Republic of the Philippines

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY

Ilagan, Isabela

MODULE
SEd Prof 214- FACILITATING LEARNER CENTERED TEACHING

Module 1: Introduction
Unit 1: Metacognition
The word metacognition is such a broad word. In this module, you will
learn the concept of such word and be able to apply metacognition in your
learning throughout the end of this module.

Learning Outcomes
After completing this module, you should be able to:
1. discuss with in- depth knowledge the process of metacognition; and
2. apply metacognitive strategies for learning.
Learning Content
What Is Metacognition?
 Metacognition is one’s ability to use prior knowledge to plan a strategy for
approaching a learning task; take necessary steps to problem solve, reflect on
and evaluate results, and modify one’s approach as needed. It helps learners
choose the right cognitive tool for the task and plays a critical role in
successful learning.
 Metacognition refers to awareness of one’s own knowledge—what one does
and doesn’t know—and one’s ability to understand, control, and manipulate
one’s cognitive processes (Meichenbaum, 1985). It includes knowing when
and where to use particular strategies for learning and problem solving as well
as how and why to use specific strategies. Metacognition is the ability to use
prior knowledge to plan a strategy for approaching a learning task; take
necessary steps to problem solve, reflect on and evaluate results, and modify
one’s approach as needed. Flavell (1976), who first used the term, offers the
following example: I am engaging in Metacognition if I notice that I am having
more trouble learning A than B; if it strikes me that I should double check C
before accepting it as fact (p. 232).
Cognitive strategies are the basic mental abilities we use to think, study,
and learn (e.g., recalling information from memory, analyzing sounds and
images, making associations between or comparing/contrasting different pieces
of information, and making inferences or interpreting text). They help an

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 individual achieve a particular goal, such as comprehending text or solving a
math problem, and they can be individually identified and measured. In
contrast, metacognitive strategies are used to ensure that an overarching
learning goal is being or has been reached.
Elements of Metacognition
Researchers distinguish between metacognitive knowledge and
metacognitive regulation (Flavell, 1979, 1987; Schraw & Dennison, 1994).
Metacognitive knowledge refers to what individuals know about themselves as
cognitive processors, about different approaches that can be used for learning
and problem solving, and about the demands of a particular learning task.
Metacognitive regulation refers to adjustments individuals make to their
processes to help control their learning, such as planning, information
management strategies, comprehension monitoring, de-bugging strategies, and
evaluation of progress and goals. Flavell (1979) further divides metacognitive
knowledge into three categories:
 Person variables: What one recognizes about his or her strengths and
weaknesses in learning and processing information.
 Task variables: What one knows or can figure out about the nature of a task
and the processing demands required to complete the task—for example,
knowledge that it will take more time to read, comprehend, and remember a
technical article than it will a similar-length passage from a novel.
 Strategy variables: The strategies a person has “at the ready” to apply in a
flexible way to successfully accomplish a task; for example, knowing how to
activate prior knowledge before reading a technical article, using a glossary to
look up unfamiliar words, or recognizing that sometimes one has to reread a
paragraph several times before it makes sense.
Livingston (1997) provides an example of all three variables: “I know that I
(person variable) have difficulty with word problems (task variable), so I will
answer the computational problems first and save the word problems for last
(strategy variable).”
Why Teach Metacognitive Skills?
Research shows that metacognitive skills can be taught to students to
improve their learning (Nietfeld & Shraw, 2002; Thiede, Anderson, & Therriault,
2003).
Constructing understanding requires both cognitive and metacognitive
elements. Learners “construct knowledge” using cognitive strategies and they
guide, regulate, and evaluate their learning using metacognitive strategies. It is
through this “thinking about thinking,” this use of metacognitive strategies, that
real learning occurs. As students become more skilled at using metacognitive
strategies, they gain confidence and become more independent as learners.

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 Individuals with well-developed metacognitive skills can think through a
problem or approach a learning task, select appropriate strategies, and make
decisions about a course of action to resolve the problem or successfully
perform the task. They often think about their own thinking processes, taking
time to think about and learn from mistakes or inaccuracies (North Central
Regional Educational Laboratory, 1995). Some instructional programs
encourage students to engage in “metacognitive conversations” with
themselves so that they can “talk” with themselves about their learning, the
challenges they encounter, and the ways in which they can self-correct and
continue learning.
Moreover, individuals who demonstrate a wide variety of metacognitive
skills perform better on exams and complete work more efficiently—they use
the right tool for the job, and they modify learning strategies as needed,
identifying blocks to learning and changing tools or strategies to ensure goal
attainment. Because Metacognition plays a critical role in successful learning, it
is imperative that instructors help learners develop metacognitive.
Metacognitive strategies can be taught (Halpern, 1996), they are
associated with successful learning (Borkowski, Carr, & Pressley, 1987).
Successful learners have a repertoire of strategies to select from and can
transfer them to new settings (Pressley, Borkowski, & Schneider, 1987).
Instructors need to set tasks at an appropriate level of difficulty (i.e., challenging
enough so that students need to apply metacognitive strategies to monitor
success but not so challenging that students become overwhelmed or
frustrated), and instructors need to prompt learners to think about what they are
doing as they complete these tasks (Biemiller & Meichenbaum, 1992).
Instructors should take care not to do the thinking for learners or tell them what
to do because this runs the risk of making students experts at seeking help
rather than experts at thinking about and directing their own learning. Instead,
effective instructors continually prompt learners, asking “What should you do
next?”
McKeachie (1988) found that few college instructors explicitly teach
strategies for monitoring learning. They assume that students have already
learned these strategies in high school. But many have not and are unaware of
the metacognitive process and its importance to learning. Rote memorization is
the usual—and often the only—learning strategy employed by high school
students when they enter college (Nist, 1993). Simpson and Nist (2000), in a
review of the literature on strategic learning, emphasize that instructors need to
provide explicit instruction on the use of study strategies. The implication for
ABE programs is that it is likely that ABE learners need explicit instruction in
both cognitive and metacognitive strategies. They need to know that they have
choices about the strategies they can employ in different contexts, and they
need to monitor their use of and success with these strategies.
Recommended Instructional Strategies

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 Instructors can encourage ABE learners to become more strategic
thinkers by helping them focus on the ways they process information. Self-
questioning, reflective journal writing, and discussing their thought processes
with other learners are among the ways that teachers can encourage learners
to examine and develop their metacognitive processes.
Fogarty (1994) suggests that Metacognition is a process that spans three
distinct phases, and that, to be successful thinkers, students must do the
following:
 Develop a plan before approaching a learning task, such as reading for
comprehension or solving a math problem.
 Monitor their understanding; use “fix-up” strategies when meaning breaks
down.
 Evaluate their thinking after completing the task.
Goals of teaching Metacognitive Skills
Instructors can model the application of questions, and they can prompt
learners to ask themselves questions during each phase. They can incorporate
into lesson plans opportunities for learners to practice using these questions
during learning tasks, as illustrated in the following examples:
1. During the planning phase, learners can ask, what am I supposed to
learn? What prior knowledge will help me with this task? What should I do first?
What should I look for in this reading? How much time do I have to complete
this? In what direction do I want my thinking to take me?
2. During the monitoring phase, learners can ask, how am I doing? Am I
on the right track? How should I proceed? What information is important to
remember? Should I move in a different direction? Should I adjust the pace
because of the difficulty? What can I do if I do not understand?
3. During the evaluation phase, learners can ask, How well did I do? What
did I learn? Did I get the results I expected? What could I have done
differently? Can I apply this way of thinking to other problems or situations? Is
there anything I don’t understand—any gaps in my knowledge? Do I need to go
back through the task to fill in any gaps in understanding? How might I apply
this line of thinking to other problems?
Rather than viewing reading, writing, science, social studies, and math
only as subjects or content to be taught, instructors can see them as
opportunities for learners to reflect on their learning processes. Examples follow
for each content area:
 Reading: Teach learners how to ask questions during reading and model
“think aloud.” Ask learners questions during read-aloud and teach them to
monitor their reading by constantly asking themselves if they understand what
the text is about. Teach them to take notes or highlight important details,

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 asking themselves, “Why is this key phrase to highlight?” and “Why am I not
highlighting this?”
 Writing: Model prewriting strategies for organizing thoughts, such as
brainstorming ideas using a word web, or using a graphic organizer to put
ideas into paragraphs, with the main idea at the top and the supporting details
below it.
 Social Studies and Science: Teach learners the importance of using
organizers such as KWL charts, Venn diagrams, concept maps, and
anticipation/reaction charts to sort information and help them learn and
understand content. Learners can use organizers prior to a task to focus their
attention on what they already know and identify what they want to learn.
They can use a Venn diagram to identify similarities and differences between
two related concepts.
 Math: Teach learners to use mnemonics to recall steps in a process, such as
the order of mathematical operations. Model your thought processes in
solving problems.
The goal of teaching metacognitive strategies is to help learners become
comfortable with these strategies so that they employ them automatically to
learning tasks, focusing their attention, deriving meaning, and making
adjustments if something goes wrong. They do not think about these skills while
performing them but, if asked what they are doing, they can usually accurately
describe their metacognitive processes.
Teaching and Learning Activities
 Present a situation or scenario and use metacognitive skills to solve the
problem or situation
 Identify a situation based on your experiences and how you can cope
with the challenges
Learning materials and resources for supplementary reading.
 Handouts (pdf) upload
Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted
Asynchronous and Synchronous

For the written activity, you may answer it through Google classroom, and for
those who wish to have a hard copy, you may get a copy of this at my drop box at
ISU- Security Guard House.

Assessment Task

Guide Questions

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 1. Explain your understanding about metacognition? How it differs from your
perspective after reading the module?
2. What is the significance of metacognition in education?
3. Why is there a need to understand and realize the importance of
metacognition in the learning process?
4. How do metacognitive skills affect the learning process of the students?
5. Cite an example where metacognition is applied in real life situation?

References
A. Books
• Biemiller, A., & Meichenbaum, D. (1992). The nature and nurture of the self-
directed learner. Educational Leadership, 50, 75–80. Retrieved November 17,
2019.
 Borkowski, J., Carr, M., & Pressely, M. (1987). “Spontaneous” strategy use:
Perspectives from metacognitive theory. Intelligence, 11, 61–75. Retrieved
November 17, 2019.
 Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of
cognitive-developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34, 906–911.
Retrieved November 17, 2019.
 Flavell, J. H. (1976). Metacognitive aspects of problem solving. In L. B.
Resnick (Ed.), The nature of intelligence (pp. 231–236). Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Retrieved November 17, 2019.
 Fogarty, R. (1994). How to teach for metacognition. Palatine, IL: IRI/Skylight
Publishing. Retrieved November 17, 2019.
 Halpern, D. F. (1996). Thought and knowledge: An introduction to critical
thinking. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Retrieved November
17, 2019.
 Livingston, J. A. (1997). Metacognition: An overview. Retrieved November
17, 2019.
 Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition
Process: Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 17, 2019.
 McKeachie, W. J. (1988). The need for study strategy training. In C. E.
Weinstein, E. T. Goetz, & P. A. Alexander (Eds.), Learning and study
strategies: Issues in assessment, instruction, and evaluation (pp. 3–9). New
York: Academic Press. Retrieved November 17, 2019.
 Meichenbaum, D. (1985). Teaching thinking: A cognitive-behavioral
perspective. In S. F., Chipman, J. W. Segal, & R. Glaser (Eds.), Thinking and
learning skills, Vol. 2: Research and open questions. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates. Retrieved November 17, 2019.

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  Nietfeld, J. L., & Shraw, G. (2002). The effect of knowledge and strategy
explanation on monitoring accuracy. Journal of Educational Research, 95,
131–142. Retrieved November 17, 2019.
 Nist, S. (1993). What the literature says about academic literacy. Georgia
Journal of Reading, Fall-Winter, 11–18.
 North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. (1995). Strategic teaching
and reading project guidebook. Retrieved November 17, 2019.
 Pressley, M., Borkowski, J. G., & Schneider, W. (1987). Cognitive
strategies: Good strategy users coordinate metacognition and knowledge. In
R. Vasta, & G. Whitehurst (Eds.), Annals of child development, 4, 80–129.
Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

Unit 2: Learner-Centered Psychological Principles

Topic 1: Cognitive and metacognitive Factors
Throughout its history, psychology has provided vital information for the
design of schooling based on theory and research on human learning, development,
and motivation. Research in psychology relevant to education has been particularly
informative during the past decade. Advances in our understanding of thinking,
memory, and cognitive and motivational processes can contribute directly to
improvements in teaching, learning, and the whole enterprise of schooling. At the
same time, educators concerned with the growing problems of school dropout, low
levels of academic achievement, and other indicators of school failure are arguing for
more learner-centered models of schooling. Such models attend to the diversity
among students, and use this diversity to enrich learning and to produce results
within the context of current school reform.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the unit, you should be able to:
1. contextualize the 14 Learner- Centered Psychological principles; and
2. advocate the use and significance of the 14 principles in the teaching-
learning process
Learning Content

COGNITIVE AND
METACOGNITIVE FACTORS

LEARNER-CENTERED
MOTIVATION AND PSYCHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTAL
AFFECTIVE PRINCIPLES FACTORS
FACTORS

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 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
FACTORS
The 14 learner-Centered Psychological Principles

The following 14 psychological factors pertain to the learner and the learning
process. They focus on psychological factors that are primarily internal to and under
the control of the learner rather than biological factors. However, the principles also
attempt to acknowledge external environment or contextual factors that interact with
these internal factors.

The principles are intended to deal holistically with learners in the context of
real-world learning situations. Thus, they are best understood as an organized set of
principles; no principle should be viewed in isolation. The 14 principles are divided
into those referring to cognitive and metacognitive, motivational and affective,
developmental and social, and individual difference factors influencing learners and
learning.
Finally, the principles are intended to apply to all learners-from children, to
teachers, to administrators, to parents, and to community members involved in our
educational system.
Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors
Nature of the learning process
The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an
intentional process of constructing meaning from information and experience.
There are different types of learning processes; for example, habit formation
in motor learning and learning that involves the generation of knowledge or cognitive
skills, and learning strategies. Learning in schools emphasizes the use of intentional
processes that students can use to construct meaning from information,
experiences, and their own thoughts and beliefs. Successful learners are active,
goal-directed, self-regulating, and assume personal responsibility for contributing to
their own learning.
Goals of the learning process
The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance,
can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
The strategic nature of learning requires students to be goal directed. To
construct useful representations of knowledge and to acquire the thinking and
learning strategies necessary for continued learning success across the life span,
students must generate and pursue personally relevant goals. Initially, students’
short-term goals and learning may be sketchy in an area, but over time their
understanding can be refined by filling gaps, resolving inconsistencies, and
deepening their understanding of the subject matter so that they can reach longer-

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term goals. Educators can assist learners in creating meaningful learning goals that
are consistent with both personal and educational aspirations and interests.

Construction of knowledge
The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in
meaningful ways.
Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build links between
new information and experiences and their existing knowledge base. The nature of
these links can take a variety of forms, such as adding to, modifying, or reorganizing
existing knowledge or skills. How these links are made or develop may vary in
different subject areas and among students with varying talents, interests, and
abilities. However, unless new knowledge becomes integrated with the learner’s
prior knowledge and understanding, this new knowledge remains isolated, cannot be
used most effectively in new tasks, and does not transfer readily to new situations.
Educators can assist learners in acquiring and integrating knowledge by a number of
strategies that have been shown to be effective with learners of varying abilities,
such as correct mapping and thematic organization or categorizing.
Strategic thinking
The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and
reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals.
Successful learners use strategic thinking in their approach to learning,
reasoning, problem solving, and concept learning. They understand and can use a
variety of strategies to help them reach learning and performance goals, and to apply
their knowledge in novel situations. They also continue to expand their repertoire of
strategies by reflecting on the methods they use to see which work well for them, by
receiving guided instruction and feedback, and by observing or interacting with
appropriate models. Learning outcomes can be enhanced if educators assist
learners in developing, applying, and assessing their strategic learning skills.
Thinking about thinking
Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations
facilitate creative and critical thinking.
Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set reasonable
learning or performance goals, select potentially appropriate learning strategies or
methods, and monitor their progress toward these goals. In addition, successful
learners know what to do if a problem occurs or if they are not making sufficient or
timely progress toward a goal. They can generate alternative methods to reach their
goal (or reassess the appropriateness and utility of the goal). Instructional methods
that focus on helping learners develop this higher order (metacognitive) strategies
can enhance student learning and personal responsibility for learning.

