PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER IN Advantages of PLC over Relay Systems

MANUFACTURING AND POWER SYSTEMS

1. Increased Reliability

Once a program has been written and tested, it can

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) be easily downloaded to other PLCs. Since all the logic
is contained in the PLC’s memory, there is no chance of
making a logic wiring error.

2. More Flexibility

It is easier to create and change a program in a

PLC than to wire and rewire circuit.

• Is an industrial grade computer that is capable of 3. Lower Cost

being programmed
PLCs were originally designed to replace relay
• to perform control functions.
control logic, and the cost savings have been so
• A ruggedized digital computer used in industries
significant that relay control is becoming obsolete
that have been adapted for controlling
except for power applications.
manufacturing processes. These manufacturing
processes included robotic devices, assembly lines, 4. Communications Capability
or any activity requiring ease of programming, high
Once a program has been written and tested, it can
reliability, and process fault diagnosis.
be easily downloaded to other PLCs.
• The programmable controller has eliminated much
of the hardwiring associated with conventional 5. Faster Response Time
relay control circuits.
• Fast Response, Easy Programming and Installation, PLCs are designed for highspeed and real-time
High control speed, Network Capability, applications. The programmable controller operates in
Troubleshooting and Testing Convenience, and real time, which means that an event taking place in
High Reliability. the field will result in the execution of an operation or
• The PLC is designed for multiple input and output output.
arrangements, extended temperature ranges, 6. Easier to Troubleshoot
immunity to electrical noise, and resistance to
vibration and impact PLCs have resident diagnostics and override
• Real-time system since the output of the system functions that allow users to easily trace and correct
controlled by software and hardware point.
• the PLC depends on the input conditions.
Relay Based Control Panel
• PLC was used to replace relay logic, but its ever-
increasing range of functions means that it is
found in many and more complex applications.

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) Brands

• ABB
• Allen-Bradley
• Siemens PLC Based Control Panel
• Honeywell
• Mitsubishi
• Yokogawa
• Toshiba
• General Electric
• Schneider
 Motor Control position, often utilizing feedback mechanisms like
encoders.
• Motor control refers to the process of managing
the operation, speed, direction, and performance Energy Efficiency: By optimizing motor performance
of electric motors. It involves various techniques and controlling speed and torque, motor control
and technologies to regulate the behavior of systems contribute to energy efficiency by reducing
motors, ensuring they operate as desired in wasted power and improving overall system efficiency.
different applications. Motor control is used in a
Safety and Protection: Motor control includes
wide range of industries and settings, including
protective features such as overload protection and
industrial automation, robotics, HVAC systems,
fault detection. These mechanisms prevent damage to
automotive, consumer electronics, and more.
the motor and connected equipment in case of
• Motor control involves the use of various electrical
abnormal operating conditions.
components to start, stop, regulate the speed, and
protect electric motors. These components are Automation and Integration: In industrial settings,
commonly used in industrial, commercial, and motor control systems are often integrated into
residential applications. larger automation systems, allowing for coordinated
• Motor control can be achieved using various control of multiple motors and other equipment.
methods and components, as mentioned in the
previous response. These methods range from
basic on/off control using switches to more Motor Control Components
advanced techniques involving microcontrollers,
programmable logic controllers (PLCs), and Contactors
complex algorithms
• Contactors are electromechanical switches
• Motor control is a crucial aspect of various
designed to control high-current loads. They allow
technologies and industries, enabling efficient and
you to remotely control the power supply to a
precise operation of electric motors for diverse
motor. Contactors have main contacts that can
applications.
handle the motor's current and auxiliary contacts
•
for control signals
The primary goals of motor control are to: • A contactor is a special type of relay designed to
handle heavy power loads that are beyond the
Start and Stop: Motor control systems allow for capability of control relays
controlled starting and stopping of motors. This is • Unlike relays, contactors are designed to make and
important to prevent sudden mechanical stresses on break higher powered circuits without being
the motor and the connected machinery. damaged. Such loads include lights, heaters,
Speed Control: Motor speed can be adjusted to meet transformers, capacitors, and electric motors for
specific requirements. Depending on the application, which overload protection is provided separately
motors might need to run at different speeds to or not required.
optimize performance and energy efficiency.

