that can cause son1e
plant disease . The pathogen suppression of son1e composts is so
effective that they are used specifically for this purpose in container
soils by the horticultural industry.
Because the starting 1naterials for con1posts are derived frorn plants,
they tend to contain many of the macro- and micronutrients that are
essential for plant growth. With the notable exception of nitrogen,
most of the n1inera l nutrients present in the tarting n1aterials of a
well-managed compost pile are conserved during the composting
process. However, there is considerable variation in the nutrient
content of different con1posts because of the wide range of starting
materials that may be used. Typical concentrations of selected
minerals present in rnanure-based compost are shown in table 1.
utrient concentrations of com po t derived frorn other starting
n1aterials may be significantly different than is indicated by the
figures in table 1. In particular, starting 1naterials with nutrient
contents that are lower than those of manures (see table 4) tend to
produce cornposts that also have a lower nutrient content. Regardle s
of starting materials, growers should not rely on average figures
when calculating the value of the nutrients in con1post . Laboratory
analysis is the only reliable means of determining the nutrient
content of a particular compost.
TABLE 1 . TYPICAL NUTRIENT CONCENTRATIONS FOR A MANURE-BASED
COMPOST (DRY-MATTER BASIS)

Nitrogen . . . .... . 1.0 - 2.04¾, Potassium

Pho phorus . . . . . . 0.3 - 1.5 1¾, Sodium . . . . . . . 0 .5 - 1.5 1¾,
C alcium . . . ... .. 2 .0 - 6 .0 1¾, C hloride . .. . . . O.S - 1.5 1¾,
Magn esium .. . . . . 0.5 - 1.5 1¼,

5
BEHAVIOR O F NITROGEN AND OTHER NUTRIENTS IN APPLIED COMPOST
Well-managed and well-cured manure-based compost typically
contains 1 .0 to 2.0 percent nitrogen (N). Usually most of this N is in
organic form and little is in mineral form. With typical compost
application rates (e.g., 5 tons/acre), incorporation of compost will
add a significant amount of total N to the soil, but since most of it is
in organic form, it is not immediately available to plants. Thus, in
contrast to mineral N fertilizers, compost applications generally do
not have a large, immediate impact on available soil N.
The conversion of organic N to mineral N is called N mi11eralizatio11.
Because the decomposition of con1post continues after field applica­
tion, mineralization of compost N will proceed under most field
conditions. However, the rate of net N mineralization from compost
and manure is hard to predict. Such rates are influenced not only by
the properties of a given compost or manure, but also by microbial
activity in the soi I. Factors such as soil type, previous field history,
the current crop, weather, and management decisions all affect
mineralization rates. First-year N mineralization rates for manures
can be quite variable, ranging from 20 to 90 percent. First-year N
mineralization rates for composts are generally lower than those for
n,anures with similar C:N ratios; rates for composts average from 10
to 30 percent, but significantly lower and higher numbers have been
reported. The N from a given application of compost will continue to
mineralize over several years.
Unless compost is applied at an unusually high rate, the N available
from a single application usually will not be sufficient to supply all
of a crop's N needs. Other sources of (mineral fertilizers, green
manures, or residual N from previous applications of organic materi­
als) may be needed to supplement the that is available from the
current year's compost application. Studies have shown that when
low to 1noderate compost application rates are used, the relatively
slow mineralization rates of composts may result in low soil nitrate
(NO ~-) levels. It is also clear that high compost application rates (e.g.,
30 tons/acre) can lead to high soil NO 1- levels. Thus, if used wisely,
composts can supply a relatively stable form of N to crops that is less
likely to leach than mineral N fertilizers.
The value of composts in irnproving soil fertility includes factors
beyond their elemental nutrient content. Certain nutrients in corn­
post can be more available than those from some other sources of
these nutrients. For example, under most California conditions the
availability of con1post phosphorus is superior to that of rock phos­
phate and is comparable to that of superphosphate. In addition to
serving as a source of nutrients, compost may improve the availabil­
ity of nutrients already in the soil. Compost can increase the cation­
exchange capacity of soils, thus allowing increased availability of
certain nutrients such as calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and potas-

