Chapter 11

Electrical motor principles

11.1 Introduction

In Chapter 9, it was explained that an electric current gives rise to a magnetic field.
If a second current-carrying conductor is placed in such a field, it is subjected to an
electromagnetic force. This force can be used to drive the conductor, and an electric
motor results.
It is interesting to reflect how much our civilisation depends on the electromag-
netic principles of the generator and the motor. Without these machines, the world
would be a very different place.

11.2 Force on a current-carrying conductor lying in a magnetic field

If a conductor lies at right angles to a magnetic field, it experiences a force when a

current passes through it. We can verify this natural law by using a piece of wire, a
permanent magnet and a battery. If the wire is placed between the magnet poles and
its ends momentarily connected across the battery terminals, it will jump from its
position.
Figure 11.1 explains why this force occurs. Figure 11.1(a) shows the magnetic
field due to a conductor, drawn in cross-section, which is carrying a current into the
plane of the paper. Figure 11.1(b) shows the magnetic field due to the magnetic poles,

(a) (b) (c)

N N

S S

Figure 11.1 Force on current-carrying conductor lying in magnetic field

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202 Electrical craft principles

between which the conductor is situated, when the conductor carries no current. Since
lines of magnetic flux never cross, the two fields cannot exist simultaneously in their
individual forms, and the resultant field takes up the shape shown in Figure 11.1(c).
The stronger field to the right of the conductor tries to contract, and exerts a force
on the conductor in much the same way as if it were a stone in a catapult. If free
to do so, the conductor will move to the left. Should the conductor be moved out
of the influence of the magnetic field due to the poles, it will cease to have a force
applied to it.
If the reader redraws the poles, conductor and magnetic field, he will find that if
either the polarity of the magnet or the current in the conductor is reversed, the force
on the conductor will be reversed. If both are reversed, the force remains in the same
direction. Clearly, it is important to be able to calculate the force on the conductor in
given circumstances.
Experiment shows that provided the conductor is at right angles to the field.
F = BlI
where F = force on conductor, N; B = flux density of magnetic field, T; l = length
of conductor in field, m; and I = current flowing in conductor, A.

Example 11.1
A conductor, 0.2 m long, carries a current of 25 A at right angles to a magnetic field
of flux density 1.2 T. Calculate the force exerted on the conductor.
F = BlI
= 1.2 × 0.2 × 25 newtons
= 6N

Example 11.2
How much current must a conductor of an electric motor carry if it is 900 mm long
and is situated at right angles to a magnetic field of flux density 0.8 T, if it has a force
of 144 N exerted on it?
F = BlI
therefore
F
l=
Bl
144
= amperes
0.8 × 0.9
= 200 A

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 Electrical motor principles 203

force
(motion)

field

current

Figure 11.2 Position of left hand for application of Fleming’s left-hand rule

11.3 Relative directions of current, force and magnetic flux

It is often important to know the direction of the force on a conductor when it carries
a current of given direction in a field of given polarity. One method is to draw out
the field as shown above, but there is a rule which links the directions of the current,
field and force and enables us to find the third if the directions of the other two are
known.
This is Fleming’s left-hand (motor) rule. The thumb, the first finger and the
second finger of the left hand are extended, so that all three are at right angles to each
other (Figure 11.2). If the first finger points in the direction taken by the magnetic field,
and the second finger in the direction of current flow, the thumb gives the direction of
motion of the conductor as a result of the force applied to it. This is easily remembered
by noticing that the First finger gives the magnetic Field direction, the seCond finger
gives the Current direction and the thuMb gives the direction of conductor Motion
as a result of the force.
A little practice will show how easy this rule is to apply, but it must be carried
out using the left hand, and applies only to the motor effect.

Example 11.3
Refer to Figure 11.3 and give
(a) the direction of the force on the conductor in Figure 11.3(a)
(b) the polarity of the field system in Figure 11.3(b)
(c) the direction of the current in Figure 11.3(c)
(d) the direction of the force on the conductor in Figure 11.3(d)

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204 Electrical craft principles

(a) (b) (c) (d)

N S N

S N S

Figure 11.3 Figures for Example 11.3

Applying Fleming’s left-hand rule, or sketching the magnetic field shapes, gives
the results
(a) right to left
(b) north pole at the top
(c) out of the paper
(d) left to right.