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Context of learning
Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology,
and instructional practices.
Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Teachers play a major interactive role
with both the learner and the learning environment. Cultural or group influences on
students can impact many educationally relevant variables, such as motivation,
orientation toward learning, and ways of thinking. Technologies and instructional
practices must be appropriate for learners’ level of prior knowledge, cognitive
abilities, and their learning and thinking strategies. The classroom environment,
particularly the degree to which it is nurturing or not, can also has significant impacts
on student learning.
Motivational and Affective Factors
Motivational and emotional influences on learning
What and how much is learned is influenced by the learner’s motivation.
Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the individual’s emotional states, beliefs,
interests and goals, and habits of thinking.
The rich internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals, and expectations for
success or failure can enhance or interfere with the learner’s quality of thinking and
information processing. Students’ beliefs about themselves as learners and the
nature of learning have a marked influence on motivation. Motivational and
emotional factors also influence both the quality of thinking and information
processing as well as an individual’s motivation to learn. Positive emotions, such as
curiosity, generally enhance motivation and facilitate learning and performance. Mild
anxiety can also enhance learning and performance by focusing the learner’s
attention on a particular task. However, intense negative emotions (e.g., anxiety,
panic, rage, insecurity) and relative thoughts (e.g., worrying about competence,
ruminating about failure, fearing punishment, ridicule or stigmatizing labels) generally
detract from motivation, interfere with learning, and contribute to low performance.
Intrinsic motivation to learn
The learner’s creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all
contribute to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal
novelty and difficulty relevant to personal interests, and providing for personal choice
of control.
Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking, and creativity are major indicators of
the learners’ intrinsic motivation to learn, which is in large part a function of meeting
basic needs to be competent and to exercise personal control. Intrinsic motivation is
facilitated on tasks that learners perceive as interesting and personally relevant and
meaningful, appropriate in complexity and difficulty to the learners’ abilities, and on
which they believe they can succeed. Intrinsic motivation is also facilitated on tasks
that are comparable to real-world situations and meet needs for choice and control.
Educators can encourage and support learners’ natural curiosity and motivation to

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learn by attending to individual differences in learners’ perception of optimal novelty
and difficulty, relevance, and personal choice and control.
Effects of motivation and effort
Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort
and guided practice.
Without learners’ motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this effort is
unlikely without coercion. Effort is another main indicator of motivation to learn. The
acquisition of complex knowledge and skills demands the investment of considerable
learner energy and strategic effort, along with persistence over time. Educators need
to be concerned with facilitating motivation by strategies that enhance learner effort
and commitment to learning and to achieving high standards of comprehension and
understanding. Effective strategies include purposeful learning activities, guided by
practices that enhance positive emotions and intrinsic motivation to learn, and
methods that increase learners’ perceptions that a task is interesting and personally
relevant.
Developmental influences on learning
As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for
learning. Learning is most effective when differential development within and across
physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains is taken into account.
Individuals learn best when material is appropriate to their developmental
level and is presented in an enjoyable and interesting way. Because individual
development varies across intellectual, social, emotional, and physical domains,
achievement in different instructional domains may also vary. Overemphasis on
one’s type of developmental readiness–such as reading readiness, for example–may
preclude learners from demonstrating that they are more capable in other areas of
performance. The cognitive, emotional and social development of individual learners
and how they interpret life experiences are affected by prior schooling, home,
culture, and community factors. Early and continuing parental involvement in
schooling and the quality of language interactions and two-way communications
between adults and children can influence these developmental areas. Awareness
and understanding of developmental differences among children with and without
emotional, physical, or intellectual disabilities can facilitate the creation of optimal
learning contexts.

Social influences on learning

Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and
communication with others.
Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to interact
and to collaborate with others on instructional tasks. Learning settings that allow for
social interactions, and that respect diversity, encourage flexible thinking and social
competence. In interactive and collaborative instructional contexts, individuals have

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an opportunity for perspective taking and reflective thinking that may lead to higher
levels of cognitive, social, and moral development, as well as self-esteem. Quality
personal relationships that provide stability trust, and caring can increase learners’
sense of belonging, self-respect and self-acceptance, and provide a positive climate
for learning. Family influences, positive interpersonal support and instruction in self-
motivation strategies can offset factors that interfere with optimal learning such as
negative beliefs about competence in a particular subject, high levels of test anxiety,
negative sex role expectations, and unique pressure to perform well. Positive
learning climates can also help to establish the context for healthier levels of
thinking, feeling, and behaving. Such contexts help learners feel safe to share ideas,
actively participate in the learning process, and create a learning community.

Individual Differences Factors

Individual differences in learning
Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning
that are a function of prior experience and heredity.
Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities and talents. In
addition, through learning and social acculturation, they have acquired their own
preferences for how they like to learn and the pace at which they learn. However,
these preferences are not always useful in helping learners reach their learning
goals. Educators need to help students examine their learning preferences and
expand or modify them, if necessary. The interaction between learner differences
and curricular and environmental conditions is another key factor affecting learning
outcomes. Educators need to be sensitive to individual differences, in general. They
also need to attend to learner perceptions of the degree to which these differences
are accredited and adapted to by varying instructional methods and materials.
Learning and diversity
Learning is most effective when differences in learners’ linguistic, cultural, and
social backgrounds are taken into account.
The same basic principles of learning, motivation, and effective instruction
apply to all learners. However, language, ethnicity, race, beliefs, and socioeconomic
status all can influence learning. Careful attention to these factors in the instructional
setting enhances the possibilities for designing and implementing appropriate
learning environments. When learners perceive that their individual differences in
abilities, backgrounds, cultures, and experiences are valued, respected, and
accommodated in learning tasks and contexts, levels of motivation and achievement
are enhanced.
Standards and assessment
Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the
learner as well as learning progress including diagnostic, process, and outcome
assessment are integral parts of the learning process.

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 Assessment provides important information to both the learner and teacher at
all stages of the learning process. Effective learning takes place when learners feel
challenged to work towards appropriately high goals. Therefore, appraisal of the
learner’s cognitive strengths and weaknesses, as well as current knowledge and
skills, is important for the selection of instructional materials of an optimal degree of
difficulty. On-going assessment of the learner’s understanding of the curricular
material can provide valuable feedback to both learners and teachers about progress
toward the learning goals. Standardized assessment of learner progress and
outcomes assessment provides one type of information about achievement levels
both within and across individuals that can inform various types of programmatic
decisions. Performance assessments can provide other sources of information about
the attainment of learning outcomes. Self-assessments of learning progress can also
improve students’ self-appraisal skills and enhance motivation and self-directed
learning.
Teaching and Learning Activities
 Ask the students to discuss and give situations which they can apply based
on the learner- centered psychological principles
(Topic was assigned as reading assignment)
Learning materials and resources for supplementary reading.
Reading text (pdf)
Open Educational Sources
Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted
 Google classroom
 Module, exercises
Assessment Task

Guide Questions

1. What is the importance of the LCP in the development of the learning?

2. As a learner, how will you apply the LCP?

3. What do you think the reason/s why they created this framework?

Activity 1:
Construct a paragraph that states the difficulties/problems you’ve encountered upon
learning and how would you apply the LCP to address those difficulties?
Rubrics:
Content: 50%

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Organization: 50%
Total 100%
A. Identify what principle is being asked on the following.
__________1. The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of
thinking and reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals”.
__________2. Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including
culture, technology, and instructional practices.
__________3. Learners have different strategies, approaches, and
capabilities for learning.
__________4. Learning is most effective when differences in learner’s
linguistic, cultural, and
Social backgrounds are taken into account.
__________5. Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal
relations, and communication with others.
References
A. Book
 Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition
Process: Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 17, 2019.
B. Website
 https://www.cdl.org/articles/learner-centered-psychological-principles/.
Retrieved November 17, 2019.

Module 2: Focus on the learner

Unit 1: Review of the Development Theories
Topic 1: Review of the theories related to the learners’ Development
This module introduces you the different theories that are related to the
learner’s development. It includes Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory of
Development, Erik Erikson's 8 Psychosocial Stages of Development, Jean Piaget’s 4
Stages of Cognitive Development, Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development,
Vygotsky on Language and Zone of Proximal Development and Bronfenbrenner’s
Ecological Model.
Learning Outcomes
After completing this module, you should be able to:
1. examine the different developmental theories and its implications to child
care, parenting and the teaching- learning process; and

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 2. compare and contrast the developmental theories and its implications to
child care, parenting and the teaching- learning process

Learning Content
Overview of Psychosexual Theory of Development
Freud believes that personality developed through a series of childhood
stages in which the pleasure-seeking energies of the Id become focused on certain
erogenous areas. An erogenous zones is characterized as an area of the body that
is particularly sensitive to stimulation. During the five psychosexual stages, which are
the oral, anal, phallic, latent and genital stages, the erogenous zone associated with
each stage serves as a source of pleasure.
Freud viewed development as discontinuous, he believed that each of us
must pass through a serious of stages during childhood, and that we lack proper
nurturance and parenting during a stage, we may became stuck, or fixated, in that
stage.

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development

The Oral Stage
Age Range: Birth to 1 Year
Erogenous Zone: Mouth
During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through
the mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important. The mouth is
vital for eating, and the infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through
gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking. Because the infant is entirely
dependent upon caretakers (who are responsible for feeding the child), the child also
develops a sense of trust and comfort through this oral stimulation.
The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child must
become less dependent upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud
believed the individual would have issues with dependency or aggression. Oral
fixation can result in problems with drinking, eating, smoking, or nail-biting.
The Anal Stage
Age Range: 1 to 3 years
Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control

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 During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was
on controlling bladder and bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet
training--the child has to learn to control his or her bodily needs. Developing this
control leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence.
According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the way in which
parents approach toilet training. Parents who utilize praise and rewards for using the
toilet at the appropriate time encourage positive outcomes and help children feel
capable and productive. Freud believed that positive experiences during this stage
served as the basis for people to become competent, productive, and creative
adults.
However, not all parents provide the support and encouragement that children
need during this stage. Some parents instead punish, ridicule or shame a child for
accidents.
According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can result in negative
outcomes. If parents take an approach that is too lenient, Freud suggested that an
anal-expulsive personality could develop in which the individual has a messy,
wasteful, or destructive personality. If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too
early, Freud believed that an anal-retentive personality develops in which the
individual is stringent, orderly, rigid, and obsessive.
The Phallic Stage
Age Range: 3 to 6 Years
Erogenous Zone: Genitals
Freud suggested that during the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido
is on the genitals. At this age, children also begin to discover the differences
between males and females.
Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the
mother’s affections. The Oedipus complex describes these feelings of wanting to
possess the mother and the desire to replace the father. However, the child also
fears that he will be punished by the father for these feelings, a fear Freud termed
castration anxiety.
The term Electra complex has been used to describe a similar set of feelings
experienced by young girls. Freud, however, believed that girls instead experience
penis envy.
Eventually, the child begins to identify with the same-sex parent as a means
of vicariously possessing the other parent. For girls, however, Freud believed that
penis envy was never fully resolved and that all women remain somewhat fixated on
this stage. Psychologists such as Karen Horney disputed this theory, calling it both
inaccurate and demeaning to women. Instead, Horney proposed that men
experience feelings of inferiority because they cannot give birth to children, a
concept she referred to as womb envy.
The Latent Period
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Age Range: 6 to Puberty
Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive
During this stage, the superego continues to develop while the id's energies
are suppressed. Children develop social skills, values and relationships with peers
and adults outside of the family.
The development of the ego and superego contribute to this period of calm.
The stage begins around the time that children enter into school and become more
concerned with peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests.
The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy repressed
or dormant. This energy is still present, but it is sublimated into other areas such as
intellectual pursuits and social interactions. This stage is important in the
development of social and communication skills and self-confidence.
As with the other psychosexual stages, Freud believed that it was possible for
children to become fixated or "stuck" in this phase. Fixation at this stage can result in
immaturity and an inability to form fulfilling relationships as an adult.

The Genital Stage

Age Range: Puberty to Death
Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests
The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once again. During
the final stage of psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong sexual
interest in the opposite sex. This stage begins during puberty but last throughout the
rest of a person's life.
Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs, interest in
the welfare of others grows during this stage. The goal of this stage is to establish a
balance between the various life areas. If the other stages have been completed
successfully, the individual should now be well-balanced, warm, and caring.
Unlike the many of the earlier stages of development, Freud believed that the
ego and superego were fully formed and functioning at this point. Younger children
are ruled by the id, which demands immediate satisfaction of the most basic needs
and wants. Teens in the genital stage of development are able to balance their most
basic urges against the need to conform to the demands of reality and social norms.

Erik Erikson's 8 Psychosocial Stages of Development

Background and key Concepts of Erikson’s Theory

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 Erik Erikson was an ego psychologist who developed one of the most popular
and influential theories of development. Erikson's theory focused on psychosocial
development rather than psychosexual development. The stages that make up his

What is Psychosocial Development?

So what exactly did Erikson's theory of psychosocial development entail?
Much like Sigmund Freud, Erikson believed that personality developed in a series of
stages. Unlike Freud's theory of psychosexual stages, Erikson's theory described the
impact of social experience across the whole lifespan. Erikson was interested in how
social interaction and relationships played a role in the development and growth of
human beings.
Each stage in Erikson's theory builds on the preceding stages and paves the
way for following periods of development. In each stage, Erikson believed people
experience a conflict that serves as a turning point in development. In Erikson's view,
these conflicts are centered on either developing a psychological quality or failing to
develop that quality. During these times, the potential for personal growth is high but
so is the potential for failure.
If people successfully deal with the conflict, they emerge from the stage with
psychological strengths that will serve them well for the rest of their lives. If they fail
to deal effectively with these conflicts, they may not develop the essential skills
needed for a strong sense of self.
Erikson also believed that a sense of competence motivates behaviors and
actions. Each stage in Erikson's theory is concerned with becoming competent in an
area of life. If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery,
which is sometimes referred to as ego strength or ego quality. If the stage is
managed poorly, the person will emerge with a sense of inadequacy in that aspect of
development.

Erikson’s 8 Psychosocial Stages of Development

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Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust
The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs
between birth and one year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life.
Because an infant is utterly dependent, developing trust is based on the
dependability and quality of the child's caregivers. At this point in development, the
child is utterly dependent upon adult caregivers for everything that he or she needs
to survive including food, love, warmth, safety, and nurturing. If a caregiver fails to
provide adequate care and love, the child will come to feel that he or she cannot trust
or depend upon the adults in his or her life.
If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the
world. Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting
contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children under their care. Failure to develop
trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.
No child is going to develop a sense of 100 per cent trust or 100 per cent
doubt. Erikson believed that successful development was all about striking a balance
between the two opposing sides. When this happens, children acquire hope, which
Erikson described as openness to experience tempered by some wariness that
danger may be present.
Psychosocial Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes
place during early childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense
of personal control.
At this point in development, children are just starting to gain a little
independence. They are starting to perform basic actions on their own and making
simple decisions about what they prefer. By allowing kids to make choices and gain
control, parents and caregivers can help children develop a sense of autonomy.
Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process.
However, Erikson's reasoning was quite different than that of Freud's. Erikson
believed that learning to control one's bodily functions leads to a feeling of control
and a sense of independence.
Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy
preferences, and clothing selection.
Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident,
while those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt. Erikson
believed that achieving a balance between autonomy and shame and doubt would
lead to will, which is the belief that children can act with intention, within reason and
limits.
Psychosocial Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilt
The third stage of psychosocial development takes place during the preschool
years.