6
sium (K). Compost also can help neutralize and buffer soil pH. This
rnay increa e the availability of many plant nutrients that become
les available when soils are too acid or alkaline.
COMPOST QUALITY
For any grower considering the use of compost, the issue of quality is
critically important. Many factors can be considered in detennining
compost quality (see table 2), and their importance varies with the
intended use of the compost. For example, the qua l ity of a compost
intended for field application several weeks prior to planting may
not have to be as high a the quality of a compost intended for use
in a container mix. The eventual quality of a compost is determined
prima rily by the composition of the starting materials and the
composting process. Information about both of these should be
made available to compost customers at no cost. Many con1post
producers a lso provide laboratory analysis data about plant nutrients,
pH, salts, and other chemical, physical, and biological properties of
the compost. When this information is not avai lable, knowledge of
the starting materials and composting process can give customers an
indication of potential problems, and they may wish to have the
compost evaluated through laboratory analysis or by other means.
TABLE 2. COMPOST QUALITY CRITERIA

Chenrlcal Biological Physical

C: ratio Activity Particle size
utrients Weed seeds Contaminants
alts Animal/human pathogens
pH Plant pathogens
Metal compounds Pathogen suppression
Organic compounds Plant response (bioa say)
(pesticides, etc.)

With the implementation of the California Integrated Waste Man­

agement Act of 1989 (AB 939), an increasing percentage of the
organic portion of the state's waste stream, including "green mate­
rial," sewage sludge, and other highly variable and complex materi­
als, is being diverted into composting operations. Agriculture is
expected to be a major user of the finished product of many of these
operations. Given the diversity of raw materials and the composting
processes employed, growers will need to carefully evaluate the
quality of a given compost. While the old admonition, "Let the
buyer beware," should be heeded in the modern compost market, the
custo,ner should not be dissuaded from seeking out (or perhaps

7
 producing) high-quali t y compost. For years many satisfied California
growers have been using high-quality purchased compost to improve
their soils and crop performance.

AEROBIC COMPOSTING
Many methods may be employed to produce con1post . Aerobic
compost ing systems can be classified as turned windrows, aerated
static piles, passive static piles or windrows, and aerobic in-vessel
systen1s. In any aerobic system, composting is most rapid when
microbial activity is maximized. This is accomplished by(]) using
starting materials that have the proper balance of carbon and nitro­
gen, and (2) keeping the con1post pile moist yet well aerated (see
table 3).
TABLE 3 . MAIN CRITERIA FOR AEROBIC COMPOSTING

Factor A cceptable Range OpthnUID Range

Starting Materials
C:N ratio 20:1-40:1 25: 1-30: 1
Particle size 1/8"-2" varies with materia l
Thern1ophilic Stage
Water con tent 50-60'¼1
Oxygen concentration
pH 5.5-9.0 6.5-8.0
Ten1perature 110"-150"F 125"-140"F

STARTING MATERIALS AND PILE CONSTRUCTION

For rap id con1posting, an overall carbon-to-nitrogen (C: ) ratio from
25: 1 to 30: 1 is considered ideal for the starting materials. If the C:N
ratio is significantly below this range, N losses from the pile may be
excessive; if the C: ratio is too high, the relative lack of N can retard
the early pha es of the composting process. C:N ratios of con1mon
starting materials vary widely (see table 4). Materials with different
C:N ratios are con1n1only b lended in a compost pile to achieve the
desired average C:N ratio (for sample calculation, see page 14) .