11.4 Lenz’s law

Consider a conductor being moved by an external source of energy at right angles to a

magnetic field (Figure 11.4). The application of Fleming’s right-hand rule will show
that the direction of the induced EMF is such as to cause a current into the plane of the
paper, if the conductor forms part of a closed circuit. We now have a current-carrying
conductor situated in a magnetic field gives rise to current in such a direction as to
oppose the movement causing it. Lenz’s law states that the direction of an induced

direction of direction of
force on conductor conductor movement

Figure 11.4 Differing directions of conductor movement and force (Lenz’s law)

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 Electrical motor principles 205

EMF is always such that it tends to cause a current which opposes the change inducing
the EMF. In the case shown, extra energy must be used to overcome the reverse force;
the work needed to overcome it will increase as the current increases, so that for a
generator we have to put more mechanical energy in to get more electrical energy out.
The reverse force will not, of course, completely stop the conductor. If it did so,
the induced EMF, and hence the current producing the reverse force, would disappear.
The law also affects induction in a circuit, which is due to a change in linking
magnetic flux (Chapter 9). The EMF induced by the changing current will always be
in such a direction as to resist that change. If the current is reducing, the EMF will
be in the same direction as the current, and will try to maintain it; if the current is
increasing, the EMF will oppose it and try to prevent the increase.

11.5 Direct-current motor principles

The direct-current motor is basically the same as the direct-current generator, which
was considered in Section 9.5. Both machines are energy converters. The generator
is supplied with mechanical energy, and gives out most of this energy in electrical
form. The motor takes in electrical energy and provides mechanical work.
Consider the simple rectangular loop system shown in Figure 11.5. This is the same
as the generator arrangement of Figure 9.7(a), but instead of providing electricity, it
must be supplied with electricity, so a DC supply is connected to the brushes.
Figure 11.6 shows the directions of the forces experienced by the conductors,
which can be verified by application of Fleming’s left-hand rule. The commutator
reverses the current flow in a conductor as it passes from one pole to the next, so
that the current in either conductor will always be the same as it passes from a given

N
magnetic poles
axis of pivot
loop

brushes commutator

Figure 11.5 Loop connected to simple commutator and able to rotate in magnetic
field

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206 Electrical craft principles

N N N
1 2
2

l l l
1 1
2

S S S

Figure 11.6 Principle of DC motor

pole. The direction of the force will therefore be the same, and the loop will rotate
continuously in a given direction. At the instant when the brushes are passing over the
joints in the commutator, the conductors will be moving along the lines of magnetic
flux, and will experience no force. In practice, the speed of rotation of the loop will
keep it moving until this ‘dead spot’ is passed. Like the generator, the practical DC
motor has many loops and a multi-segment commutator. As a result, the force on the
machine is nearly constant, and no ‘dead spot’ occurs. The construction of the DC
machine was described briefly in Section 9.5.

11.6 Moving-coil instrument

In Section 11.2 we saw that the force exerted on a conductor carrying current in a
magnetic field depends on the magnetic field strength, the length of conductor in the
field and the conductor current (F = BlI ). If field strength is made constant by the use
of a permanent magnet, and the conductor is in the form of a coil of fixed length, the
force must depend only on the current. Thus an instrument can be made to measure
the current it carries, giving a deflection depending on the force exerted on its coil,
and hence on its current.
This instrument is called the permanent-magnet moving-coil instrument, and
is used widely for current and voltage measurements. It is rather like a miniature DC
motor, but instead of having a commutator to allow continuous rotation, current is
fed into the coil through hair springs which also serve to limit the angle of rotation.
In many types, the shape of the permanent magnet is similar to that shown in
Figure 11.7, the magnetic circuit being completed with shaped soft-iron pole shoes
and cylindrical core, so that a radial and uniform magnetic field is set up by the airgap.
The coil of fine insulated wire wound on an aluminium former is pivoted to swing in
this field, and will always cut it at right angles (Figure 11.8). Two phosphor-bronze
hairsprings serve to make electrical connections to the moving coil, as well as limiting
the coil swing (controlling torque) and returning the movement to the zero position
when no current flows (restoring torque). The coil moves because when current flows
in it, it becomes a series of current-carrying conductors lying in a magnetic field. The