Direction Control: Some applications require motors

to rotate in different directions. Motor control
systems enable the selection of rotation direction
based on the application's needs.

Acceleration and Deceleration: Smooth acceleration

Overload Relay
and deceleration are crucial for preventing mechanical
wear and tear. Motor control ensures gradual changes • These devices protect motors from overheating
in speed and torque. due to excessive current draw. There are thermal
overload relays that use the heat generated by the
Position Control: In some applications, precise
current to trigger the protection, and electronic
positioning of a motor is necessary. Motor control
overload relays that sense current directly and
systems can be used to accurately control the motor's
provide more accurate protection.
 you to choose different operating modes or
directions for the motor.
• Pushbutton switches are the most common form of
manual control. A
• pushbutton operates by opening or closing contacts
when pressed.
• Commonly used types of pushbutton switches,
which include:

Normally open (NO) pushbutton, which makes a circuit

Motor Starters when it is pressed and returns to its open position
when the button is released.
• A motor starter is designed to provide power to
motors. The motor starter is made up of a
contactor with an overload relay attached
physically and electrically to it.
• They include thermal or electronic overload relays
to protect the motor from excessive current,
which could damage the motor. Starters are used
to initiate motor operation and provide protection
Normally closed (NC) pushbutton, which opens the
against overloads.
circuit when it is pressed and returns to the closed
position when the button is released.

Pilot Lamp (Indicator Light)

Circuit Breakers • Motor control pilot lamps, also known as indicator

lights or pilot lights, are small visual indicators
• Circuit breakers provide overcurrent protection to used in motor control systems to provide visual
the motor circuit. They can interrupt the current feedback about the status of a motor or a related
flow in the event of a short circuit or overload, component. These lamps help operators and
preventing damage to the motor and the wiring. maintenance personnel quickly assess the
condition of the motor and its associated controls.
They are often used in control panels, switchgear,
and other control systems.
• Motor control pilot lamps typically have a built-in
light source (such as an LED or incandescent bulb)
that illuminates when voltage is applied. The color
of the light often corresponds to a specific status
or condition of the motor or system. For example:

Green Lamp: Indicates that the motor is running or in

Push Button an "on" state.

• These components provide local control over the Red Lamp: Indicates an alarm condition, fault, or a
motor operation. Push buttons are used for start dangerous situation.
and stop functions, while selector switches enable
Amber/Yellow Lamp: Can represent a warning, a
standby state, or a condition requiring attention.
Blue Lamp: Sometimes used to indicate that the motor • PLC’s are more reliable and robust to use in
is operating in a specific mode or under certain industrial applications so mean-time to failure is
conditions. much longer than that of a microcontroller.

Relay

• Relays are electromagnetic switches used to

control lower- power circuits using signals from
higher-power circuits. They can be used in motor
control circuits to perform various control
functions

All the Logic is contained in the PLC’s Memory

The common types

of memory used in
PLCs are Read Only
Control Transformer
Memory (ROM) and
• Transformers are used to step down voltage levels Random Access
for control circuits, ensuring the correct voltage Memory (RAM). A
is supplied to control components without ROM location can be
affecting the main motor power. read, but not
written. ROM is
Timers and Sequencers
used to store programs and data that should not be
• These devices provide time-based control over altered. For example, the PLC's operating programs
motor operations. Timers can delay or sequence are stored in ROM.
events, useful in applications where specific time
intervals are critical.
Relationships between the inputs and outputs are
determined by the user program
PLC vs Microcontrollers