8
 TABLE 4. TYPICAL NITROGEN CONTENT AND C:N VALUES FOR RAW
MATERIALS (DRY-WEIGHT BASIS)

Material %N C:N M aterial (1/oN C :N

Manures on-agricultural
Cattle 2.5 19 Grass clippings 3.4 17
Horse 1.6 22 Fallen leaves 1.0 54
Sheep 2.4 16 Mixed paper 0.2 150
Turkey 2.6 16 Newsprint, cardboard 0.1 400+
Laying hen 6 .0 6 Wood chips, shavings 0.1 500+
Broiler 2.9 14 Sewage sludge 4.5 15
Other agricultural
Legume hay 2.5 16

'
I
ereal hay
Legume straw
C ereal straw
Rice hull
1.3
1.3
0.7
0.3
32
32
75
120
Apple pomace 1. 1 48
Grape pomace 1.8 28
Tomato
processing waste 0.5 11

The values in table 4 are representative of published figures and are

intended to serve only as general guidelines. They are compiled from
publications listed in the References and Resources section.
The composting process is also affected by the physical properties of
the n1aterials in the pile. Materials with larger and more structurally
rigid particles tend to increase the amount of pore space (porosity),
thus encouraging gas exchange within the pile. Because decomposi­
tion of an individual particle occurs on its urface and smaller
particles have a greater surface-area-to-volume ratio, smaller particles
tend to decon1pose more rapidly than larger ones. Also, materia ls
that are structurally rigid tend to be chemically more resistant to
microbial decomposition. Thus, the ideal physical characteristics of
starting materials reflect the desired balance between providing
structure to the pile to maintain porosity and having individual
particles that will decompose rapidly. Material with particles that are
too large may be processed with chippers, shredders, or grinders, or,
if the particle size is relatively close to the desired range, they may be
blended with materials of mailer particle ize . Material with par­
ticles that are too small often can be blended with those of larger
particle ize. If such n1aterials are not available, more frequent
aeration (e.g., turning) may be required to maintain adequate oxygen
levels in the pile. Regard le s of the physical properties of the starting
materials, particle size and pile tructure continually decrease during
the composting process.
When a con1post pile is constructed with properly balanced materials
9
and is provided with sufficient water and oxygen, naturally occurring
microbes will immediately begin to decompose the materials, and
their populations will increase rapidly. Some compost managers
inoculate new compost piles with a small amount of material frorn
an existing pile or with commercially available compost inoculant ,
preparations, or starters. Such products may be beneficial in some
situations. However, because virtually all unsterilized organic materi­
als naturally contain large numbers of decomposing microbes,
successful composting does not require inoculation of new piles. As
microbial activity in a compost pile accelerates, the metabolic energy
of the microbes will heat the pile rapidly.
Compost windrows vary in size, depending primarily upon starting
materials and turning equipment. A compost windrow can be of any
length. Windrows range in height from 3 to 4 feet for dense rnateri­
als with poor structure (e.g., manures) to 10 to 12 feet for very light
and structured materials (e.g., leaves, straw). Most windrows, espe­
cially those blended from diverse materia ls, are of intermediate
height. Turned windrow are typically between 6 and 20 feet wide at
the base, with sloping sides. The width and height of a windrow may
be limited by the size of the turning equipment.
MANAGING THE COMPOSTING PROCESS
Because composting is a biological process, it depends upon water. In
managing the moisture content of a con1post pile, the microbes'
need for water must be balanced with their need for oxygen. The
moisture content should be maintained at approximately 50 to 60
percent water on a weight/weight basis. The moisture percentage can
be determined by subtracting the oven-dried weight of a sample from
its fresh weight, and then dividing this difference by the fresh
weight. Most experienced compost managers can estimate the
moisture content of compost by feel. As a rule, the interior of the pile
should be quite moist, but not so moist that one could squeeze water
from a handful of the compost.
Even if the moisture content is not excessive, oxygen concentrations in
the pile may be insufficient because of inadequate gas exchange
between the interior of the pile and the atmosphere. In a turned
windrow system, this situation is remedied though the turning process.
While the actual turning process does re-aerate the pile, the oxygen
introduced in this way is consumed by the rnicrobe quite rapidly.
More importantly, however, the turning process increases the porosity
of the pile, thus allowing more efficient gas exchange. Turning not
only enhances aeration but also re-mixes the materials. Repeated
turning of the windrow ensures that all the material in the windrow is
exposed to the high levels of microbial activity and high ternperature
in the interior of the pile during the composting process.
In a properly constructed compost pile, n1icrobial activity will rapidly