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 Electrical motor principles 207

permanent
magnet

pointer

soft-iron
pole piece

S N
soft-iron core

coil airgap (exaggerated

(number of turns reduced, and to show radial flux)
size increased, to show current
direction)

Figure 11.7 General arrangement of permanent-magnet moving-coil instrument

Figure 11.8 View of permanent-magnet moving-coil instrument, showing coil,

pointer, spindle and springs

force on the two sides of the coil turn it against the torque of the control springs,
equilibrium occurring when the deflecting torque due to the current is equal and
opposite to the controlling torque due to the hairsprings. A light aluminium pointer
is fixed to the coil and moves over a scale to measure the current.
With most instruments, some provision must be made to ensure that the movement
comes to rest quickly at its reading, without excessive oscillation. This provision is

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208 Electrical craft principles

known as damping. With the permanent-magnet, moving-coil instrument, damping

is achieved automatically, since the EMF induced in the aluminium-coil former as it
swings in the magnetic field causes an eddy current to flow which, obeying Lenz’s
law, produces a damping force which opposes the movement producing it.
The wire of which the moving coil is made is very fine so as to reduce the weight of
the moving system, and cannot carry much current. In consequence, the torque on the
coil is not very great, so the whole moving system is delicately mounted on jewelled
bearings, and all possible precautions are taken to cut down friction. The moving
system is carefully balanced, often having balance arms with adjustable weights
for this purpose. Some instruments have a taut wire suspension, which replaces the
spindle, bearings and springs, making the movement frictionless.
In their standard form, these instruments are limited to an angular movement of
about 120◦ , but special movements are available to give circular scales, the needle
being capable of swinging through an angle of about 300◦ . This increased scale
length gives an improvement in the accuracy of reading, or alternatively the same
scale length can accommodated on an instrument taking up less space.
Since the torque, and hence the instrument deflection, is proportional to current,
the scale is linear; that is, there are equal spaces between equal divisions. Other
advantages of this instrument are its accuracy, its sensitivity to small currents, and
the ease with which it can be adapted for almost any value of current or voltage.
The main disadvantage of the instrument is its inability to read values of alternating
current at power frequencies. These currents give rise to an alternating torque; the
movement, being unable to adjust to these rapid variations, remains at the zero posi-
tion. Other disadvantages are that the delicate moving system is easily damaged by
rough handling, and the fine coil will not withstand prolonged overloading.
Electronic instruments with digital displays have increased in accuracy and
reduced in cost to the point where they have partially ousted moving iron and mov-
ing coil instruments from the scene. However, instruments following the principles
described in this section are still in use and are preferred by some workers.

11.7 Summary of formulas for Chapter 11

For a conductor lying at right angles to a magnetic field,

F F F
F = BlI B= l= I=
lI BI Bl
where F = force on conductor, N; B = flux density of magnetic field, T; l = length
of conductor in magnetic field, m; and I = current carried by conductor, A.

11.8 Exercises

1 A force of 10 N is exerted on a conductor 1.5 m long when carrying a current

and lying at right angles to a magnetic field of flux density 1.5 T. What is the
current?