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 At this point in psychosocial development, children begin to assert their power
and control over the world through directing play and other social interactions.
Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others.
Those who fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and
lack of initiative. When an ideal balance of individual initiative and a willingness to
work with others is achieved, the ego quality known as purpose emerges.
Psychosocial Stage 4 - Industry vs. Inferiority
The fourth psychosocial stage takes place during the early school years from
approximately age 5 to 11.Through social interactions, children begin to develop a
sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities. Children who are encouraged
and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of competence and
belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents,
teachers, or peers will doubt their abilities to be successful.
Successfully finding a balance at this stage of psychosocial development
leads to the strength known as competence, in which children develop a belief their
abilities to handle the tasks set before them.
Psychosocial Stage 5 - Identity vs. Confusion
The fifth psychosocial stage takes place during the often turbulent teenage
years. This stage plays an essential role in developing a sense of personal identity
which will continue to influence behaviour and development for the rest of a person's
life.
During adolescence, children explore their independence and develop a
sense of self. Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through
personal exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and
feelings of independence and control. Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and
desires will feel insecure and confused about themselves and the future.
When psychologists talk about identity, they are referring to all of the beliefs,
ideals, and values that help shape and guide a person's behaviour. Completing this
stage successfully leads to fidelity, which Erikson described as an ability to live by
society's standards and expectations.
While Erikson believed that each stage of psychosocial development was
important, he placed a particular emphasis on the development of ego identity. Ego
identity is the conscious sense of self that we develop through social interaction and
becomes a central focus during the identity versus confusion stage of psychosocial
development.
According to Erikson, our ego identity constantly changes due to new
experiences and information we acquire in our daily interactions with others. As we
have new experiences, we also take on challenges that can help or hinder the
development of identity.
Our personal identity gives each of us an integrated and cohesive sense of
self that endures through our lives. Our sense of personal identity is shaped by our

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experiences and interactions with others, and it is this identity that helps guide our
actions, beliefs, and behaviours as we age.
Psychosocial Stage 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation
This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring
personal relationships.
Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed
relationships with other people. Those who are successful at this step will form
relationships that are enduring and secure.
Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson
believed that a strong sense of personal identity was important for developing
intimate relationships. Studies have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of
self do tend to have less committed relationships and are more likely to suffer
emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression. Successful resolution of this stage
results in the virtue known as love. It is marked by the ability to form lasting,
meaningful relationships with other people.
Psychosocial Stage 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation
During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and
family. Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing
to the world by being active in their home and community. Those who fail to attain
this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world.
Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled successfully. Being
proud of your accomplishments, watching your children grow into adults, and
developing a sense of unity with your life partner are important accomplishments of
this stage.
Psychosocial Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair
The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is focused on
reflecting back on life.
At this point in development, people look back on the events of their lives and
determine if they are happy with the life that they lived or if they regret the things
they did or didn't do.
Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has been
wasted and will experience many regrets. The individual will be left with feelings of
bitterness and despair.
Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity.
Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a
general feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attain wisdom, even when
confronting death.

Jean Piaget’s 4 Stages of Cognitive Development

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Background and key Concepts of Piaget’s Theory
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move
through four different stages of mental development. His theory focuses not only on
understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the
nature of intelligence. Piaget's stages are:
 Sensorimotor Stage: birth to 2 years
 Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7
 Concrete Operational Stage: ages 7 to 11
 Formal Operational Stage: ages 12 and up
Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting
much like little scientists as they perform experiments, make observations, and learn
about the world. As kids interact with the world around them, they continually add
new knowledge, build upon existing knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to
accommodate new information.
How Piaget Developed the Theory
Piaget was born in Switzerland in the late 1800s and was a precocious
student, publishing his first scientific paper when he was just 11 years old. His early
exposure to the intellectual development of children came when he worked as an
assistant to Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon as they worked to standardize their
famous IQ test.
Much of Piaget's interest in the cognitive development of children was inspired
by his observations of his own nephew and daughter. These observations reinforced
his budding hypothesis that children's minds were not merely smaller versions of
adult minds.
Up until this point in history, children were largely treated simply as smaller
versions of adults. Piaget was one of the first to identify that the way that children
think is different from the way adults think.
Instead, he proposed, intelligence is something that grows and develops
through a series of stages. Older children do not just think more quickly than younger
children, he suggested. Instead, there are both qualitative and quantitative
differences between the thinking of young children versus older children.
Based on his observations, he concluded that children were not less
intelligent than adults, they simply think differently. Albert Einstein called Piaget's
discovery "so simple only a genius could have thought of it."
Piaget's stage theory describes the cognitive development of children.
Cognitive development involves changes in cognitive process and abilities. In
Piaget's view, early cognitive development involves processes based upon actions
and later progresses to changes in mental operations.
The Stages

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 Through his observations of his children, Piaget developed a stage theory of
intellectual development that included four distinct stages:
1. The Sensorimotor Stage: Ages: Birth to 2 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers
acquire knowledge through sensory experiences and manipulating objects. A child's
entire experience at the earliest period of this stage occurs through basic reflexes,
senses, and motor responses.
It is during the sensorimotor stage that children go through a period of
dramatic growth and learning. As kids interact with their environment, they are
continually making new discoveries about how the world works.
The cognitive development that occurs during this period takes place over a
relatively short period of time and involves a great deal of growth. Children not only
learn how to perform physical actions such as crawling and walking; they also learn
a great deal about language from the people with whom they interact. Piaget also
broke this stage down into a number of different sub stages. It is during the final part
of the sensorimotor stage that early representational thought emerges.
Piaget believed that developing object permanence or object constancy, the
understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, was an
important element at this point of development.
By learning that objects are separate and distinct entities and that they have
an existence of their own outside of individual perception, children are then able to
begin to attach names and words to objects.
Object Permanence
 Ability attained in this stage where he knows that an object still exists even
when out of sight.
2. The Preoperational Stage: Ages 2 to 7 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
The foundations of language development may have been laid during the
previous stage, but it is the emergence of language that is one of the major
hallmarks of the preoperational stage of development.
Children become much more skilled at pretend play during this stage of
development, yet continue to think very concretely about the world around them. At
this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with logic and taking the
point of view of other people. They also often struggle with understanding the idea of
constancy. For example, a researcher might take a lump of clay, divide it into two
equal pieces, and then give a child the choice between two pieces of clay to play
with. One piece of clay is rolled into a compact ball while the other is smashed into a

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flat pancake shape. Since the flat shape looks larger, the preoperational child will
likely choose that piece even though the two pieces are exactly the same size.
Symbolic Function
 The ability to represent objects and events.
Egocentrism
 The tendency of a child to only see his point of view and assume that
everyone else also has his same point of view.

Centration
 The tendency of the child to only focus on one thing or event and exclude
other aspects.
Lack of Conservation
 The inability to realize that some things remain unchanged despite looking
different.
Irreversibility
 Pre-operational children still have the inability to reverse their thinking.
Animism
 The tendency of the child to attribute human like traits to inanimate objects.
3. The Concrete Operational Stage: Ages 7 to 11 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes
While children are still very concrete and literal in their thinking at this point in
development, they become much more adept at using logic. The egocentrism of the
previous stage begins to disappear as kids become better at thinking about how
other people might view a situation. While thinking becomes much more logical
during the concrete operational state, it can also be very rigid. Kids at this point in
development tend to struggle with abstract and hypothetical concepts.
During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think
about how other people might think and feel. Kids in the concrete operational stage
also begin to understand that their thoughts are unique to them and that not
everyone else necessarily shares their thoughts, feelings, and opinions.
Decentering
 The ability of the child to perceive the different features of objects and
situations.
Reversibility
 The ability of the child to follow that certain operations can be done in reverse.

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Conservations
 The ability to know that certain properties of objects like numbers, mass,
volume or area do not change even if there is a change in appearance.
Seriation
 The ability to arrange things in a series based on our dimensions such as
weight, volume, size, etc.
4. The Formal Operational Stage: Ages 12 and Up
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to
use deductive reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas. At this point,
people become capable of seeing multiple potential solutions to problems and think
more scientifically about the world around them.
The ability to thinking about abstract ideas and situations is the key hallmark
of the formal operational stage of cognitive development. The ability to systematically
plan for the future and reason about hypothetical situations are also critical abilities
that emerge during this stage.
It is important to note that Piaget did not view children's intellectual
development as a quantitative process; that is, kids do not just add more information
and knowledge to their existing knowledge as they get older. Instead, Piaget
suggested that there is a qualitative change in how children think as they gradually
process through these four stages. A child at age 7 doesn't just have more
information about the world than he did at age 2; there is a fundamental change in
how he thinks about the world.
Hypothetical Reasoning
 The ability to come up with different hypothesis about a problem and weigh
data to make a judgement.
Analogical Reasoning
 Ability to perceive the relationship in one instance and use that relationship to
narrow down possible answers in similar problems.
Deductive Reasoning
 Ability to think logically by applying a general rule to a particular situation.

Kohlberg 3 Stages and 6 Sub stages of Moral Development

Concepts to Kohlberg Moral Development

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 Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on the earlier work
of cognitive theorist Jean Piaget to explain the moral
development of children, which he believed follows a series
of stages. Kohlberg’s theory of moral development states
that we progress through three levels of moral
thinking that build on our cognitive development.
Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on the earlier work
of cognitive theorist Jean Piaget to explain the moral
development of children. Kohlberg believed that moral
development, like cognitive development, follows a series
of stages. He used the idea of moral dilemmas—stories that present conflicting ideas
about two moral values—to teach 10 to 16 year-old boys about morality and values.
The best known moral dilemma created by Kohlberg is the “Heinz” dilemma, which
discusses the idea of obeying the law versus saving a life. Kohlberg emphasized that
it is the way an individual reasons about a dilemma that determines positive moral
development.
After presenting people with various moral dilemmas, Kohlberg reviewed
people’s responses and placed them in different stages of moral reasoning.
According to Kohlberg, an individual progresses from the capacity from pre-
conventional morality (before age 9) to the capacity for conventional morality (early
adolescence), and towards attaining post-conventional morality (once Piaget’s idea
of formal operational thought is attained), with only a few fully achieve. Each level of
morality contains two stages, which provide the basis for moral development in
various.

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Kohlberg identified three levels of moral reasoning: pre-conventional,
conventional, and post-conventional. Each level is associated with increasingly
complex stages of moral development.
Level 1: Preconventional
Throughout the preconventional level, a child’s sense of morality is externally
controlled. Children accept and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parents
and teachers. A child with pre-conventional morality has not yet adopted or
internalized society’s conventions regarding what is right or wrong, but instead
focuses largely on external consequences that certain actions may bring.
Stage 1: Obedience-and-Punishment Orientation
Stage 1 focuses on the child’s desire to obey rules and avoid being punished.
For example, an action is perceived as morally wrong because the perpetrator is
punished; the worse the punishment for the act is, the more “bad” the act is
perceived to be.
Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation

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 Stage 2 expresses the “what’s in it for me?” position, in which right behavior is
defined by whatever the individual believes to be in their best interest. Stage two
reasoning shows a limited interest in the needs of others, only to the point where it
might further the individual’s own interests. As a result, concern for others is not
based on loyalty or intrinsic respect, but rather a “you scratch my back, and I’ll
scratch yours” mentality. An example would be when a child is asked by his parents
to do a chore. The child asks “what’s in it for me?” and the parents offer the child
an incentive by giving him an allowance.
Level 2: Conventional
Throughout the conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is tied to
personal and societal relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority
figures, but this is now due to their belief that this is necessary to ensure positive
relationships and societal order. Adherence to rules and conventions is somewhat
rigid during these stages, and a rule’s appropriateness or fairness is seldom
questioned.
Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation
In stage 3, children want the approval of others and act in ways to avoid
disapproval. Emphasis is placed on good behaviour and people being “nice” to
others.
Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation
In stage 4, the child blindly accepts rules and convention because of their
importance in maintaining a functioning society. Rules are seen as being the same
for everyone, and obeying rules by doing what one is “supposed” to do is seen as
valuable and important. Moral reasoning in stage four is beyond the need for
individual approval exhibited in stage three. If one person violates a law, perhaps
everyone would—thus there is an obligation and a duty to uphold laws and rules.
Most active members of society remain at stage four, where morality is still
predominantly dictated by an outside force.
Level 3: Post conventional
Throughout the post conventional level, a person’s sense of morality is
defined in terms of more abstract principles and values. People now believe that
some laws are unjust and should be changed or eliminated. This level is marked by
a growing realization that individuals are separate entities from society and that
individuals may disobey rules inconsistent with their own principles. Post-
conventional moralists live by their own ethical principles—principles that typically
include such basic human rights as life, liberty, and justice—and view rules as useful
but changeable mechanisms, rather than absolute dictates that must be obeyed
without question. Because post conventional individual elevate their own moral
evaluation of a situation over social conventions, their behaviour, especially at stage
six, can sometimes be confused with that of those at the pre-conventional level.
Some theorists have speculated that many people may never reach this level of
abstract moral reasoning.

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Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation
In stage 5, the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights, and
values. Such perspectives should be mutually respected as unique to each person or
community. Laws are regarded as social contracts rather than rigid edicts. Those
that do not promote the general welfare should be changed when necessary to meet
the greatest good for the greatest number of people. This is achieved through
majority decision and inevitable compromise. Democratic government is theoretically
based on stage five reasoning.
Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principal Orientation
In stage 6, moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal
ethical principles. Generally, the chosen principles are abstract rather than concrete
and focus on ideas such as equality, dignity, or respect. Laws are valid only insofar
as they are grounded in justice, and a commitment to justice carries with it an
obligation to disobey unjust laws. People choose the ethical principles they want to
follow, and if they violate those principles, they feel guilty. In this way, the individual
acts because it is morally right to do so (and not because he or she wants to avoid
punishment), it is in their best interest, it is expected, it is legal, or it is previously
agreed upon. Although Kohlberg insisted that stage six exists, he found it difficult to
identify individuals who consistently operated at that level.

Vygotsky on Language and Zone of Proximal Development

Concepts on Vygotsky’s Theory

Since the translation and publication of Vygotsky's work

into the English language in 1962 his work has been widely
cited and studied by Western-European and American
developmental psychologists and educators. Vygotsky 's
theory of culture and language and highlights the similarities of
his views (e.g. scaffolding, assisted learning, private speech)
and behavioral principles (e.g. shaping cueing, chaining
and verbal behavior). While many philosophical differences
exist between Vygotsky’s theories and contemporary behavior
analysis, identifying the similarities between these two
positions may allow for a greater understanding of human
development and for an increase in collaborative research
between developmental psychologists and behavior analysts.
Two Theories of Vygotsky
Language
In Vygotsky's philosophy, language plays a central role in the theory of
human cognitive development. Language plays multiple roles including culturally
shaping the overt behavior of individuals as well as influencing their covert behavior,
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such as thinking. Language has been defined as a psychological tool that shapes
other mental functions while at the same time being socially-shaped itself.
Zone of Proximal Development
The concept, zone of proximal development was developed by Soviet
psychologist and social constructivist Lev Vygotsky(1896 – 1934). The zone of
proximal development refers to the difference between what a learner can do without
help and what he or she can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a
skilled partner. Thus, the term “proximal" refers to those skills that the learner is
“close" to mastering.
The zone of proximal development (ZPD) has been defined as: "The distance
between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem
solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem-
solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers”
Vygotsky believed that when a student is in the zone of proximal development
for a particular task, providing the appropriate assistance will give the student
enough of a "boost" to achieve the task.
To assist a person to move through the zone of proximal development, educators
are encouraged to focus on three important components which aid the learning
process:
 The presence of someone with knowledge and skills beyond that of the
learner (a more knowledgeable other).
 Social interactions with a skillful tutor that allow the learner to observe and
practice their skills.
 Scaffolding, or supportive activities provided by the educator, or more
competent peer, to support the student as he or she is led through the ZPD.