10
heat the pile to 130° to 150°F within the first few days. If the pile is
properly managed, temperatures will remain elevated for several
weeks (with the possible exception of brief periods after turning)
during the thermophilic phase of composting. Thus, the most
commonly used diagnostic feature of a compost pile is its tempera­
ture. Compost temperature should be monitored frequently (at least
weekly during mo t of the composting process and as often as daily
during the initial period following pile construction) and at several
places within the pile. A specially designed compost thermometer
with a long, sturdy probe is necessary to measure the temperature in
the middle of the pile without damaging the thermometer.
Decreasing compost temperatures, which indicate a slowing of
microbial activity, most commonly result from a lack of oxygen,
moisture, or adequately decomposable material. When compost
temperatures drop, the cause should be determined. If it appears to
be insufficient oxygen or moisture, the pile can be turned and/or
water can be added. If these actions do not result in increased tem­
peratures in a relatively old pile, the compost may no longer contain
any easily decomposed material and may be ready for curing, which
i the final stage of the composting process.
During curing, microbial activity, and thus pile temperatures, are
reduced. In addition, different microbial populations dominate the
pile and somewhat different chemicals are produced. As the com po t
pile cures, the humus content, cation-exchange capacity, and disease­
suppressiveness of the compost may all increase. Properly curing the
pile for several weeks also helps ensure the aerobic decomposition of
particularly resistant particles or potentially harmful compounds that
may be present if anaerobic conditions have existed in any portions
of the pile. Curing can be very important in many situations, uch a
when using compost in container mixes or applying it to a field
immediate ly prior to planting. Because even an excellent compo t
can be spoiled if it becomes anaerobic before being used, it is impor­
tant to continue to manage compost piles, particularly in regard to
their oxygen content, during the curing phase and until they are used.
BEHAVIOR OF NITROGEN DURING COMPOSTING
itrogen transformations in active and finished composts are com­
plex, but they can be managed. For both economic and environmen­
tal reasons, minimizing N losses from composting systems is impor­
tant. When excess water is added to a compost pile, either through
irrigation or precipitation, the surplus water leaches through the
system. This water can carry significant amounts of as soluble
organic-N, ammonia ( H / }, and nitrate (NO<-), especially early in
the composting process. These nitrogen losses can be avoided by
preventing the addition of excess water to the compost pile or by
recycling leachate back into the pile. This will require some manage­
ment, but it is certainly an achievable objective.