• The I/O capacity and flexibility of a PLC is far

All the logic is contained in
more comprehensive than that of a
the PLC’s memory.
Microcontroller.
Contactor, Light, Solenoid
• Modern PLC’s have more than one CPU that allows
are Outputs. Inputs are
it to run dedicated safety-critical or scan critical
Pushbutton, Limit switch,
tasks. Microcontrollers currently do not.
Sensor.
• PLC’s have pre-built, well-tried and tested
hardware and software watchdogs and system
routines.
PLC Communication Module
• PLC’s generally have redundancies built-in, giving
them the ability to be single fault tolerant. Communication modules digitally
Microcontrollers do not have this ability. transfer data between PLCs and
• PLC distributed I/O (Remote I/O) can be placed other devices within the factory
and operated in hazardous areas. This can be facility. This becomes especially
difficult with Microcontrollers. important as more factories are
• PLC’s have the ability to bridge many open and being equipped with Industrial
industrial communication protocols. Internet of Things (IIoT) or
Microcontrollers simply cannot. Industry 4.0 technology.
 Parts of a PLC Modular I/O

Architecture • Divided by compartments into which separate

modules can be plugged.
Can refer to PLC hardware, To PLC Software, or to a
• You can choose from the modules available
combination of both.
form the manufacturer and mix them any way
Open Architecture you desire,
• The basic modular controller consists of rack,
• Allows the system to be connected easily to power supply, processor module (CPU),
devices and programs made by other input/output (I/O modules), and an operator
manufacturers. interface for programming and monitoring.
• Use off-the-shelf components that conform to
approved standards.

Closed Architecture

• Whose design is proprietary, making it more

difficult to connect to other systems
• Most PLC systems are fact in proprietary, so
you must be surer that any generic hardware
or software you may use is compatible with
your particular PLC.
• Consequently, PLC programs cannot
be interchanged among different PLC
manufacturers Power Supply

• Supplies DC power to other modules that plug into

Input/Output Section the rack.
• Power Supply PLC needs 24 volts DC supply for its
Fixed I/O operation.
• Some PLCs work with 230 volts AC supply.
• Typical of small PLCs that come in one package
• The power supply details of PLC depend on the type
with no separate, removable units.
of PLC model, manufacturer of
• The processor I/O terminals will have a fixed
• PLC, or as per the geographic location and
number of connections built in for inputs and
standards.
outputs.
• For large PLC systems, this power supply does not
• Main advantage is Lower Cost. The number of
normally supply power to the field devices.
available I/O points varies and usually can be
• With larger systems, power to field devices is
expanded by buying additional units of fixed
provided by external alternating current (AC) or
I/O.
direct current (DC) supplies.
• One disadvantage is lack of flexibility; you are
limited in what you can get in the quantities
and types dictated by the packaging. Also, for
some models, if any part in the unit fails, the
whole unit has to be replaced.
Processor (CPU) Relay ladder logic (RLL)

• “Brain” of the PLC • The standard programming language used with

• Usually consists of a microprocessor for PLCs
implementing the logic and controlling the • Origin is based on electromechanical relay
communications among the modules. control.
• Requires memory for storing user program • Graphically represents rungs of contacts, coils,
instructions, numerical values, and I/O devices and specific instruction blocks.
status. • Designed for easy use and understanding for
• Controls all the PLC activity and is designed so that its users and has been modified to keep up
the user can enter the desired program in ladder with the increasing demands of industry’s
logic. control needs..

PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER (PLCS)

PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

Programming Device

• Laptop
• Used to enter the desired program into the
memory of the processor.
• The program can be entered using relay ladder
logic, which is one of the most popular
programming languages.