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological System Theory

An Overview of Ecological System Theory
American psychologist, Urie Bronfenbrenner, formulated the Ecological
Systems Theory to explain how the inherent qualities of children and their
environments interact to influence how they grow and develop. The Bronfenbrenner
theory emphasizes the importance of studying children in multiple environments,
also known as ecological systems, in the attempt to understand their development.
Bronferbrenner’s ecological system theory is one of the most accepted
explanations regarding the influence of social environments of human development.
This theory argues that the environment grow up in affects every faces of your life.
Social factors determine your way of thinking, the emotions you feel and your likes
and dislikes.

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 According to Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory, children typically
find themselves enmeshed in various ecosystems, from the most intimate home
ecological system to the larger school system, and then to the most expansive
system which includes society and culture. Each of these ecological systems
inevitably interact with and influence each other in all aspects of the children’s lives.
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model organizes contexts of development into
five levels of external influence. These levels are categorized from the most intimate
level to the broadest.

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Microsystem

The Bronfenbrenner theory suggests that the microsystem is the smallest and
most immediate environment in which children live. As such, the microsystem
comprises the daily home, school or daycare, peer group and community
environment of the children.
Interactions within the microsystem typically involve personal relationships
with family members, classmates, teachers and caregivers. How these groups or
individuals interact with the children will affect how they grow.
Similarly, how children react to people in their microsystem will also influence
how they treat the children in return. More nurturing and more supportive interactions
and relationships will understandably foster they children’s improved development.
One of the most significant findings that Urie Bronfenbrenner unearthed in his
study of ecological systems is that it is possible for siblings who find themselves in
the same ecological system to experience very different environments.
Therefore, given two siblings experiencing the same microsystem, it is not
impossible for the development of them to progress in different manners. Each
child’s particular personality traits, such as
temperament, which is influenced by
unique genetic and biological factors,
ultimately have a hand in how he/she is
treated by others.
The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model:
Mesosystem
The mesosystem encompasses the
interaction of the different microsystems
which children find them in. It is, in
essence, a system of microsystems and as such, involves linkages between home
and school, between peer group and family, and between family and community.
According to Bronfenbrenner’s theory, if a child’s parents are actively involved
in the friendships of their child, for example they invite their child’s friends over to
their house from time to time and spend time with them, and then the child’s
development is affected positively through harmony and like-mindedness. However,
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if the child’s parents dislike their child’s peers and openly criticize them, then the
child experiences disequilibrium and conflicting emotions, which will likely lead to
negative development.
The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Exosystem
The exosystem pertains to the linkages that may exist between two or more
settings, one of which may not contain the developing children but affect them
indirectly nonetheless.
Based on the findings of Bronfenbrenner, people and places that children may
not directly interact with may still have an impact on their lives. Such places and
people may include the parents’ workplaces, extended family members, and the
neighborhood the children live in.
For example, a father who is continually passed up for promotion by an
indifferent boss at the workplace may take it out on his children and mistreat them at
home.

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Macrosystem

The macro system is the largest and most distant collection of people and
places to the children that still have significant influences on them. This ecological
system is composed of the children’s cultural patterns and values, specifically their
dominant beliefs and ideas, as well as political and economic systems.
For example, children in war-torn areas will experience a different kind of
development than children in peaceful environments.
The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Chronosystem
The Bronfenbrenner theory suggests that the chronosystem adds the useful
dimension of time, which demonstrates the influence of both change and constancy
in the children’s environments. The chronosystem may include a change in family
structure, address, parents’ employment status, as well as immense society changes
such as economic cycles and wars.
Value of the Theory
This theory, published in 1979, has influenced may psychologist in terns of
the manner of analyzing the person and the effects of different environmental
systems that he encounters. The ecological system theory has since became a
foundation of other theorist’s work.
Teaching and Learning Activities
Choose one from six (6) development theories and write commentary paper
based on the psychologist’s work or contribution
Join discussion forum 1
Learning materials and resources for supplementary reading.

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 Reading text (pdf)
Open Educational Sources
Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted
 Google classroom
 Module, exercises
Assessment Task

Guide Questions

1. What are the different theories related to the learners’ development? Explain
the stages of each theory using a graphic organizer.
2. Why it is important to learn about these theories?
3. If you are a teacher, how would you apply these theories when teaching your
students?
Activity 1.1
Ask students to imagine themselves 40 years in the future and having their
favorite grandchild on their knee. Then ask them to tell the grandchild what wisdom
they have learned in life that they would like to pass on to them. Ask them to write
this down on a piece of paper without placing their names on it.
Then collect the pieces of paper, mix them up, and read them out loud. Then
discuss the advice that is being passed down and relate it to Erikson’s last stage. I
then suggest they consider living their lives in a way that would be consistent with
these pearls of wisdom.
Activity 1.2
Materials: writing paper or computer access, materials that students choose to
include as they create a lesson or activity. Put students into four groups (if the class
is large, consider eight groups).Assign each group one of Piaget's stages of
cognitive development:
-Sensorimotor
-Preoperational
-Concrete Operational
-Formal Operations
Instruct each group to develop a lesson or activity that might be used with
children within the age of the stage they have been assigned. The lesson or activity
should be designed to help children further develop their skills within that stage.

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 Once complete, each group will present (or ''teach'') their lesson or activity to the
class as if they were presenting to a group of children within the age they are
working with (this would obviously be difficult with students in the Sensorimotor
stage, but the idea can still be the same).
Activity 1.3
Directions: Read the story below and relate it to Kolhberg’s Stages of Moral
Development
Thinking Exercise Heinz Dilemma (An Idea on Moral Reasoning)
Heinz’s wife was dying because of a special kind of cancer. There was only
one medicine that the doctors thought might cure her, but it was an advanced
formula that a pharmaceutical company had recently discovered. This drug was
extremely costly to produce due to high-cost equipment and singular production
techniques. On top of that, the company was selling the drug at a price tenfold the
production costs.
Heinz went to everyone he knew to borrow money but he could only collect
half of what the drug costs. He sought an audience with the CEO of the
pharmaceutical company, told him that his wife was dying and begged him to sell the
drug cheaper or allowed him to defer the payment. But the CEO refused. He couldn’t
make any exception as they had spent massive funds in the research and
equipment, and turning in a profit was the top priority for the company.
Heinz was devastated, and at wits end about what he should do next. In the
end, he broke into the company and stole the drug for his wife.

Activity 1.4
Get a plain piece of whole sheet of paper and colored and non-colored
pencils. You are given approximately 15 minutes to explain your understanding of
Bronferbrenner’s ecological system theory and write it down on your paper.

Evaluation

Identification
____1. Virtue that develop during Intimacy vs. Isolation.
____2. It is the sub stage of conventional where people’s decisions based on the
approval of others.
____3. It is a smallest and most immediate environment in which children live?
____4. Who was the man developed the psychosexual stages of development?
____5. When children is acting to avoid punishment.
____6. He expanded on the earlier work of cognitive theorist Jean Piaget to explain
the moral development of children.
____7. The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting
back on life.

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____8. An ego psychologist who developed one of the most popular and influential
theories of development.
____9. In this stage primary source of interaction occurs through mouth?
____10. According to Lawrence Kohlberg it is like cognitive development which
follows a series of stages.

References:
A. Book
 Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition Process:
Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 17, 2019.

B. Websites
 Education,Society, and the K-12 Learner.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/teachereducationx92x1/chapter/kohlbergs-stages-
of-moral-development/Moral Development – Lessons - Tes Teach. Retrieved
November 17, 2019.
 https://www.tes.com/lessons/rwvpJSB1HslMxw/moral-development. Retrieved
November 17, 2019.
 Saul McLeod. (2019). The Zone of Proximal Development and Scaffolding.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/Zone-of-Proximal-Development.html. Retrieved
November 17, 2019.
 Eric O. Burkholder, Martha Peláez. (2000). Behavioral Interpretation of Vygotsky's
Theory of Thought, Language, and Culture. https://psycnet.apa.org/fulltext/2014-
55592-002.html. Retrieved November 17, 2019.
 https://www.verywellmind.com/freuds-stages-of-psychosexual-development-
2795962. Retrieved November 17, 2019.
 https://www.verywellmind.com/erik-eriksons-stages-of-psychosocialdevelopment-
2795740. Retrieved November 17, 2019.

 https://www.psychologynoteshq.com/bronfenbrenner-ecological-theory/. Retrieved
November 17, 2019.
 https://www.google.com/amp/s/exploringyourmind.com/bronfenbrenners-ecological-
systems-theory/amp/. Retrieved November 17, 2019.

Unit 2: Student Diversity

Topic 1: Individual differences

This module explains the different factors that make individuals unique from each
other. It also includes some concepts about how student diversity enriches the learning
environment. As future educator, you will be able to know how you can apply different
teaching strategies that facilitate learning in a diverse set of learners.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the unit, you should be able to:

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 1. demonstrate understanding on various diverse teaching and learning
principles and theories;
2. determine the learners’ learning /thinking styles and multiple intelligences;
3. develop learning activities appropriate to learners’ learning/ thinking styles
and multiple intelligences;
4. illustrate the basic categories of exceptional learners; and
5. utilize “first language” to exceptional learners to avoid discrimination.
Learning Content
Factors that Makeup Student Diversity
There are many factors that make a classroom diverse because of the
differences, in one way or another, of the students that interact with each other. This
includes the following:
1. Gender
2. Race
3. Ethnic or Cultural Background (nationality, province, language)
4. Socioeconomic status- socioeconomic level or status (SES) is defined
by the income, education, and occupation of members of the household.
5. Thinking/ Learning Style- some learners learn better when they get to
see something, others by hearing or manipulating something.
6. Exceptionalities- the term exceptionalities in K–12 schooling refer to
both disabilities and giftedness. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act ’04
(IDEA ’04), the national law that guarantees an appropriate education to students
with disabilities, recognizes fourteen disability categories.

How Individual Differences Help Enrich Learning Environment

In a classroom setting, a teacher may find it hard to deal with a diverse set of
learners in a learning environment. He/she might struggle to cater the learning needs
of these individuals. Challenging as it may seem, a wise and reflective teacher,
rather than grumble, would consider this situation as a great way to promote
understanding across diversity. Below are benefits of how individual differences or
student diversity help enrich the learning environment.
1. Student’s self-awareness is enhanced by diversity. Exposing students
to others with diverse backgrounds and experiences also serves to help students
focus on their awareness of themselves. When they see how others are different,
students are given reference points or comparative perspectives which sharpen
assessment of their own attitudes, values, and behaviors.
2. Student diversity contributes to cognitive development. In cognitive
development of the learners, opportunities to gain access to the perspective of peers
and to learn from other students, rather than the instructor only, maybe especially

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important for promoting Supreme Court Justice, William J. Brennan said: “the
classroom is peculiarly the market place of ideas.” The depth and breadth of student
learning are enhanced by exposure to others from diverse backgrounds. Student
diversity in the classroom brings about different points of view and varied
approaches to the learning process.
As the German philosopher, Nietzsche, said over 100 years ago: “The more
affects we allow to speak about one thing, the more eyes, different eyes we can use
to observe one thing, the more complete will our concept of this thing, our objectivity,
be.”
3. Student diversity prepares learners for their role as responsible
members of society. Suzanne Mores stresses one competency that has strong
implications for instructional strategies that capitalize on diversity: "The capacity to
imagine situations or problems from all perspectives and to appreciate all aspects of
diversity”. Furthermore, she argues: “The classroom can provide more than just
theory given by the teacher in a lecture. With student diversity, the classroom
becomes a ‘public place’ where community can be practiced.

4. Student diversity can promote harmony. When student diversity is

integrated into the classroom teaching and learning process, it can become a vehicle
for promoting harmonious race relations. Through student-centered teaching
strategies, diverse students can be encouraged to interact and collaborate with one
another on learning task that emphasize unity of effort while capitalizing on their
diversity of backgrounds.
Teaching Strategies on Student Diversity
1. Encourage learners to share their personal history and experiences.
Students will be made to realize that they have something in common with the
rest. They also differ in several ways.
2. Integrate learning experiences and activities which promote students’
multicultural and cross-cultural awareness.
 you can encourage or even initiate co-curricular experiences that are
aimed at promoting diversity awareness. These activities could be held to coincide
with already-scheduled national weeks or months which are designated for
appreciation of diverse groups: Disability Awareness Week, Linggo ng Wika,
Indigenous People’s Week, etc.
 Let students interview other students on campus who are from diverse
backgrounds (foreign students or students from other ethnic/racial groups). These
students of different racial and ethnic origin serve as source of first-hand information
on topics related to their culture. This can also provide opportunity for interaction
among students who may otherwise never come in contact with each other.
 Invite students to Internet discussion groups or e-mail; have students
“visit” foreign countries and “talk” to natives of those countries.
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  Ask students if they have ever been the personal target of prejudice or
discrimination, and have them share these experiences with other members of the
class.
3. Aside from highlighting diversity, identify patterns of unity that
transcend group differences.
Clyde Kluckholn, an early American anthropologist who spent a lifetime
studying human diversity across different cultures, concluded from his extensive
research that , “Every human is, at the same time, like all other humans, like some
humans, and like no other human” (cited in Wong, 1991). His observation suggests a
paradox in the human experience, namely: We are all the same in different ways. It
may be important to point out to students the biological reality that we, human
beings, share approximately 95% of our genes in common, and that less than 5% of
our genes account for the physical differences that exist among us. When focusing
on human differences, these commonalities should not be overlooked; otherwise, our
repeated attempts to promote student diversity may inadvertently promote student
divisiveness. One way to minimize this risk , and promote unity along with diversity,
is to stress the universality” of the learning experience by raising students’
consciousness of common themes that bind all groups of people- in addition to
highlighting the variations on those themes.

 Periodically place students in homogeneous groups on the basis of

shared demographic characteristics (e.g., same-gender groups or
same-race/ethnicity groups), and have them share their personal views or
experiences with respect to course issues. Then form a panel comprised of
representatives from each group who will report their group’s ideas. You can serve
as moderator and identify the key differences and recurrent themes that emerge
across different groups who are not on the panel can be assigned this task.
 To form group of students who are different with respect to one
demographic characteristic but similar with respect to another (e.g., similar gender
but different with respect race/ethnicity, or similar in age but different gender). This
practice can serve to increase student awareness that humans who are members of
the same group- and share similar experiences, needs or concerns.
 After students have completed self-assessment instruments (e.g.,
learning style inventories or personality profiles), have them line up or move to a
corner of the room according to their individual scores or overall profile. This practice
can visibly demonstrate to students how members of different student populations
can be quite similar with respect to their learning styles or personality profiles, i.e.,
students can see how individual similarities can often overshadow group differences.
4. Communicate high expectations to students from all subgroups.
 Make a conscious attempt to call on, or draw in students from diverse
groups by using effective questioning techniques that reliably elicit student
involvement. In addition to consciously calling on them on class, other strategies for

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“drawing in” and involving students include: (a) assigning them the role of reporter in
small-group discussions, i.e., the one who reports back the group’s ideas to the
class, and (b) having them engaged in paired discussions with another classmate
with the stipulation that each partner must take turns assuming the role of both
listener and speaker, and (c) scheduling instructor-student conferences with them
outside the classroom.
 Learn the names of your students, especially the foreign names that
you may have difficulty pronouncing. This will enable you to establish early personal
rapport with them which can later serve as a social /emotional foundation or
springboard for encouraging them to participate.
5. Use varied instructional methods to accommodate student diversity in
learning styles.
 Diversify the sensory/perceptual modalities through which you deliver
and present information (e.g., orally, in print, diagrammatic and pictorial
representations, or “hands on” experiences).
 Diversify the instructional formats or procedures you use in class:
 Use formats that are student-centered (e.g., class discussions, small
group work) and teacher-centered (e.g., lectures demonstrations).
 Use formats that are unstructured (e.g., trial and error discovery
learning) ,and structured (e.g., step-by-step instructions).
 Use procedures that involve both independent learning (e.g.,
independently completed projects, individual presentations) and interdependent
learning (e.g., collaborative learning in pairs or small groups).
6. Vary the examples you use to illustrate concepts in order to provide
multiple contexts that are relevant to students from diverse backgrounds.
Specific strategies for providing multiple examples and varied contexts that
are relevant to their varied backgrounds include the following:
 Have students complete personal information cards during the first
week of class and use this information to select examples or illustration that are
relevant to their personal interests and life experiences.
 Use ideas, comments and questions that student raise in class, or
which they choose to write about to help you think of examples and illustrations to
use.
 Ask students to provide their own examples of concepts based on
experiences drawn from their personal lives.
 Have students apply concepts by placing them in a situation or context
that is relevant to their lives (e.g., “How would you show respect to all persons in
your home?”).