11
Controlling losses of gaseous forms of nitrogen (primarily ammonia,
but also nitroxides) is not as straightforward. The ideal management
system would balance N availability with microbial demand,
without deficiencies or excesses. However, this is often not pos ible,
especially during the early stages of cotnposting. An initial C:N ratio
of 25: 1 to 30: 1 is usually regarded as optimum for rapid composting.
However, significant amounts of gaseous nitrogen may be lost from
compost piles with initial C:N ratios in this range, especially when
the starting materials have high concentrations of ammonium and
urea (e.g., poultry manure) and when compost piles are turned
frequently. Increasing the initial C:N ratio of the compost blend (e.g.,
to 40: 1 to 50: 1) may help make the early process relatively defi­
cient, thus fanning fewer volatile N compounds and reducing
gaseous N losses. Although the C:N ratio of the pile will decrease as
composting proceeds, N volatilization will be minin1ized because
n1uch of the will be assi1nilated by microbes and converted into
non-volatile organic n1olecules. Unfortunately, this strategy will also
s low the early phase of the composting process.
An a lternative strategy for minimizing volatilization is to reduce
gas exchange by less-frequent pile turning, especially during the
initial st ages of composting when volatile compounds are n1ost
common. However, this practice also reduces oxygen and carbon
dioxide exchange, and therefore must be used carefully to avoid the
development of anaerobic conditions in the pile. Reducing the pH of
the pile (e.g., below 8.5) can also help reduce an1monia vo latilization
by increasing the amn1oniurn/ammonia ratio in the pile. Similarly,
adding phosphate materials (e.g., rock phosphate or superphos­
phates) and clays with high sorptive capabilities (e.g., clay soi ls
with high cation-exchange capacity) may help reduce ammonia
vo latilization.
COMPOSTING EQUIPMENT
Aerobic composting operations range in size from backyard piles to
large municipal enterprises that cover several acres. A wide variety of
tools and equipment is available for the various izes and types of
composting operations. For on-farm composting, equip1nent must be
chosen that takes into account the materials to be composted, the
size of composting operation, and the intended use of the compost.
For smaller operations, compost piles or windrows can be turned
quite efficiently with a front loader and manure spreader, particularly
if the beater on the back of the spreader is modified to discharge the
material directly behind the spreader. As operations get larger or
more frequent turning is required, specialized equipment becon1es
necessary for efficient composting. Commonly u ed equipment
includes tractor-powered turners such as PTO-driven pull-behind
models (fig. 2) and self-propelled turners such as the over-the-row
models. Prices for new compost turners range from approximately
10,000 to wel l over $100,000 .
12
 Figure 2. The PTO­
powered com post
turner (left) re­
quires a tractor
with a "creeper"
gear that alJows
very slow travel.
The tractor on the
right is supplying
water to replace
moisture lost fron1
evaporation during
composting.
COMPOSTING REGULATIONS
Co1nposting operations in California are sub ject to regulation by
various govern1nental agencies, including the Ca lifornia Integrated
Waste Management Board. These regulations may vary with the
materials being composted, the ize of the composting operation, its
location, and other factors. Besides the requiren1ents of state and
local waste managen1ent agencies, con1post producer need to
c01nply with laws, ordinances, and regulations regarding surface and
ground water pollution, odor, noise, dust and vector control, land
use planning, and other relevant concerns. More specific information
on laws and regulations can be obtained from the California Inte­
grated Wa te Management Board ( ee Referen ces nnd Resourcf!s section)
or from one of the local enforcement agencies located in each
county.

13
SAMPLE CALCULATIONS
Assume we want to blend laying hen manure with oat straw to
n1ake a con1post pile with an overall C:N starting ratio of 30: 1 and
a moisture content of 55 percent water (see table 3 for optimum
range).
We first need to calculate the proper mixture of manure and straw to
achieve the desired C:N ratio and then determine if the moisture
needs adjustment.
To calculate the proper ratio of manure and straw to be mixed, we
need to determine the amount of nitrogen and carbon in both the
manure and the straw. These could be determined from laboratory
analysis, but we will assume that the figures listed in table 4 are
correct for the starting materials.
Since the moi ture content of most raw materials varies widely, the
figures in table 4 are listed on a dry-weight basis. Therefore, in this
case, we must determine the dry weight in the straw and manure.
This is typically done by weighing a fresh sample of the material,
oven-drying it, and then re-weighing.
In this case, we will assume that 1 pound of fresh manure yields 0.25
pound of dry manure and 1 pound of fresh straw yields 0.90 pound
of dry straw.
We will then need to calculate the N content of 1 pound of fre h
material using the <¼1N information from table 4.

N content of &esb materiaJ = (Dry Weight) x ( ; ~ )

conten t for I lb of fresh m anure= (0.25 lbl x ( fc)~) I= 0.0 15 l b

co ntent for I lb fresh straw = !0.90 lb) x ( 7o~ l = 0 .00 63 lb

We can now calculate the C content of 1 pound of fresh material

using the C:N ratios found in table 4 and the content values
determined in the previous equation .

C content = (N content) x (C:N ratio)

C con tent o f I lb fre h m anure = ((l.01 5 lb) x 6 = 0.09 lb C

C content for I lb fre h straw= !0.0063 lb) x 75 = 0 .4725 lb C

With this information, we can now calculate the amount (in pounds)
of fresh straw needed for each pound of fresh manure to achieve a
n1ix with the desired C :N ratio of 30: 1.