Most Popular types of PLC Programming

Languages

1. Ladder Diagram (LD)

2. Sequential Function Charts (SFC)
3. Function Block Diagram (FBD)
4. Structured Text (ST)
5. Instruction List (IL)

Program

• A user-developed series of instructions that

directs the PLC to execute actions.
• A programming language provide rules for
combining the instructions so that they
produce the desired actions.
• To program the controller, you enter these
instructions one by one into the processor
memory from the programming device.
• Each input and output device is given an
address, which lets the PLC know where it is
physically connected. Note that the I/O
address format will differ, depending on the
PLC model and manufacturer
• Instructions are stored in the user program
portion of the processor memory. During the
program scan the controller monitors the
inputs, executes the control program, and
changes the output accordingly.
• For the program to operate, the controller is
placed in the RUN mode, or operating cycle.
During the program scan, the controller
monitors the inputs, executes the control
program, and changes the output accordingly.
Modifying the Operation Software associated with a PLC but written and run
on a personal computer falls
• One of the important features of a PLC is the ease
with which the program can be changed. • PLC software that allows the user to program
• If a relay system were used, it would require some and document gives the user the tools to write
rewiring of the circuit a PLC program—using ladder logic or another
• However, if a PLC system were used, no rewiring programming language—and document or
would be necessary. The inputs and outputs are explain the program in as much detail as is
still the same. All that is required is to change the necessary.
PLC ladder logic program • PLC software that allows the user to monitor
and control the process is also called a human
machine interface (HMI). It enables the user
PLCs Versus Computers
to view a process—or a graphical
• The architecture of a PLC is basically the same as representation of a process—on a monitor,
that of a personal computer. A personal computer determine how the system is running, trend
(PC) can be made to operate as a programmable values, and receive alarm conditions
logic controller if you provide some way for the
Human Machine Interface (HMI)
computer to receive information from devices such
as pushbuttons or switches
• Unlike PCs, the PLC is designed to operate in the
industrial environment with wide ranges of
ambient temperature and humidity. It is not
usually affected by the electrical noise inherent
in most industrial locations.
• Unlike the personal computer, the PLC is
programmed in relay ladder logic or other easily
learned languages. The PLC comes with its program
language built into its memory and has no
permanently attached keyboard, CD drive, or
PLC Size and Application
monitor. Instead, PLCs come equipped with
terminals for input and output field devices as well • The criteria used in categorizing PLCs include
as communication ports. functionality, number of inputs and outputs,
• Computers are complex computing machines cost, and physical size.
capable of executing several programs or tasks • Of these, the I/O count is the most important
simultaneously and in any order. Most PLCs, on the factor. In general, the nano is the smallest
other hand, execute a single program in an orderly size with less than 15 I/O points. This is
and sequential fashion from first to last followed by micro types (15 to 128 I/O points),
instruction. medium types (128 to 512 I/O points), and
• Computers are complex computing machines large types (over 512 I/O points).
capable of executing several programs or tasks • Matching the PLC with the application is a key
simultaneously and in any order. Most PLCs, on the factor in the selection process. In general it
other hand, execute a single program in an orderly is not advisable to buy a PLC system that is
and sequential fashion from first to last larger than current needs dictate. However,
instruction. future conditions should be anticipated to
• PLC control systems have been designed to be ensure that the system is the proper size to
easily installed and maintained. Troubleshooting is fill the current and possibly future
simplified by the use of fault indicators and requirements of an application.
messaging displayed on the programmer screen.
Input/output modules for connecting the field There are three major types of PLC application:
devices are easily connected and replaced. single-ended, multitask, and control management
Single-ended or Stand Alone PLC Application

• A single-ended or stand-alone PLC application

involves one PLC controlling one process.
Memory
• This would be a standalone unit and would not be
used for • Part of a PLC that stores data, instructions, and
• communicating with other computers or PLCs. the control program.
• The size and sophistication of the process being • Memory size is usually expressed in K values: 1 K, 6
controlled are obvious factors in determining K, 12 K, and so on. The measurement kilo,
which PLC to select. abbreviated K, normally refers to 1000 units.
• The applications could dictate a large processor, • When dealing with computer or PLC memory,
but usually this category requires a small PLC. however, 1 K means 1024, because this
measurement is based on the binary number
system (210 5 1024). Depending on memory type,
1 K can mean 1024 bits, 1024 bytes, or 1024 words.
• Although it is common for us to measure the
memory capacity of PLCs in words, we need to
know the number of bits in each word before
memory size can be accurately compared.
• Modern computers usually have a word size of 16,
32, or 64 bits.
Multitask PLC Application • For example, a PLC that uses 8-bit words has
49,152 bits of storage with a 6 K word capacity (8
• A multitask PLC application involves one PLC
X 6 X 1024 = 49,152).
controlling several processes.
• whereas a PLC using 32-bit words has 196,608 bits
• Adequate I/O capacity is a significant factor in
of storage with the same 6 K memory (32 X 6 X
this type of installation. In addition, if the PLC
1024 = 196,608)
would be a subsystem of a larger process and would
• The amount of memory required depends on the
have to communicate with a central PLC or
application.
computer, provisions for a data communications
network are also required. Factors affecting the memory size needed for a
particular PLC installation include:

• Number of I/O points used

• Size of control program
• Data-collecting requirements
• Supervisory functions required
• Future expansion

Instruction Set
Control Management PLC Application
• The instruction set for a particular PLC lists the
• A control management PLC application involves one different types of instructions supported.
PLC controlling several others. • Typically, this ranges from 15 instructions on
• This kind of application requires a large PLC smaller units up to 100 instructions on larger
processor designed to communicate with other
PLCs and possibly with a computer. The control
management PLC supervises several PLCs by
downloading programs that tell the other PLCs
what has to be done.
• It must be capable of connection to all PLCs so that
by proper addressing it can communicate with any
one it wishes to.
 PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER (PLCS) terminal strips, and modules have good
HARDWARE COMPONENTS connections.
4. Ensure that heavy, noise-generating equipment
Why is PLC Maintenance Important? is not located too close to the PLC.
• Programmable logic controllers (PLC) are critical to 5. Make sure that unnecessary items are kept
the smooth operation of every factory. That’s why away form the equipment inside the enclosure.
it’s very important that they are up and running at 6. If the PLC system enclosure is in an
peak efficiency every day. If any part of your PLC environment that exhibits vibration, install a
goes down, you may need to repair it or at least vibration detector that can interface with the
replace a part or two to sustain PLC functioning. PLC as a preventive measure. This way, the
One of the most important ways to keep up with a programmable logic controller can monitor high
PLC system is with regular maintenance. levels of vibration, which can lead to the
• Manufacturers make programmable logic loosening of connections.
controllers knowing that factories are going to use 7. Make Sure the Power Is Flowing
them in harsh environments in many situations. 8. Calibrate Analog Components.
They do not build PLCs with the expectation that 9. Keep Your PLC Insulated Against Airborne
they are going to be used in sterile clean rooms, Debris
unaffected by the outside world. Thus, PLCs are 10. Be Wary of EMI (Electromagnetic
durable and can stand up to factory use, but your Interference). EMI can cause massive
goal should be to extend the timeframe for that problems for PLCs and it can be tough to
use before a problem arises. The right identify what the issue is.
maintenance plan is the best way to do that. Preventive Maintenance Checklist- Spare Parts
• PLC preventative maintenance tasks can be
tedious, but they can save you tremendous • It is a good idea to keep a stock of replacement
headaches and a fortune in repair bills and parts on hand. This practice will minimize
downtime. Here are some programmable logic downtime resulting from component failure. In a
controller maintenance tips to add to your failure situation, having the right spare in stock
preventative checklist. can mean a shutdown of only minutes, instead of
hours or days.
Pre- Maintenance Checklist • As a rule of thumb, the amount of a spare part
Before starting preventative maintenance on your PLC, stocked should be 10% of the number of part used.
make sure to do the following: If a part is used infrequently, then less than 10%
of that particular part can be stocked.
1. Back up your PLC program prior to getting your • Main CPU board components should have one spare
hands dirty (it’s also a good idea to always keep each, regardless of how many CPUs are being used.
a master copy of operating programs on hand). Each power supply, whether main or auxiliary,
2. Follow proper lockout/tagout procedures. should also have a backup. Certain applications may
3. Remove power from the system. Power should require a complete CPU rack as a standby spare.
always be off and unplugged during
maintenance. Preventive Maintenance Checklist- Replacement of
4. Audit all parts in use. I/O Modules