38 | P a g e
 7. Adapt to the students’ diverse backgrounds and learning styles by
allowing them personal choice and decision-making opportunities concerning what
they will learn and how they will learn it.
Giving the learner more decision-making opportunity with respect to learning
tasks: (a) promotes positive student attitudes toward the subject matter, (b) foster
more positive interactions among students, and (c) results in students working more
consistently with lesser teacher intervention. Also, when individuals are allowed to
exert some control over a task, they tend to experience less anxiety or stress while
performing the task.
8. Diversify your methods of assessing and evaluating student learning.
You can accommodate student diversity not only by varying what you do with
your teaching, but also varying what you ask students to do to demonstrate learning.
In addition to the traditional paper-and-pencil tests and written assignments, students
can demonstrate their learning in a variety of performance formats, such as: (a)
individually-delivered oral reports, (b) panel presentations, (c) group projects, (d)
visual presentations (e.g., concept maps, slide presentations, Power Point
presentations collages, exhibits), or (e) dramatic vignettes-presented live or on
videotape. One potential benefit of allowing students to choose how they
demonstrate their learning is that the variety of options exercised may be a powerful
way to promote student awareness of the diversity of human learning styles.
9. Purposefully, form small-discussion groups of students from diverse
backgrounds. You can form groups of students with different learning styles, different
cultural background, etc.
Small peer-learning groups may be effective for promoting student progress to
a more advanced stage of cognitive development. Peer-learning groups may
promote this cognitive advancement because: (a) the instructor is removed from
center stage, thereby reducing the likelihood that the teacher is perceived as the
ultimate or absolute authority; and (b) students are exposed to the perspectives of
other students, thus increasing their appreciation of multiple viewpoints and different
approaches to learning.
Other Tips on Student Diversity
1. Learn about your own culture
Become aware of how the influence of your own culture, language, social
interests,
Goals, cognitions, and values could prevent you from learning how you could
best teach your students of culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds.
2. Learn about your students’ culture
Understand how your students’ cultures affect their perceptions, self-esteem,
values, classroom behavior, and learning. Use that understanding to help your
students feel welcomed, affirmed, respected, and valued.

39 | P a g e
 3. Understand your students’ linguistic traits
Learn how students’ patterns of communication and various dialects affect
their classroom learning and how second-language learning affects their acquisition
of literacy.
4. Use this knowledge to inform your teaching
Let your knowledge of your students’ diverse cultures inform your
teaching. This, along with a sincerely caring attitude, increases student participation
and engagement.
5. Use multicultural books and materials to foster cross-cultural
understanding
Open to a variety of instructional strategies as students’ cultures may
make certain strategies (such as competitive games or getting students to volunteer
information) uncomfortable for them.
6. Know about your students’ home and school relationships
Collaborate with parents and caregivers on children’s literacy
development and don’t rely on preconceived notions of the importance of literacy
within your students’ families. Acquiring this rich store of knowledge may seem
overwhelming, but whatever investment you can make will be well worth the time
and effort. Make it a career-long goal to build your knowledge bases a little piece at a
time.
Teaching and Learning Activities
Form a group of five members. In each group, there will be an assigned task whether
to make a poster, slogan, poem, song or a role play that relates to individual
differences
Learning materials and resources for supplementary reading.
https://www.coursera.org/lecture/url
https://libguides.reynolds.edu
https://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/div/cresource/q1/p01/.Retrieved
November 17, 2019.
https://www.imaginelearning.com/blog/2010/06/esl_struggling-readers-2. Retrieved
November 17, 2019.

Reading text (pdf)

Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted
 Google classroom
 Module, exercises

40 | P a g e
Assessment Task

Guide Questions

1. What are the different factors that compose student diversity?

2. In your own words, what other tips or strategies you can use to teach diverse
learners?
3. Why it is important to consider individual differences when teaching?

Activity 1

Form a group of five members. In each group, there will be an assigned task whether to
make a poster, slogan, poem, and song that relates to individual differences. The outputs will
be presented through Google classroom
Rubrics:
Content: 50%
Mastery: 20%
Organization: 30%
Total 100%

Evaluation

Essay. In a sheet of paper, elaborate in your own words how student diversity enriches the
learning environment.

Rubrics:
Content: 50%
Organization: 50%
Total 100%

References:
A. Book
 Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition Process:
Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 17, 2019.

B. Websites
 https://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/div/cresource/q1/p01/. Retrieved
November 17, 2019.

 https://www.imaginelearning.com/blog/2010/06/esl_struggling-readers-2. Retrieved
November 17, 2019.

41 | P a g e
Topic 2: Learning/Thinking Styles and Multiple Intelligences

Individuals have preferred ways of learning. Teachers often refer to these

differences as learning styles, though this term may imply that students are more
consistent across situations than is really the case, individual students do differ in
how they habitually think. This module presents you the different learning styles of
students and strategies that can be used to guide these differences for a successful
learning.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the unit, you should be able to:
1. demonstrate understanding on various diverse teaching and learning
principles and theories;
2. determine the learners’ learning /thinking styles and multiple
intelligences;and
3. develop learning activities appropriate to learners’ learning/ thinking styles
and multiple intelligences
Learning Content
Learning/Thinking Styles
According to Kolb and Kolb (2005), learning style describes individual
differences in approaches to or ways of learning. A person’s learning style is a
biologically and developmentally imposed set of personal characteristics that make
the same teaching method effective for some and ineffective for others.

Some students may like to make diagrams to help remember a reading

assignment, whereas another student may prefer to write a sketchy outline instead.
Yet in many cases, the students could in principle reverse the strategies and still
learn the material: if coaxed (or perhaps required), the diagram-maker could take
notes for a change and the note-taker could draw diagrams. Both would still learn,
though neither might feel as comfortable as when using the strategies that they
prefer. This reality suggests that a balanced, middle-of-the-road approach may be a
teacher’s best response to students’ learning styles. Example, a student may prefer
to hear new material rather than see it; he may prefer for you to explain something
orally, for example, rather than to see it demonstrated in a video. But he may
nonetheless tolerate or sometimes even prefer to see it demonstrated. In the long
run, in fact, he may learn it best by encountering the material in both ways,
regardless of his habitual preferences.

Learning Styles

1. Visual - best acquire new information by sight

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 2. Auditory - needs to hear content explanations. He/She appreciates and
learns faster through songs and stories. He/She also finds it easier to learn
through sounds.
3. Kinesthetic - they prefer activities that involve their whole bodies. Learners
like him prefer dramatizations, pantomimes, and fieldtrips. They may often be
restless in class. Role-playing and interactive games are good strategies to
help them learn.
4. Tactile - learns best by manipulating materials. He/She requires
experimentation and hands-on activities to learn well. He/She needs to touch,
feel, and experience.

Categories of Learning Styles

1. Imaginative learners: They perceive information concretely and process it

reflectively. They learn well by listening to and sharing with others while
integrating others’ ideas with their own experiences. They often have a
difficulty with traditional teaching approaches.
2. Analytic learners: They perceive information abstractly and process it
reflectively. They prefer sequential thinking, require details, and value what
experts have to offer. They do well in traditional classrooms.
3. Common sense learners: They process information abstractly and actively.
They enjoy practical and hands-on learning. They often find school frustrating
because they do not see an immediate use for learning.
4. Dynamic learners: They provide information concretely and process it
actively. They prefer hands-on learning and get excited with new concepts
and ideas. They like taking risks. Activities that are tedious and sequential
frustrate them.

Individual Preferences

 Sound levels
 Lighting
 Temperature levels
 Seating arrangements
 Mobility
 Group sizes
 Types of learning activities
 Eating or drinking while concentrating
 Time preferences

There are two major ways to use knowledge of students’ cognitive styles
(Pritchard, 2005). The first and the more obvious is to build on students’ existing
style strengths and preferences. A student who is field independent and reflective,
for example, can be encouraged to explore tasks and activities that are relatively

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analytic and that require relatively independent work. One who is field dependent
and impulsive, on the other hand, can be encouraged and supported to try tasks and
activities that are more social or spontaneous. But a second, less obvious way to use
knowledge of cognitive styles is to encourage more balance in cognitive styles for
students who need it. A student who lacks field independence, for example, may
need explicit help in organizing and analyzing key academic tasks (like organizing a
lab report in a science class). One who is already highly reflective may need
encouragement to try ideas spontaneously, as in a creative writing lesson.

The theory of multiple intelligences also has strong implications for adult
learning and development. Many adults find themselves in jobs that do not make
optimal use of their most highly developed intelligences (for example, the highly
bodily-kinesthetic individual who is stuck in a linguistic or logical desk-job when he or
she would be much happier in a job where they could move around, such as a
recreational leader, a forest ranger, or physical therapist).

The theory of multiple intelligences gives adults a whole new way to look at
their lives, examining potentials that they left behind in their childhood (such as a
love for art or drama) but now have the opportunity to develop through courses,
hobbies, or other programs of self-development. It suggests that teachers be trained
to present their lessons in a wide variety of ways using music, cooperative learning,
art activities, role play, multimedia, field trips, inner reflection, and much more.

If you’re teaching or learning about the law of supply and demand in

economics, you might read about it (linguistic), study mathematical formulas that
express it (logical-mathematical), examine a graphic chart that illustrates the
principle (spatial), observe the law in the natural world (naturalist) or in the human
world of commerce (interpersonal); examine the law in terms of your own body [e.g.
when you supply your body with lots of food, the hunger demand goes down; when
there’s very little supply, your stomach’s demand for food goes way up and you get
hungry] (bodily-kinesthetic and intrapersonal); and/or write a song (or find an existing
song) that demonstrates the law (perhaps Dylan’s “Too Much of Nothing?”).

Left and Right Brain (Comparison Chart)

LEFT BRAIN (Analytic) RIGHT BRAIN (Global)

Successive Hemispheric Style Simultaneous Hemispheric Style

1. Verbal 1. Visual

2. Responds to word meaning 2. Responds to tone of voice

3. Sequential 3. Random

4. Processes information linearly 4. Processes information in varied

44 | P a g e
 order

5. Responds to logic 5. Responds to emotion

6.Plans ahead 6. Impulsive

7. Recalls people’s name 7. Recalls people’s faces

8. Speaks with few gestures 8. Gestures when speaking

9. Punctual 9. Less punctual

10.Prefers formal study design 10.Prefers sound/music background

while studying

11. Prefers bright lights while 11. Prefers frequent mobility while
studying studying

Multiple Intelligences

Multiple intelligences has grabbed the attention of many educators around the
country, and hundreds of schools are currently using its philosophy to redesign the
way it educates children.

1. Visual/Spatial Intelligence (Picture Smart) - learning visually and organizing

ideas spatially. Seeing concepts in action in order to understand them. The ability to
“see” things in one’s mind in planning to create a product or solve a problem.
2. Verbal/Linguistic (Word Smart) - learning through the spoken and written word.
This intelligence is always valued in the traditional classroom and in traditional
assessments of intelligence and achievement.
3. Mathematical/Logical (Number Smart/Logic Smart) - learning through
reasoning and problem solving. Also highly valued in the traditional classroom where
students are asked to adapt to logically sequenced delivery of instruction.
4. Bodily/Kinesthetic (Body Smart) - learning through interaction with one’s
environment. This intelligence is the domain of ‘overly active learners. It promotes
understanding through concrete experience.
5. Musical (Music Smart) - learning through patterns, rhythms and music. This
includes not only auditory learning but also the identification of patterns through all
the senses.
6. Intrapersonal (Self Smart) - learning through feelings, values and attitudes. This
is a decidedly affective component of learning through which students place value on
what they learn and take ownership for their learning.

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7. Interpersonal (People Smart) - learning through interaction with others. Not the
domain of children who are simply “talkative” or “overly social.” This intelligence
promotes collaboration and working cooperatively with others.
8. Naturalist (Nature Smart) - learning though classification, categories and
hierarchies. The naturalist intelligence picks up on subtle differences in meaning. It is
not simply the study of nature; it can be used in all areas of study.
9. Existential (Spirit Smart) - learning by seeing the “big picture”: “Why are we
here?” “What is my role on the world?” “What is my place in my family, school and
community?” This intelligence seeks connections to real world understanding and
application of new learning.

It is important for teachers to use their knowledge about thinking/learning style

and multiple intelligences in planning activities to help their students learn effectively.

Every student has their own learning styles which speak to the understanding
that each of them learns differently. Technically, an individual’s learning style refers
to the preferential way in which the students absorbs, processes, comprehends and
retains information.
Teaching Strategies on Different Learning Styles

 Be inquisitive and ask them what they think about the concept/idea/topic.
 Ask them to bounce ideas off of each other and compare their ideas with
others.
 Allow them to discuss and share stories.
 Include group work that accepts each other’s’ different ideas.
 Engage in a role-play that depicts different way of learning/thinking styles and
multiple intelligences.

Teaching and Learning Activities

Choose one from the (9) different multiple intelligences. Write a reflective paper on
content area topic.

Learning materials and resources for supplementary reading.

 Handouts (pdf) upload
 https://www.pinterest.com
Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted
 Google classroom
 Module

Assessment Task

Guide Questions

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 1. How do individuals differ with each other in terms of learning and thinking
styles?
2. How does left and right brain function?
3. What teaching strategies must be used by the teachers to manage students
with different learning styles?

Activity 1

Divide the class into 5 groups and let every group draw one of the multiple
intelligences. Allow them to picture-out what has been drawn through a role play
(Google classroom) and evaluate them if they have depicted it well. This will serve
as an application on what they have learned that suits with their ages. Let them
include how should a teacher manages his/her students with different
learning/thinking styles.

Rubrics:
Content: 50%
Performance: 50%
Total 100%

Evaluation

Name:__________________ Course and Section:_____________

Directions: Answer briefly the following questions:

1. How can you manage a class having 60% slow-learners?

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
__________________

2. How do your left and right brain works? Give an example based on your own
opinion.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
__________________
3. Give at least three (3) multiple intelligences and explain how applicable they are
on yourself.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

47 | P a g e
4. Browse the research article and write a short reflective paper.

Lunenburg, F. C., & Lunenburg, M. R. (2014). Applying Multiple Intelligences in

the Classroom: A Fresh Look at Teaching Writing. International journal of
scholarly academic intellectual diversity, 16(1).

Rubrics:
Content: 60%
Organization: 40%
Total 100%

References:

A. Book

 Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition

Process: Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 17, 2019.

B. Journal

 Lunenburg, F. C., & Lunenburg, M. R. (2014). Applying Multiple Intelligences

in the Classroom: A Fresh Look at Teaching Writing. International journal of
scholarly academic intellectual diversity, 16(1).