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 Electrical motor principles 209

2 If a conductor lying at right angles to a magnetic field of flux density 0.12 T

experiences a force of 8 N when carrying a current of 5 A, what is the effective
length of the conductor in the magnetic field?
3 Twenty millimetres of a conductor carrying a current of 15 mA is situated at
right angles to a magnetic field, and experiences a force of 0.33 mN. What is the
field flux density?
4 With the aid of a sketch, show how a force is produced on a current-carrying
conductor lying in a magnetic field. Directions of the current, magnetic field and
force should be shown.
5 What force is experienced by a busbar 2 m long which, under fault conditions,
carries a current of 20 000 A in a magnetic field of flux density 100 mT?
6 One conductor on the coil of a moving-coil instrument is 10 mm long, and
experiences a force of 2 µN when carrying a certain current. The airgap flux
density is 0.8 T. What is the coil current?
7 Figure 11.9 gives examples of a current-carrying conductor lying in a magnetic
field. State
(a) the direction of the force on the conductor in Figure 11.9(a)
(b) the direction of the force on the conductor in Figure 11.9(b)
(c) the direction of the current in Figure 11.9(c)
(d) the polarity of the magnet in Figure 11.9(d)

(a) (b) (c) (d)

N S N

S N S

Figure 11.9 Diagrams for Exercise 7

8 A moving-coil loudspeaker is required is provide a force of 0.2 N when its coil,

which has an effective conductor length of 15 m, carries a current of 12 mA.
What flux density must be set up by the magnet?
9 What length of conductor must be present in the armature of a motor which has
a pole flux density of 0.6 T and is required to provide a turning force of 300 N
when the conductor current is 25 A?
10 (a) Consider a single conductor carrying a direct current and lying in the mag-
netic field between the poles of a two-pole DC motor. Make a sketch or
diagram illustrating this. Assuming your own directions of magnetic field
and current, indicate clearly the direction in which the conductor will tend
to move.

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210 Electrical craft principles

(b) A conductor 0.3 m long lies at right angle to a magnetic field of inten-
sity 1.6 T and carries a current of 25 A. Calculate the force on the
conductor.
11 Sketch a two-pole DC motor showing armature, poles, commutator and
brushes, and explain how a continuous torque in the same direction is
obtained.
10 Sketch a moving-coil instrument and label the main parts. State two disadvan-
tages of this type of instrument.
13 Explain why a moving-coil instrument is unsuitable for use in AC circuits.

11.9 Multiple-choice exercises

11M1 A current-carrying conductor which is subjected to a magnetic field

(a) must be PVC insulated
(b) will corrode more quickly than if there is no field
(c) will experience a force
(d) will have an EMF induced in it
11M2 The formula relating the force on a conductor (F), its length (l), the current
it carries (I ) and the flux density of the magnetic field to which it is subject
(B) is
BI B
(a) B = FlI (b) F = (c) I = (d) F = BlI
l Fl
11M3 A conductor experiences a force of 2.5 N when 45 cm of it is subjected
to a magnetic field and it is carrying a current of 65 A. The magnetic flux
density of the field is
(a) 85.5 mT (b) 73.1 T (c) 0.855 mT (d) 0.855 T
11M4 The figure below shows a conductor lying in a magnetic field when carrying
current. It will experience a force
(a) into the paper (b) from left to right
(c) towards the north pole (d) from right to left

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 Electrical motor principles 211

11M5 The rule relating the direction of current, magnetic field and force on a
conductor is
(a) Lenz’s law (b) Fleming’s left-hand rule
(c) Fleming’s right hand rule (d) Ohm’s law
11M6 Lenz’s law states that
(a) a conductor carrying current experiences force when subject to
magnetic field
(b) a commutator is necessary for a DC machine to work properly
(c) an induced EMF will always oppose the effect producing it
(d) when a conductor cuts a magnetic field an EMF will be induced in it
11M7 The simple electric motor shown in the figure below will
(a) rotate counter-clockwise (b) not rotate at all
(c) rotate clockwise (d) burn out

11M8 The major disadvantage of the permanent-magnet moving-coil instrument

is its
(a) inaccuracy
(b) nonlinear scale
(c) inability to measure alternating currents
(d) very heavy moving system
11M9 The coil of a permanent-magnet moving-coil instrument is wound with very
fine wire so that
(a) it can carry heavy current
(b) it is very light in weight
(c) it can easily have its range extended
(d) it will measure alternating and direct currents
11M10 The scale of a permanent-magnet moving-coil instrument is
(a) very cramped at the lower end
(b) difficult to read with accuracy
(c) reversed
(d) linear

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