Preventive Maintenance Checklist • If a module must be replaced, the user should

make sure that the replacement module being
1. Periodically clean or replace any filters that installed is the correct type
have been installed in enclosures at a • Some I/O systems allow modules to be replaced
frequency dependent on the amount of dust in while power is still applied, but others may require
the area. that power be removed. If replacing a module
2. Do not allow dirt and dust to accumulate on the solves the problem, but the failure reoccurs in a
PLC’s components; relatively short period, the user should check the
3. Periodically check the connections to the I/O inductive loads.
modules to ensure that all plugs, sockets,
• The inductive load may be generating voltage and or connecting neutral of the supply system to
current spikes, in which case, external suppression ground.
may be necessary. • The leakage or fault current passes to the earth
• If the module’s fuse blows again after it is which has zero potential. This nullifies it’s action
replaced, the problem may be that the module’s and protects the nearby environment from
output current limit is being exceeded or that the damage.
output device is shorted.
Types of Earthing
Additional PLC Preventive Maintenance Tips
1. Safety Earth / Electrical Earth / Power
• PLCs (programmable logic controllers) are such an Earth
integral part of the automation world, and in turn • Power Earthing (also called electrical earthing)
a major contributor to the industrial market. is provided to devices that are of high power
Downtime can be incredibly costly, and finding and generate a large amount of leakage
parts for legacy units can be difficult and time current. Here, the Variable Frequency Drive
consuming. (VFD) has been given power earthing. The
• It can be a good idea for you to create a PLC cable used is of a larger size.
preventative maintenance checklist along with a • The panel body has also been given power
schedule which assigns specific personnel to earthing by touching a point from the body to
handling said maintenance on specific days. This the busbar. The panel body is given electrical
will make sure your PLC gets all the maintenance it earthing as all the equipment is attached to it
needs, which should keep it up and running for a and chances are also that the noise from main
long time. incomer power supply will also flow through it.
• In addition to the above, don’t forget to keep the
PLC close to the machine it will be controlling and 2. Instrument Earth / Electronic Earth
make sure environmental conditions like noise, • is provided to devices that are of low power
temperature and humidity are as favorable as and generate a low amount of leakage current.
possible given the factory environment. Here, the PLC and Switch mode Power Supply
(SMPS) have been given instrument earthing.
Proper Earthing Practices Used for PLC Control
The cable used is of a smaller size
Panel

• Every equipment used in a control panel (low power 3. Intrinsic Safety Earth for IS circuit.
or high power) generates some electrical leakage • Intrinsic Safety (IS) Earthing is used for
current or noise during operation. intrinsic safe devices. They are devices that
• When it interferes with other equipment around generate a certain amount of thermal and
it, it causes abrupt operation and creates electrical energy which can cause fire or
disturbances in the circuit. They do not provide explosion in hazardous area. Now, it is to be
the required output & pose threats of electric remembered that all the different earth
shocks during fault conditions. busbars inside the panel must be isolated from
• During such conditions, a very high current flows each other and there should not be any
through the circuit and there are chances that it connection between them.
will not flow to it’s designated path, but instead • This will ensure proper routing of leakage
flow through metallic body of machines or panels. current to its designated earth pits; and thus
• When any person comes in contact with this path, ensuring a safe working environment. The final
he will be prone to electrical shock. These leakage conducting cables from the corresponding
currents thus pose a threat to the nearby busbars should be routed to the corresponding
environment. So, it is necessary to divert these earth pits.
currents to some other path. This is done by
earthing.
• Earthing is the means of passing electrical energy
directly to the earth (earth pit) with the help of
some non-current carrying part of the equipment
 frequency interference (RFI) can greatly affect
the performance and longevity of a PLC. The
potential for EMI is greatly increased if there is
a large motor or similar machine that’s activated
close to the PLC, or if lightning strikes nearby.

Troubleshooting tips:

• Alternatively, antennas and handheld transmitters

used in close proximity to the PLC can result in
RFI. Ideally, the potential for interference should
be contained, as either EMI or RFI can result in
Common Issues with PLCs & How to Troubleshoot costly damage and significant downtime.
them • Handheld devices that can result in interference
should be prohibited from the vicinity of the PLC,
• PLCs are digital electronic devices that contain
and any machinery that may be problematic should
programmable memory that can store a series of
be segregated.
instructions. As PLCs have increased in
• Efforts should be made to improve shielding,
functionality and decreased in cost, they have
grounding and power conditioning, all of which can
become mainstream in the world of automated
combat most EMI and RFI problems.
systems, and have become fundamental to monitor
and control both individual machines and complex 3. Corrupted Memory
processes.
• Like any other device, especially those built to • External factors, such as the aforementioned
function in harsh industrial environments, it’s frequency interference and power disruptions, can
inevitable that problems will arise. corrupt the memory of a PLC. When this happens,
Troubleshooting is necessary when working with the code within the PLC may become unreadable,
PLCs, however, they lend themselves well to a or the PLC may not be able to read properly when
fairly efficient diagnosis. it’s booted up from an unintentional shut down.