Topic 3: Learners with Exceptionalities

One significant factor that highlights individual differences and diversity in
learning is the presence of exceptionalities. We commonly refer to learners with
exceptionalities as persons who are different in some way from the “normal” or
“average”. Most of these learners that have disabilities require a lot of understanding,
more patience and respect as well as special education and related services if they
are to reach their full potential of development.

Learning Outcomes
1. Illustrate the basic categories of exceptional learners
2. Utilize “first language” to exceptional learners to avoid discrimination

Learning Content

The term learners with exceptionalities refers to the individuals whose

physical, behavioral, or cognitive performance is so different from the normal and
additional services are required to meet for individual’s needs. They are differ from
their peers through their differences in requirements to learning and the classroom
environment in regard to factors such as support systems, teaching methods, and
48 | P a g e
social interaction with other learners and teachers. Each group needs a special level
and type of support for their individual learning needs.

Handicap the world health organization defines handicapped person to have

a loss or limited opportunities in being involved in activities as compared to the
majority of the population. A handicap is the effect of disability. It focuses on an
obstacle experienced by a person due to a restriction in the environment.

Disability is a measurable impairment or limitation that interferes with a

person’s ability, for example, to walk, lift, hear, or learn. World health organization
defines a disabled individual to have any lack of ability in carrying out an activity in
the means viewed as normal by the community. A disability is a reduced capacity to
specifically perform a movement detects certain sensory information, or executes a
cognitive function.

Handicap and disability are closely related terms which are often used
concerning people with special needs. They are usually interchangeable used, in
situations, social stigma, low self-esteem, and support system issues may be
experienced by the individuals. Therefore, the extent to which a disability handicaps
an individual can vary greatly. Two persons may have same disability but not the
same degree of being handicapped. For example, they both hearing impairment, one
knows sign language and can read lips while the other cannot. The first individual
would not have as much handicap as the second one.

Categories of Exceptionalities

There are different ways of presenting categories of exceptionalities. Special

education practitioners would have varying terms and categories.

Specific Cognitive or Academic Difficulties

 Learning Disabilities refers to a disorder in one or more of the basic

psychological processes in the understanding or using language, written or
spoken, which may manifest itself in difficulty performing basic task like
arithmetic
(dyscalculia), reading (dyslexia), writing (dysgraphia) , spelling or attention.

 Attention-Deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is manifested in either or

both of these: (1) difficulty in focusing and maintaining attention and (2)
recurrent hyperactive and impulsive behavior. A with ADHD has differences in
brain development and brain activity that affect attention, the ability to sit still,
and self-control.

 Speech and communication disorder people with speech problems can

understand language code ( rules governing word construction, meaning,

49 | P a g e
 grouping, and pragmatics) but there is difficulty in spoken language including
voice disorders, inability to produce the sounds correctly, stuttering, difficulty
in spoken language comprehension that significantly hamper classroom
performance.

Social/emotional and Behavioral Difficulties

 Autism refers to a developmental disability affecting verbal and non-verbal

communication and social interaction, manifested by different levels of
impaired social interaction and communication, repetitive behaviors and
limited interest. Individuals with autism usually have an intense need for
routine and a predictable environment.

 Mental Retardation refers to substantial limitations in present functioning

characterized by significant sub-average intelligence and deficits in adaptive
behavior. There is difficulty in managing activities of daily living and in
conducting themselves appropriately in social situations.

 Emotional/Conduct disorders this involves the presence of emotional states

like depression and aggression over a considerable amount of time that they
notably disturb learning and performance in school.

Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments

 Physical and health impairments this involves physical or medical

conditions (usually long-term) including one or more of these: (1) limited
energy and strength, (2) reduced mental alertness, and /or (3) little muscle
control.

 Severe and Multiple Disabilities this refers to the presence of two or more
different types of disabilities, at times at a profound level. The combination of
disabilities makes it necessary to make specific adaptations and have more
specialized educational programs.

 Visual Impairments these are conditions when there is malfunction of the

eyes or optic nerves that prevent the normal vision even with corrective
lenses. Visual disabilities can be divided into low vision and blindness.
Individuals with low vision can function but with assistance of optical or non-
optical devices and environmental modifications and/or techniques. Blindness
refers to being without functional use of vision and reliance on other sensory
systems education.

 Hearing Impairments these involve malfunction of the ear or auditory nerves

that hinder perception of sounds within the frequency range of normal speech.

50 | P a g e
 Hearing disability can be sub-divided into hard of hearing or profoundly hard
of hearing or deaf.

Giftedness

 Giftedness this involves a significantly high level of cognitive development.

There is unusually high ability or aptitude in one or more of these aspects:
intellectual ability, aptitude in academics subjects, creativity, visual or
performing arts or leadership. For that reason, these children require
activities or services not provided ordinarily by schools. Gifted and talented
children tend to be highly motivated, learn to read early and perform well
academically.

Recognizing a Student with Learning Disability

students with
learning
disabilities...
have processing
have average or
difiulties
above average
ability (thinking
and reasoning

demonstrate a
significant
demonstrate difference
below average between
academic achievement
achievement and ability

People-First Language

It is a type of linguistic prescription in English. it aims to avoid

perceived and subconscious dehumanization when discussing people with
disabilities and is sometimes referred to as a type of disability etiquette (e.g., a
person with disabilities, not a disabled person). Thus, people first language tells us
what conditions people have, not what they are. Other suggestions for referring to
those with disabilities include:

 Avoiding generic labels (people with mental retardation is preferable to

mentally retarded);

 Emphasizing abilities, not limitations (for instance, uses a wheelchair is

preferable to confined to a wheelchair);

51 | P a g e
  Avoiding euphemism which are regarded as condescending and avoid the
real issues that result from a disability; and

 Avoiding implying illness or suffering had polio is preferable to is a polio

victim, and has multiple sclerosis is preferable to suffers from multiple
sclerosis)

Using people-first language and applying the guidelines above will remind you
to have be more respectful and accepting attitude toward learners with
exceptionalities.

Learners with exceptionalities need more attentions and understanding

from others. The presence of impairments requires them to exert more effort to do
things that others like us find quite easy to do. We need to exert more effort to show
and to make them feel that they like normal like others them that they not. And as
future teachers we should have a right attitude and compassion neither to pity nor
ridicule them will make us more effective and have a heart to facilitate their learning
and adjustment.

Teaching Strategies on Learners with Exceptionalities

Special education classes provide a unique service to physically or

mentally challenged students. The ideal special education classroom provides
quality instruction to students with disabilities. Some strategies that teachers can use
to benefit all of their students:

 Form small groups

 Create classroom centers

 Maintain an organized classroom and limit distractions

 Blend the basics with more specialized instruction

 Rotate lessons

 Provide different levels of books and materials

 Use music and video inflection

 Use multi-sensory strategies

Teaching and Learning Activities

Watch the video as shown on the link provided. Write a one- page (300- 500 words)
reaction paper.

https://www.parentmap.com

Learning materials and resources for supplementary reading.

52 | P a g e
  Handouts (pdf) upload
Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted
 Google classroom
 Module

Assessment Task

Guide Questions

1. What do learners with exceptionalities mean?

2. What are the examples of exceptionalities?

Activity 1

Divide the class into 5 groups and make a role play on how a teacher should
handle those learners with exceptionalities. (use Google classroom)

Rubrics:

Content: 50%

Performance: 50%

Total 100%

Evaluation

Directions: In a sheet of paper, answer the following questions.

1. By means of graphic organizer enumerate and discuss the basic categories of

exceptional learners.

2. Compare and contrast handicap and disability.

3. In your own words, what is people first language?

4. As future teachers, how will you deal with students who have learning
disabilities?

5. What strategies will you use in teaching learners with exceptionalities?

References:

A. Book

53 | P a g e
  Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition
Process: Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 17, 2019.

B. Website

 https://kidshealth.org/en/parents/adhd.html. Retrieved November 17, 2019.

 https://www.ukessays.com/essays/education/learners-with-exceptionalities-
make-up-an-important-education-essay.php. Retrieved November 17, 2019.

 https://www.differencebetween.net/language/the-difference-between-
handicapped-and-disabled/

Module III: Focus on Learning

Unit 1: Behaviourist Perspective

Topic 1: Behaviorism: Pavlov, Thorndike, Skinner

The theory of behaviorism focuses on the study of observable and
measurable behavior of an individual. It emphasizes that behaviorism is mostly
learned through conditioning and reinforcement (Rewards and Punishment). It does
not give much attention to the mind and the possibility of the thought processes
occurring in the mind. In this module, you will learn the principle of Behaviorism
Theory for the learning progress of the student.

Learning Outcomes
After completing this module, you should be able to:
1. explain the basic principles of behaviorism;
2. devise a framework applying the primary laws of learning;
3. determine the appropriate rewards in learning effectively.
Learning Content
Introduction to Behaviorism Theory

Behaviorism refers to a psychological approach which emphasizes scientific and

objective methods of investigation. The approach is only concerned with observable
stimulus-response behaviors, and states all behaviors are learned through
interaction with the environment. The behaviorist movement began in 1913 when
John Watson wrote an article entitled 'Psychology as the behaviorist views it,' which
set out a number of underlying assumptions regarding methodology and behavioral
analysis:

Basic Assumptions

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 All behavior is learned from the environment. Behaviorism emphasizes the role
of environmental factors in influencing behavior, to the near exclusion of innate or
inherited factors. This amounts essentially to a focus on learning. We learn new
behavior through classical or operant conditioning (collectively known as 'learning
theory').Therefore, when born our mind is 'tabula rasa' (a blank slate).The
components of a theory should be as simple as possible. Behaviorists propose the
use of operational definitions (defining variables in terms of observable, measurable
events). Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable behavior, as opposed to
internal events like thinking and emotion: While behaviorists often accept the
existence of cognitions and emotions, they prefer not to study them as only
observable (i.e., external) behavior can be objectively and scientifically
measured.Therefore, internal events, such as thinking should be explained through
behavioral terms (or eliminated altogether).There is little difference between the
learning that takes place in humans and that in other animals.There's no
fundamental (qualitative) distinction between human and animal behavior. Therefore,
research can be carried out on animals as well as humans (i.e., comparative
psychology).Consequently, rats and pigeons became the primary source of data for
behaviorists,
as their environments could be easily controlled.

The Behaviorism (Biography, Laws and Theories)

Ivan Pavlov

He was a Russian Physiologist, is well known for his work in classical

conditioning or stimulus substitution. Pavlov’s most renowned experiment involves
the meat, a dog and a bell. Initially, Pavlov was measuring the dog’s salivation in
order to study digestion. This is when he stumbled upon classical Conditioning.

Pavlov’s Experiment

Before conditioning, ringing the bell (neutral stimulus) caused no response

from the dog. Placing food (Unconditioned stimulus) in front of the dog initiated
salivation (unconditioned response). During conditioning, the bell was rung a few
seconds before the dog was presented with food. After conditioning, the ringing of
the bell (conditioned stimulus) alone produced salivation (conditioned response).

An Illustration of Classical Conditioning:

Stage 1 - Before conditioning

Bell No Response
(Neutral stimulus)

55 | P a g e
Stage 2-During conditioning

Bell
(Neutral stimulus)

Paired with

Meat (Unconditioned Salivation

Stimulus)
(Unconditioned Response)

Stage 3- After conditioning

Bell Salivation

(Conditioned Response)

Pavlov findings:

1. Stimulus Generalization- Once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound
of the bell, it will salivate at other similar sound.
2. Extinction- if you stop comparing the bell with the food, salivation will
eventually cease in response to the bell.
3. Spontaneous Recovery- Extinguished response ca be “recovered” after an
elapsed time, but will soon extinguish again if the dog is not presented with
food.
4. Discrimination- the dog could learn to discriminate between similar bells
(stimulus) and discern which bell would result in the presentation of the food
and which would not.
5. Higher- Order Conditioning- Once the dog has been conditioned to
associate the bell with food, another unconditioned stimulus, such as light
may be flashed at the same time that the bell is rung. Eventually, the dog will
salivate at the flash of the light without the sound of the bell.

Edward Thorndike

He was an influential psychologist who is often referred to as the founder of

modern educational psychology. He was perhaps best-known for his famous puzzle
box experiments with cats which led to the development of his law of effect.
Thorndike's principle suggests that responses immediately followed by satisfaction
will be more likely to recur. His Theory gave us the original S-R framework of

56 | P a g e
behavioral psychology. More than a hundred years ago he wrote a text book entitled,
educational Psychology. He explained that the learning is result of associations
forming between stimulus (S) and response (R).The main principle of connectionism
(like all behavior theory) was that learning could be adequately explained without
considering any unobservable internal states. It is the strong connection or bond
between stimulus and response is formed.

He came up with the three laws:

1. Law of Effect- The law of effect states that the connection between a
stimulus and response is strengthened when the consequence is the positive
(Reward) and the connection between the stimulus and the response is
weakened when the consequence is negative. Thorndike later on, revised this
“law” when he found that negative rewards (punishment) do not necessarily
weaken bonds, and that some seemingly pleasurable consequences do not
necessarily motivate performance.
2. Law of Exercise- This tells us that the more an S-R (Stimulus-Response)
bond is the practiced the stronger it will become. “Practice makes perfect”
seem to be associated with this. However, like the law of effect, the law of
exercise also had to be revised when Thorndike found that practice without
feedback does not necessarily enhance performance.
3. Law of Readiness- This states that the more readiness the learner has to
respond to the stimulus, the stronger, will be the bond between them. When a
person is ready to respond to a stimulus and is not made to respond, it
becomes annoying to the person. For example, if the teacher says, “Okay we
will now watch the movie (stimulus) you’ve been waiting for”. And suddenly
the power goes off. The students will feel frustrated because they were ready
to respond to the stimulus but ware prevented from doing so.

John B. Watson

He was a pioneering psychologist who played an important role in

developing behaviorism. Watson believed that psychology should primarily be
scientific observable behavior. He is remembered for his research on
the conditioning process, as well as the Little Albert experiment, in which he
demonstrated that a child could be conditioned to fear a previously neutral stimulus.
His research also revealed that this fear could be generalized to other similar
objects. He considered that the humans are born with a few reflexes and the
emotional reactions of love and rage. All other behavior is learned through stimulus
and response associations through conditioning.

Experiment on Albert

Watson applied classical conditioning in his experiment concerning Albert, a

young child and a white rat. In the beginning, Albert was not afraid of the rat: but
57 | P a g e
Watson made a sudden loud noise each time Albert touched the rat. Because Albert
was frightened by the loud noise, he soon became conditioned to fear and avoid the
rat. Later, the child’s response was generalized to other small animals. Now, he was
also afraid of small animals. Watson then “extinguished” or made the child “unlearn”
fear by showing the rat without the loud noise. Surely, Watson’s research methods
would be questioned today; nevertheless, his work did clearly show the role of
conditioning in the development of the emotional responses to certain stimulus.

Burrhus Frederick Skinner

He was an American psychologist best-known for his influence

on behaviorism. Skinner referred to his own philosophy as 'radical behaviorism' and
suggested that the concept of free will was simply an illusion. All human action, he
instead believed, was the direct result of conditioning. Skinner’s work was different
from that of the three behaviorists before him that he studied operant behavior
(voluntary behavior used in operating on the environment). Thus, his theory came to
be known as Operant Theory.

Operant Conditioning is based upon the notion that learning is a result of

change in overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual’s
response to event (stimuli) that occur in the environment. A response produced a
consequently such as defining a word, hitting a ball, or solving a math problem.
When a particular stimulus-response (S-R) pattern is reinforced (reward) the
individual is conditioned to respond.

Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner’s S-R theory. A reinforcer is

anything that strengthens the desire response. There is a positive reinforcer and a
negative reinforcer.

Positive Reinforcement is any stimulus that is given or added to the increase

the response. An example of positive reinforcement is when a teacher promises
extra time in play area to children who behave well during the lesson. Another is a
mother who promises a new cellphone for her son who gets good grades. Still, other
examples include verbal praises, star stamps and stickers.