14
 For the mix, the C: ratio will be:
C:N of mix = (wt of C in manure) + (wt of C in straw) _
30
(wt of N in manure) + (wt of N in straw) -

If we let S equal the amount of fresh straw needed for each pound of
fresh manure in the mix:

W = 0.09 + S(0 .4 7251

. 0.0 15 + SI0 .006.{ )

Solving for S:
.m x 10.0 1s + s10.l><>631I = o.o9 + . 10 . ➔ ns,
0 .45 + (0. 189! = 0.09 + S(0.47251
0.36 = S(0.28]51
1.27 = S

Therefore, to achieve a final desired C:N ratio of 30:1, 1.27 pounds of

straw should be u ed for eve ry pound of chicken manure.
We can now calculate the percent moisture of this rnix. Since oven­
dry ing 1 pound fresh manure yields 0.25 pound dry manure, we
know that it must contain 0. 75 pound water. Likewise, since 1 pound
fresh straw yie lds 0.9 pound dry straw, we know that it contain s 0 . 10
pound water or has a moisture content of 101¼1.
In a mix of 1 pound fresh manure and 1.27 pounds fresh straw, the
percent moisture of the mix can be calculated as follows:

0,
,o
M01'st ore o f mix
. = ( (wt of water in manure) + (wt of water in s traw) ) x 100
(wt of manure) + (wt of straw)

=( ( I lb x0.75)+( 1.27 Ibx0. I ) ) x l OO

I + 1.27

=(~)x
2.27
100
= 38.6% m o istu re

Therefore, the moi sture content of the mix will be 38.6 1¼1. Water will
have to b e added to the mix to achieve the desired 55 1¾, n1oisture
conte nt.
A1nount of water to add to increase wate r conte nt of mix to de ired
moisture content:

Amount water needed (desired l½, moisture of mix) - (current 1¼, moisture of mix)
per lb of mix= 100 - (de ired 01c, moisture of mix)

=( 55 - 3 8 .6 )
100 - 55

= lL { 6 4 l b wa t e r n eed ed for ever y lb o f mi x

15
 To make furth e r ca lc ul a ti o n s, 1 ga ll o n o f wa te r = 8 .]:1 pound s . To
d e t e rmin e h ow m a n y ga ll o n s o f wa te r mu st b e a dd ed to e a c h to n o f
mi xed 111 a te ri a l t o ac hi e v e th e d es ired m o is ture c o nte nt o f 55 1.¼ ,, w,c
th e fo ll ow in g fo rmul a:

gallons of water 2000 x (lbs of water needed per lb of mix)

needed per ton of mix = 8.33

( 2 0\)() , 0 .3h-l t
= --- --
8 .3 {

= 8 7 ..19 g.111 0 11 -, o l w.i t er

16
REFERENCES AND RESOURCES
Suggested Reading - Books:
Chaney, D.E., LE. Drinkwater, and G .S. Pettygrove . 1992. Organic Sui/
A111e11d111c>11ts and Fertilizc>rs. University of Ca lifornia Sustainab le
Agricu lture Research and Education Program/University of California
Division of Agriculture and Natura l Resources, Publication 21505.
Minnich, J ., and M. Hunt. 1979. The Rodale G uide> to Co111posti11,g .
E111111aus, Penn.: Rodale Press.
Parnes, R. 1990. Fertile> Soil: A Crowers Guide to o ,~~nnic nnd /1101gc111ic
Fertilizers. Davis, Calif.: agAccess.
Ryn k, R., ed. 1992. On-Fann Composting Hanclhuok. ortheast Re­
giona l Agricultura l Engineering Service. lthaca, ew York: Cornell
University.
Suggested Reading - Periodicals:
BioC) cle. JG Press, Inc. , 419 State Avenue, Emmaus, PA 18049
Compost Scien c<:' a11d Uti lization. JG Press (see above).
Waste Age>. Na tional Solid Wastes Managen1ent Assoc iation, Suite
1 100, 1 730 Rhod e Is land Aven u e NW, Washington, DC 20036
For information on composting regulations
in California, contact:
Ca lifornia Integ rated Waste Managen1ent Board
8800 Cal Cen ter Drive
Sacramento, CA 95826
Te lep h one: (916) 255-2200

17