Troubleshooting tips:
1. Module Failure of the Input/Output (I/O)
• The safest and most efficient way to deal with this
System
problem is to ensure all data is copied to a
Perhaps the most common problem affecting PLCs is a redundant storage device that is kept away from
module failure of the input/output (I/O) system. interference, high temperatures and humidity.

Troubleshooting tips: 4. Power Problems

• The primary focus of the troubleshooting process • Like any other machine, PLC devices require a
in this case is to establish what the disconnect is steady and uninterrupted stream of power in order
between the internal situation (essentially, what
to function properly and effectively. If there’s a
the PLC thinks is happening) and the external
loss of power due to regional blackouts, grid
situation (what’s actually happening).
failure, loose connections or deteriorated cables,
• This requires an examination of the relationship
the shock to the PLC system is great and may
between the physical I/O modules and the I/O
instructions within the PLC program. Once this result in data loss.
relationship has been established, a single I/O
Troubleshooting tips:
module can be isolated and a program monitoring
device can be used to check the internal status of • The most effective way to avoid these problems
the module in question. resultant of power loss is to install backup power
2. Electrical Noise Interference sources that activate when the primary power
• Foreign signal interference resultant of either source becomes compromised.
electromagnetic interference (EMI) or radio
• Many facilities also employ batteries in their PLCs,
which will prolong power until they can be shut
down properly. Of course, once power resumes, the
PLC can be re-booted safely.

5. Communication Issues

• In order to function properly, PLC devices must be

in constant communication with surrounding
devices, such as peripherals, Human Machine
Interfaces and other smart equipment. This
communication is facilitated via Ethernet cables
and requires a safe, stable and consistent
connection. Should this connection fail, the
connected devices will not be able to carry out
their functions as programmed, resulting in facility
downtime.

Troubleshooting tips:

• Regular maintenance inspections should be BASICS OF PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC

conducted to safeguard systems from a CONTROLLER (PLCS) PROGRAMMING
communications failure.
What is a Ladder Diagram?
• Engineers should ensure the physical
communication network has been correctly • Ladder diagrams are advanced schematics widely
installed, that connected devices are functioning used to record logic structures for industrial
normally and are well-suited to the system, and controls. These are called ladder diagrams because
that firmware patches are installed when they mimic a ladder, with two vertical rails (supply
necessary to ensure the safety and security of the power) and as many "rungs" (horizontal lines) as
communication system. there are to represent control circuits.
• The load device (lamp, relay coil, solenoid coil, etc.)
PLC Troubleshooting Flowchart
is drawn almost always on the right-hand side of
the rung in ladder diagrams. Although it doesn't
matter electrically where the relay coil is within
the rung, it does matter that the end of the power
supply of the ladder is grounded, for stable
operation.