Negative Reinforcement is any stimulus that results in the increased frequency

of a response when it is withdrawn or removed. Negative reinforcer in not a
punishment, in fact it is reward. For instance, a teacher announces that student who
gets an average grade of 1.5 for the two grading periods will no longer take the final
examination.

The Extinction and Non-reinforcement

58 | P a g e
 1. Shaping of Behavior- an animal on a cage may take a very long time to
figure out that pressing a level will produce food. To accomplish such
behavior, successive approximations of the behavior are rewarded until the
animal learns the association between the lever and the food reward.
2. Behavioral Chaining- comes about when series of steps are needed to be
learned. The animal would master each step in sequence until the entire
sequence is learned. This can be applied to a child being taught to tie
shoelace. The child can be given reinforcement (reward) until the process of
tying the shoelace is learned.
3. Reinforcement Schedules- Once the desired behavioral response is
accomplished, reinforcement does not have to be 100%; in fact, it can be
maintained more successfully through what Skinner referred to as partial
reinforcement schedules. Partial reinforcement schedules include interval
schedules and ratio schedules.
4. Fixed Interval Schedule- The target response is reinforced after a fixed
amount of time has passed since the last reinforcement. Example, the bird in
a cage is given food (reinforce) every 10 minutes, regardless of how many
times it presses the bar.
5. Variable Interval Schedules- This is similar to fixed interval schedules but
the amount of the time that must pass between reinforcement varies.
Example, the bird may receive food (reinforcer) different intervals, not every
ten minutes.
6. Fixed Ratio Schedules- A fixed number of correct responses must occur
before reinforcement may recur. Example, the bird will be given a food
(reinforcer) everytime it presses the bar 5 times.
7. Variable Ratio Schedules- The number of correct repetitions of the correct
response for reinforcement varies. Example, the bird is given a food
(reinforcer) after it presses the bar 3 times, then after 10 times, then after 4
times. So the bird will not be able to predict how many times it needs to press
the bar before it gets food again.
COMPARISON CHART

59 | P a g e
 Basis for Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning
Comparison

Meaning Classical Conditioning is a Operant conditioning

process in which learning is refers to the learning in
possible by forming which the organism
association between stimuli. studies the relation
between responses and
its consequences.

Stresses on What precedes response? What follows response?

Based on Involuntary or reflexive Voluntary Behavior.

behavior.

Stimulus Conditioned and Conditioned stimulus is

Unconditioned stimuli are well not defined.
defined.

Occurrence of Controlled by experimenter Controlled by organism.

unconditioned
stimulus

The Behaviorism Theory is based on the behavioral study and that behavior is
determined by the environment. It occurs through interaction with the environment
and we learned how to response to the stimuli that shapes us. This emphasizes of
our behavior is we learned through conditioning and reinforcement (Having a
rewards or punishment).

Teaching and Learning Activities

Watch the two videos as shown on the link provided. Choose one and write a one-
page (300-500 words) reaction paper
https://www.khanacademy.org
https://www.simplypsychology.org
Learning materials and resources for supplementary reading.
 Handouts (pdf) upload
Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted
 Google classroom
 Module
 exercises

60 | P a g e
Assessment Task

Guide Questions

1. What are the differences between behaviorism and behaviorist?

2. How do Classical and Operant conditioning affect the learning?
3. As a future educator, how will you apply the primary laws while you teach a
topic?

Activity 1

Directions: Spend time observing the child interaction in their environment such as
in School. Observe the child reacts in stimulus and how the child response to it. Pay
attention on the behavior of the child whenever there is a reward or punishment
(Conditioning and reinforcement).

Evaluation

Thorndike’s Connectionism

How would you apply the three primary Laws as a student?

Primary Laws APPLICATION

1. Law of Effect (Positive and

Negative Reinforcement)

2. Law of Exercise

3. Law of Readiness

References:

A. Book

61 | P a g e
  Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition
Process: Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 17, 2019.

B. Websites
 https://www.verywellmind.com/behavioral-psychology-4157183. Retrieved
November 17, 2019.
 https://www.verywellmind.com/ivan-pavlov-biography-1849-1936-2795548.
Retrieved November 17, 2019.
 https://keydifferences.com/difference-between-classical-and-operant-
conditioning.html. Retrieved November 17, 2019.

Module 3: Focus on the Learning

Topic 2: Neo Behaviorism: Tolman and Bandura
Tolman’s theorizing has been called purposive behaviorism and is often
considered the bridge between behaviorism and cognitive theory. According to
Tolman’s theory of sign learning, an organism learns by pursuing signs to a goal, i.e.,
learning is acquired through meaningful behavior.
The social learning theory of Bandura emphasizes the importance of observing
and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Bandura
(1977) states: “Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous,
if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to
do. Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling:
from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and
on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action.” (p22).
Learning Outcomes
After completing this module, you should be able to:
1. Explain Tolman’s purposive behaviorism and Bandura’s social learning theory

Learning Content
Tolman (1932) proposed five types of learning: (1) approach learning, (2)
escape learning, (3) avoidance learning, (4) choice-point learning, and (5) latent
learning. All forms of learning depend upon means-end readiness, i.e., goal-oriented
behavior, mediated by expectations, perceptions, representations, and other internal
or environmental variables.
Tolman’s version of behaviorism emphasized the relationships between stimuli
rather than stimulus-response (Tolman, 1922). According to Tolman, a new stimulus
(the sign) becomes associated with already meaningful stimuli (the significate)
through a series of pairings; there was no need for reinforcement in order to
establish learning. For this reason, Tolman’s theory was closer to the connectionist
framework of Thorndike than the drive reduction theory of drive reduction theory of
Hull or other behaviorists.

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Although Tolman intended his theory to apply to human learning, almost all of his
research was done with rats and mazes. Tolman (1942) examines motivation
towards war, but this work is not directly related to his learning theory.
Much of Tolman’s research was done in the context of place learning. In the most
famous experiments, one group of rats was placed at random starting locations in a
maze but the food was always in the same location. Another group of rats had the
food placed in different locations which always required exactly the same pattern of
turns from their starting location. The group that had the food in the same location
performed much better than the other group, supposedly demonstrating that they
had learned the location rather than a specific sequence of turns.
Social learning theory has been applied extensively to the understanding of
aggression (Bandura, 1973) and psychological disorders, particularly in the context
of behavior modification (Bandura, 1969). It is also the theoretical foundation for the
technique of behavior modeling which is widely used in training programs. In recent
years, Bandura has focused his work on the concept of self-efficacy in a variety of
contexts (e.g., Bandura, 1997).
The most common (and pervasive) examples of social learning situations are
television commercials. Commercials suggest that drinking a certain beverage or
using a particular hair shampoo will make us popular and win the admiration of
attractive people. Depending upon the component processes involved (such as
attention or motivation), we may model the behavior shown in the commercial and
buy the product being advertised.

Biography of Tolman
Edward C. Tolman is best-known for cognitive behaviorism, his research on
cognitive maps, the theory of latent learning and the concept of an intervening
variable. Tolman was born on April 14, 1886, and died on November 19, 1959.
Early Life of Edward C. Tolman
Tolman originally started his academic life studying physics, mathematics, and
chemistry at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). After reading William
James' Principles of Psychology, he decided to shift his focus to the study of
psychology. He enrolled at Harvard where he worked in Hugo Munsterberg's lab. In
addition to being influenced by James, he also later said that his work was heavily
influenced by Kurt Koffka and Kurt Lewin. He graduated with a Ph.D. in 1915.
Tolman's Career and Contributions to Psychology
Tolman is perhaps best-known for his work with rats and mazes. Tolman's work
challenged the behaviorist notion that all behavior and learning is a result of the
basic stimulus-response pattern.
In a classic experiment, rats practiced a maze for several days. Then, the familiar
path they normally took was blocked. According to the behaviorist view, the rats had
simply formed associations about which behaviors were reinforced and which were
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not. Instead, Tolman discovered that the rats had formed a mental map of the maze,
allowing them to choose a novel path to lead them to the reward.
His theory of latent learning suggests that learning occurs even if no reinforcement is
offered. Latent learning is not necessarily apparent at the time, but that appears later
in situations where it is needed.
Tolman's concepts of latent learning and cognitive maps helped pave the way for the
rise of cognitive psychology.

Biography of Bandura
Albert Bandura, (born December 4, 1925, Mundare, Alberta, Canada), Canadian-
born American psychologist and originator of social cognitive theory who is probably
best known for his modeling study on aggression, referred to as the “Bobo doll”
experiment, which demonstrated that children can learn behaviors through the
observation of adults.
Early Life and Work
Bandura was the youngest of six children born to parents of eastern European
descent. His father was from Kraków, Poland, and his mother from Ukraine; both
immigrated to Canada as adolescents. After marrying, they settled in Mundare,
Alberta, where Bandura’s father worked laying track for the trans-Canada railroad.
After graduating from high school in 1946, Bandura pursued a bachelor’s degree at
the University of British Columbia and in 1949 graduated with the Bolocan Award in
psychology, annually awarded to the outstanding student in psychology. He then did
graduate work at the University of Iowa, where he received a master’s degree in
psychology (1951) and a doctorate in clinical psychology (1952).
In 1953 Bandura accepted a one-year instructorship at Stanford University, where he
quickly secured a professorship. In 1974 he was named the David Starr Jordan
Professor of Social Science in Psychology, and two years later he became chairman
of the psychology department. He remained at Stanford, becoming professor
emeritus in 2010.
Later Life and Work
Bandura was the first to demonstrate (1977) that self-efficacy, the belief in one’s own
capabilities, has an effect on what individuals choose to do, the amount of effort they
put into doing it, and the way they feel as they are doing it. Bandura also discovered
that learning occurs both through those beliefs and through social modeling—
thereby originating social cognitive theory (1986), which holds that a person’s
environment, cognition, and behaviour all interact to determine how that person
functions, as opposed to one of those factors playing a dominant role.
Bandura received numerous awards for his contributions to the field of psychology,
including the American Psychological Association (APA) Award for Outstanding
Lifetime Contribution to Psychology (2004), the American Psychological

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Foundation’s Gold Medal Award for distinguished lifetime contribution to
psychological science (2006), and the University of Louisville Grawemeyer Award for
Psychology (2008; carrying a $200,000 prize) for his groundbreaking work in self-
efficacy and cognitive theory. In 2016 he received the National Medal of Science.
Bandura also held many organizational memberships and positions, including APA
president (1974) and American Academy of Arts and Sciences (AAAS) fellow (1980).
Bandura was associated for many years with a variety of academic journals,
including the Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, Applied Psychology, Media
Psychology, Cognitive Therapy and Research, Behavior Research and Therapy, and
Social Behavior and Personality. He also authored, coauthored, or edited a number
of books, including Adolescent Aggression (1959), Principles of Behavior
Modification (1969), Aggression: A Social Learning Analysis (1973), and Social
Learning Theory (1977). In 2002 the Review of General Psychology ranked Bandura
as the fourth most eminent psychologist of the 20th century, following B.F. Skinner,
Jean Piaget, and Sigmund Freud.

NEO BEHAVIORISM

Tolman's Bandura's
Purposive Behaviorism Social-Learning Theory

Goal Directedness Principles

Cognitive Maps Modeling

Latent Learning Four Conditions For

Effective Modeling
Intervening Variables

MAZE A MAZE B

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Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism
Purposive behaviorism has also been referred to as Sign Learning Theory
and is often seen as the link between behaviorism and cognitive theory. Tolman’s
theory was founded on two psychological views: those of the Gestalt psychologists
and those of John Watson, the behaviorist.
Tolman believed that learning is a cognitive process. Learning involves
forming beliefs and obtaining knowledge about the environment and then revealing
that knowledge through purposeful and goal-directed behavior.
Tolman stated in his sign theory that an organism learns by pursuing signs to
a goal, i.e.., learning is acquired through meaningful behavior. He stressed the
organized aspect of learning. “The stimuli which are allowed in are not connected by
just simple one-to-one switches to the outgoing responses. Rather the incoming
impulses are usually worked over and elaborated in the central control room into a
cognitive-like map of the environment. And it is this tentative map, indicating routes
and paths and environmental relationships, which finally determine what responses,
if any, the animal will finally make.”
Tolman’s form of behaviorism stressed the relationships between stimuli
rather than stimulus-response. Tolman said that a new stimulus (the sign) becomes
associated with already meaningful stimuli (the significate) through a series of
pairings; there was no need for reinforcement in order to establish learning. In your
maze activity, the new stimuli or “sign” (maze B) became associated with already
meaningful stimuli, the significate (maze A). So you may have connected the two
stimuli, maze A and maze B; and use your knowledge and experience in maze A to
learn to respond to maze B.
Tolman Key Concepts
Learning is always purposive and goal-directed.
Tolman asserted that learning is always purposive and goal-directed. He held the
notion that an organism acted or responded for some adaptive purpose. He believed
individuals do more than merely respond to stimuli; they act on beliefs, attitudes,
changing conditions, and they strived toward goals. Tolman saw behavior as holistic,
purposive and cognitive.
Cognitive maps in rats.
In his most famous experiment, one group of rats was placed at random starting
locations in a maze but the food was always in the same location. Another group of
rats had the food placed in different locations which always required exactly the
same pattern of turns from their starting location. The group that had the food in the
same location performed much better than the other group, supposedly
demonstrating that they had learned the location rather than a specific sequence of
turns. This is tendency to “learn location” signified the rats somehow formed
cognitive maps that help them perform well on the maze. He also found out that
organisms will select the shortest or easiest path to achieve a goal.

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 Applied in human learning, since a student passes by the same route going to
school every day, he requires cognitive map of location of his school. So when
transportation re-routing is done, he can still figure out what turns to make to get to
school the shortest or easiest way.
Latent Learning
Latent learning is a kind of learning that remains or stays with the individual until
needed. It is learning that is not outwardly manifested at once. According to Tolman
it can exist even without reinforcement. He demonstrated this in his rat experiments
wherein rats apparently learned the maze by forming cognitive maps of the maze,
but manifested this knowledge of the maze only when they needed to.
Applied in human learning, a two-year old always sees her dad operate the T.V.
remote control and observes how the T.V. is turned on or how channel is changed,
and volume adjusted. After sometime, the parents are surprised that on the first time
that their daughter holds the remote control, she already knows which buttons to
press for what function. Through latent learning, the child knew the skills beforehand,
even though she has never done them before.
The concept of intervening variable.
Intervening variables are variables that are not readily seen but serve as
determinants 'of behavior, Tolman believed that learning is mediated or is influenced
by expectations perceptions, representations, needs and other internal or
environmental variables. Example, in his experiments with rats he found out that
hunger was an intervening variable.
Reinforcement, not essential for learning.
Tolman concluded that reinforcement is not essential for learning, although it
provides an incentive for performance. In his studies, he observed that a rat was
able to acquire knowledge of the way through a maze, .i.e., to developa cognitive
map, even in the absence of reinforcement.
Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
Social learning theory focuses on the learning that occurs within a social context. It
considers that people learn from one another, including such concepts as
observational learning, imitation and modeling. The ten-year old boy Sergio Pelico
did watch Saddam’s execution on TV and then must have imitated it.
Among others, Albert Bandura is considered the leading proponent of this theory.
General principles of social learning theory
1. People can learn by observing the behavior of others and the outcomes of those
behaviors.
2. Learning can occur without a change in behavior. Behaviorists say that learning
has to be represented by a permanent change' in behavior, in contrast social
learning theorists say that because people can learn through observation alone, their

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learning may not necessarily be shown in their performance. Learning may or may
not result in a behavior change.
3. Cognition plays a role in learning. Over the last 30 years, social learning theory
has become increasingly cognitive in its interpretation of human learning Awareness
and expectations of future reinforcements or punishments can have a major effect on
the behaviors that people exhibit
4. Social learning theory can be considered a bridge or a transition between
behaviorist learning theories and cognitive learning theories.