Application of Ladder Diagrams

• Every system in the relay rack will be depicted

with a symbol on the diagram of the ladder
indicating the relations between such devices.
Furthermore, other things beyond the relay rack,
such as pumps, heaters, and so on, will also feature
on the schematic of the ladder.
• Ladder logic has developed into a programming
language, describing a system through a graphical
diagram based on the relay logic hardware circuit
diagrams.
• Ladder logic is used to build a programmable logic the power flow goes from the left-hand side to
controller (PLC) software and is used in industrial the right-hand side.
control applications. 2. Rungs – The rungs are drawn as horizontal lines and
• For basic yet essential control systems or for connect the rails to the logic expressions. If they
reworking old hardwired relay circuits, Ladder were in a relay logic circuit, they would represent
logic is useful. the wires that connect the power supply to the
• This has also been used in very advanced switching and relay components. Each rung is
automation systems as programmable logic numbered in ascending sequential order.
controllers have become more sophisticated. 3. Inputs – The inputs are external control actions
• Ladder logic should be described as a language such as a push button being pressed or a limit
focused on rules, rather than a language of switch being triggered. The inputs are actually
procedures. A ladder "rung" represents a rule. hardwired to the PLC terminals and represented in
the ladder diagram by a normally open (NO) or
Benefits of Using a Ladder Diagram
normally closed (NC) contact symbol.
• Intuitive and self-documenting. A ladder diagram 4. Outputs – The outputs are external devices that
provides superb schematic interpretation focused are being turned on and off, such as an electric
on well-understood principles of circuit motor or a solenoid valve. The outputs are also
architecture. hardwired to the PLC terminals and are
• The learning curve to get going with a ladder represented in the ladder diagram by a relay coil
diagram is very small because of the accessibility symbol.
of the environment; simple programming skills grow 5. Logic Expressions – The logic expressions are used
rapidly. in combination with the inputs and outputs to
• This has made the ladder diagram especially formulate the desired control operations.
common for applications that involve staff 6. Address Notation & Tag Names – The address
without technical experience to repair or manage, notation describes the input, output and logic
like certain electricians or plant technicians. expression memory addressing structure of the
• The ladder diagram is intended to replicate PLC. The tag names are the descriptions allocated
electrical circuits, it is a perfect way of reflecting to the addresses.
abstract logic of course. A ladder diagram is 7. Comments – Last but by not least, the comments
pretty intuitive for digital logic. are an extremely important part of a ladder
diagram. Comments are displayed at the start of
How to Read and Create a Ladder Diagram? each rung and are used to describe the logical
• Ladder logic diagrams are drawn in a similar way to expressions and control operations being executed
relay logic circuit. They use rails and rungs to in that rung, or groups of rungs. Understanding
create the logic framework. The logic operations ladder diagrams is made a lot easier by using
are drawn in using symbolic notation. comments.
• The rails in a relay logic circuit represent the
supply wires of a relay logic control circuit.
However, in ladder diagrams, the rails represent
the start and end of each line of symbolic code.
• The rungs in a relay logic circuit represent the
wires that connect the components together.
However, in a ladder diagrams, the rungs represent
the logic flow through the symbolic code.

Parts of a Ladder Diagram

1. Rails – There are two rails in a ladder diagram

which are drawn as vertical lines running down the
far most ends of the page. If they were in a relay
logic circuit, they would represent the active and
zero-volt connections of the power supply where
How to Read a Ladder Diagram?

• Ladder diagram is read from the left-hand rail to

the right hand rail and from the first rung to the
last rung. In short – LEFT TO RIGHT AND TOP TO
BOTTOM. The rungs contain input symbols that
either pass or block the logic flow. The result of
the rung is expressed in the last symbol, known as
the output.
• To start reading ladder logic we need to know some
basic binary concepts, how they apply to ladder
logic, how ladder logic is executed and the basic
logic functions that are built into each rung.
• Microprocessors like those used in PLC's and
personal computers function at a binary code level.
You've read of the word 'neutral' presumably. This
applies to the idea that in one of two States,
things should be conceived about. Can describe
the states as:
• 1 or 0
• Real or Negative
• Tall or Low
• On or Off Ladder Diagrams Symbols Explained
• Yes or No
• The ladder logic uses symbolic expressions and a
graphical editor to write and read ladder diagrams
which make it easier for us humans to understand.
If we convert a real-life occurrence into ladder
language we will symbolically articulate it in the
form of a typically open communication (NO). This
occurrence may be anything like clicking a button
or triggering a limit shift.

Ladder Diagram Symbols

• These are special Symbols that are commonly used

in industrial control logic systems. As they
resemble a ladder with two vertical supply power
and as many horizontal lines that represent
control units that's why they are called ladder
diagrams.
• Ladder Diagram Symbols are the building blocks of
ladder diagrams and they are also called ladder
logic symbols. Every Ladder Symbol represents a
certain ladder instruction. We use these symbols
in the PLC programming that have been derived
from relay logic control circuits. Check the
common-used ladder diagram symbols below.