How the Environment Reinforces and Punishes Modelling

People are often reinforced for modeling the behavior of others. Bandura suggested
that the environment also reinforces modeling. This is in several possible ways: ' e
1. The observer is reinforced by the model. For example a student who changes
dress to fit in with a certain group of students has a strong likelihood of being
accepted and thus reinforced by that group.
2. The observer is reinforced by a third person. The observer might be modeling
the actions of someone else, for example, an outstanding class leader or
student. The teacher notices this and compliments and praises the observer
for modeling such behavior thus reinforcing the behavior.
3. The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences. Man,
behaviors that we learn from others produce satisfying or reinforcement
results. For example, a student in my multimedia class could observe how the
extra work a classmate does is fun. This student in tins would do the same
extra work and also experience enjoyment.
4. Consequences of the model’s behavior affect the observer‘s behavior l
vicariously. This is known as vicarious reinforcement. This is where the model
is reinforced for a response and then the observer shows an increase in that
same response. Bandura illustrated this by having students watch a film of a
model hitting an inflated clown doll. One group of children saw the model
being praised for such action. Without being reinforced, the group of children
began to also hit the doll.
Contemporary Social Learning Perspective of Reinforcement and Punishment
1. Contemporary theory proposes that both reinforcement and punishment have
indirect effects on learning. They are not the sole or main cause.
2. Reinforcement and punishment influence the extent to which an individual
exhibits a behavior that has been learned.
3. The expectation of reinforcement influences cognitive processes that promote
learning. Therefore, attention pays a critical role in learning, and attention is
influenced by the expectation of reinforcement. An example would be, when

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 the teacher tells a group of students that what they will study next is not on
the test. Students will not pay attention because they do not expect to know
the information for a test.

Cognitive Factors in Social Learning

Social learning theory has cognitive factors as well as behaviorist factors (actually
operant factors).
1. Learning without performance: Bandura makes a distinction between learning
through observation and the actual imitation of what has been learned. This is
similar to Tolman’s latent learning.
2. Cognitive processing during learning: Social learning theorists contend that
attention is a critical factor in learning:
3. Expectations: As a result of being reinforced, people form expectations about
the consequences that future behaviors are likely to bring. They expect
certain behaviors to bring reinforcements and others to bring punishment. The
learner needs to be aware, however, of the response reinforcements and
response punishment. Reinforcement increases a response only when the
learner is aware of that connection.
4. Reciprocal causation: Bandura proposed that behavior can influence both the
environment and the person. In fact each of these three variables, the person,
the behavior, and the environment can have an influence on each other.
5. Modeling: There are different types of models. There is the live model, an
actual person demonstrating the behavior. There can also be a symbolic
model, which can be a person or action portrayed in some other medium,
such as television, videotape, computer programs.
Behaviors that can be learned through Modeling
Many behaviors can be learned, at least partly, through modeling. Examples that can
be cited are, students can watch parents read, students can watch the
demonstrations of mathematics problems, or see someone act bravely in a fearful
situation. Aggression can be learned through models. Research indicates that
children become more aggressive when they observed aggressive or violent models.
Moral thinking and moral behavior are influenced by observation and modeling. This
includes moral judgments regarding right and wrong which can, in part, develop
through modeling.

Conditions Necessary for Effective Modeling to Occur

Bandura mentions four conditions that are necessary before an individual can
successfully model the behavior of someone else:
1. Attention- The person must first pay attention to the model.

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 2. Retention- The observer must be able to remember the behavior that has
been observed. One way of 1ncreasing this is using the technique of
rehearsal.
3. Motor reproduction- The third condition is the ability to replicate the behavior
that the model has just demonstrated. This means that the observer has to be
able to replicate the action, which could be a problem with a learner who is
not ready developmentally to replicate the action. For example, little children
have difficulty doing complex physical motion.
4. Motivation- The final necessary ingredient for modeling to occur is
motivation. Learners must want to demonstrate what they have learned.
Remember that since these four conditions vary among individuals, different
people will reproduce the same behavior differently.

Effects of Modeling on Behavior

1. Modeling teaches new behaviors.
2. Modeling influences the frequency of previously learned behaviors.
3. Modeling may encourage previously forbidden behaviors.
4. Modeling increases the frequency of similar behaviors. For example a student
might see a friend excel in basketball and he tries to excel in football because
he is not tall enough for basketball.

Educational Implications of Social Learning Theory

Social learning theory has numerous implications for classroom use.
1. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing other people. '
2. Describing the consequences of behavior can effectively increase the
appropriate behaviors and decrease inappropriate ones. This can involve
discussing with learners about the rewards and consequences of various
behaviors.
3. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new behaviors.
Instead of using shaping, which is operant conditioning; modeling can provide
a faster, more efficient means for teaching new behavior. To promote effective
modeling, a teacher must make sure that the four essential conditions exist;
attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation.
4. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and take care that
they do not model inappropriate behaviors.
5. Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models. This technique
is especially important to break down traditional stereotypes.

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Teaching and Learning Activities
Watch the two videos as shown on the link provided. Choose one and write a one-
page (300-500 words) reaction paper
https://m.youtube.com
https://cosmolearning.org
Learning materials and resources for supplementary reading.
 Handouts (pdf) upload
Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted
 Google classroom
 module
Assessment Task

Guide Questions
1. What is Neo behaviorism?
2. What is the connection between Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism and
Bandura’s Social Learning Theory?
3. Why did Tolman conclude that reinforcement is not essential for learning?
4. What are the factors in social learning?

Activity 1
Form a group with five members and discuss about the two theories of Tolman and
Bandura. After discussing it in your group, formulate at least 5 questions that will be
answered by the other groups. Each group should not throw questions that are
relevant to the questions of other group. This question and answer challenge is for
you to master the overview of Neo Behaviorism.(Google Classroom)

Evaluation
Multiple Choice. Read the following questions below and choose the best answer
that corresponds to the questions.
1. These were the transitional group, bridging the gap between behaviorism and
cognitive theories of learning.
a. Existentialists b. Psychologists
c. Behaviorists d. Behaviorists

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 2. Tolman’s theory was founded on these two psychological views. One of these
is the Gestalt psychologists and those of ____________?
a) Those of Bandura’s theories
b) Those of John Locke’s view of formal discipline
c) Those of John Watson, the behaviorist
d) Those of John Dewey, the pragmatist
3. Why does Tolman believed that learning is a cognitive process?
a. Because learning requires intelligent mind
b. Because it involves active awareness of cognitive development
c. Because it involves forming beliefs and obtaining knowledge
d. Because learning is individual’s power to survive
4. These were the transitional group, bridging the gap between behaviorism and
cognitive theories of learning.
a. Existentialists b. Psychologists
c. Behaviorists d. Behaviorists
5. Tolman’s theory was founded on these two psychological views. One of these
is the Gestalt psychologists and those of ____________?
a. Those of Bandura’s theories
b. Those of John Locke’s view of formal discipline
c. Those of John Watson, the behaviourist
d. Those of John Dewey, the pragmatist
6. Why does Tolman believed that learning is a cognitive process?
a. Because learning requires intelligent mind
b. Because it involves active awareness of cognitive development
c. Because it involves forming beliefs and obtaining knowledge
d. Because learning is individual’s power to survive
7. Purposive behaviorism is often seen as the link between behaviorism and
cognitive theory and is also referred to as ___________?
a. Social learning theory
b. Cognitive theory
c. Gestalt theory
d. Sign learning theory

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 8. Where does social learning theory focus?
a. Environment b. Family c. Friends and peers d.
Social context
True or False. Write true if the statement is correct and write false if it’s not, then
underline the word/s that are incorrect and write the correct answer through the
given space before each number.
__________1. Contemporary theory proposes that both reinforcement and
punishment have direct effects on learning.
__________2. Neo behaviorism has aspects of behaviorism but it also reaches out
to the cognitive perspective.
__________3. Latent learning is a kind of learning that remains or stays with the
individual until needed.
__________4. “Modeling may discourage previously forbidden behaviors” is one of
the effects of modeling on behavior.
__________5. On educational implications of Bandura’s theory, students often learn
a great deal simply by learning other people.

References
A. Book
 Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition
Process: Lorimar Publishing

B. Website
 https://www.academia.edu/34757010/
Module_8_Neo_Behaviorism_Tolman_and_Bandura_INRODUCTION. .
Retrieved November 17, 2019.
Unit 2: Cognitive Perspective
Topic 1: Gestalt Psychology
Gestalt psychology was at the forefront of the cognitive psychology. It served
as the foundation of the cognitive perspective to learning. It opposed the external
and mechanistic focus of behaviourism. It considered the mental processes and
products of perception.
Learning Outcomes
After completing this module, you should be able to:
1. Categorize specific applications of each theory in the teaching- learning
process
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 2. Demonstrate ways of applying gestalt psychology in the teaching- learning
process
Learning Content
GESTALT THEORY

Gestalt theory was the initial cognitive response to behaviorism. It

emphasized the importance of sensory wholes and the dynamic nature of visual
perception. The term gestalt means “form” or “configuration.” Psychologists Max
Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka studied perception and concluded that
perceivers (or learners) are not passive, but rather active. They suggested that
learners do not just collect information as is but they actively process and restructure
data in order to understand it. This is the perceptual process. Certain factors impact
on this perceptual process. Factors like past experience, needs, attitude and one’s
present situation can affect their perception.

According to the gestalt psychologists, the way we form our perceptions are
guided by certain principles or laws. These principles or laws determine what we see
or make of things or situations we meet.

Gestalt Principles

(1) Law of Proximity. Elements that are close together will be perceived as a
coherent object. On the left there appears to be three columns, while on the right,
there appears to be three horizontal rows. When objects we are perceiving are near
each
other, we perceive them as belonging together.

(2) Law of Similarity. Elements that look similar

will be perceived as part of the same form. There
seems to be a triangle in the square. We link
similar elements together.

(3) Law of Closure. We tend to fill the gaps or

“close” the figures we
perceive. We enclose a space by completing a
contour and ignoring
gaps in the figure.

(4) Law of Good Continuation. Individuals have the tendency

to continue contours whenever the elements of the
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pattern establish an implied direction. People tend
t draw a good continuous line.

(5) Law of Good Pragnanz. The stimulus will be organized into as

good a figure as possible. In this example, good refers to symmetry,\
simplicity and regularity. The figure is perceived as a square
overlapping a triangle, not a combination of several
complicated shaped. Based on our experiences with perception,
we “expect” certain patterns and therefore perceive that expected pattern.

(6) Law of Figure/Ground. We tend to pay

attention and perceive things in the
foreground first. A stimulus will be perceived
as separate from its ground. (Figures designed by
jenny Fultz of Anderson University)

Insight Learning

Gestalt psychology adheres to the idea of learning taking place by discovery

or insight. The idea of insight learning was first developed by Wolfgang Kohler in
which he described experiments with apes where the apes could use boxes and
sticks as tools to solve problems. In the box problem, a banana is attached to the top
of a chimpanzee’s cage. The banana is out of reach but can be reached by climbing
on and jumping from a box. Only one of Kohler’s apes (Sultan) could solve this
problem. A much more difficult problem which involved the stacking of boxes was
introduced by Kohler. This problem required the ape to stack one box on another,
and master gravitational problems by building a stable stack. Kohler also gave the
apes sticks which they used to rake food into the cage. Sultan, Kohler’s very
intelligent ape, was able to master a two-stick problem by insetting one stick into the
end of the other in order to reach the food In each of these problems, the important
aspect of learning was not reinforcement, but the coordination of thinking to create
new organizations (of materials). Kohler referred to this behavior as insight or
discovery learning.

Kohler proposed the view that might follows from the characteristics of objects
under consideration. His theory suggested that learning could occur when the
individual perceived the relationships of the elements before him and reorganizes
there elements and comes to a greater understanding or insight. This could occur
without reinforcement, and once it occurs, no review, training, or investigation is
necessary. Significantly, insight is not necessarily observable by another person.

Gestalt Principles and the Teaching-Learning Process

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 The six gestalt principles not only influence perception but they also impact on
learning. Other psychologists like Kurt Lewin expounded on Gestalt psychology. His
theory focusing on “life space” adhered to Gestalt psychology. He said that an
individual has inner and outer forces that affect his perceptions and also his learning.
Inner forces include his own motivation, attitudes and feelings. Outer forces may
include the attitude and behavior of the teacher and classmates. All these forces
interact and impact on the person’s learning. Maria Polito, an Italian psychologist,
writes about the relevance of Gestalt psychology to education.

Gestalt theory is focused on the experience of contact that occurs in the here
and now. It considers with interest the life space of teachers as well as students. It
takes interest in the complexity of experience, without neglecting anything, but
accepting and amplifying all that emerge. It stimulates learning as experience and
the experience as a source of learning. It appreciates the affections and meaning
that awe attribute to what we learn. Knowledge is conceived as a continuous
organization and rearrangement of information according to needs, purposes and
meanings. It asserts that learning is not accumulation but remodelling or insight.
Autonomy and freedom of the student is stimulated by the teacher. The time
necessary for assimilation and for cognitive and existential remodelling is respected.
The contact experience between teachers and students is given value: an authentic
meeting based on sharing ideas and affections.

Teaching and Learning Activities

 Read about cognitive perspectives or watch a video about these topics. Make
a summary of the different cognitive perspective

Learning materials and resources for supplementary reading.

 Reading text (pdf)

 Open Educational Sources

Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted

 Google classroom

 module

Assessment Task

Guide Questions

1. What are gestalt principles?

2. What are Gestalt Principles and the Teaching-Learning Process?

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 Activity 1

Do you sense good or evil? What was your experience in figuring out the
picture? (Easy, took time, etc.) What helped you perceived the interesting
picture? How did you go about examining the picture (focus on the
background, the foreground, the shape, etc.)?
Evaluation

True or False. Write T if the statement is correct and F if it is false.

_____1. The law of proximity explained that similar lessons should be grouped
together to
make learners develop understanding more effectively.
_____2. Gestalt theory was the initial cognitive response to essentialism.
_____3. The law of good continuation explained that lessons should be taught
closely to each
other.
_____4. According to the gestalt psychologists, the way we form our perceptions are
guided
by certain principles.
_____5. The law of closure tends to fill the gaps to the figure we perceive.

References:

A. Book

 Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition

Process: Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 17, 2019.

Topic 2: Information Processing

Information Processing is a cognitive theoretical framework that focuses on
how knowledge enters and is stored in and is retrieved from our memory. It is one of
the most significant cognitive theories in the last century and it has strong
implications on the teaching-learning process.
Learning outcomes
After completing this module, you should be able to:
1. discuss the processes involved in acquiring, storing and retrieving
knowledge; and
2. evaluate educational implications of the theory on information processing
Learning Content

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Information Processing Theory (IPT)

Relating how the mind and the computer work is a powerful analogy. The
terms used in the Information Processing Theory (IPT) extend this analogy. In fact,
those who program and design computers aim to make computers solve problems
through processes similar to that of the human mind.

Cognitive psychologists believe that cognitive processes influence the nature

of what is learned. They consider learning as largely an internal process, not an
external behavior change (as behaviorist theorists thought). They look into how we
receive, perceive, store and retrieve information. They believe that how a person
thinks about and interprets what he/she receives shapes what she/he will learn. All
those notions comprise what is called the information processing theory.

IPT describes how the learners receives information or (stimuli) from the
environment through the senses and what takes place in between determines
whether the information continue to pass through the sensory register, then the
short-term memory and long-term memory. Certain factors would also determine
whether the information will be retrieve or “remembered” when the learner needs it.

We first consider the types of knowledge that the learner may receive.

“Types” of Knowledge

 General vs. Specific: This involves whether the knowledge is useful in many
tasks, or only in one.
 Declarative: This refers to factual knowledge. They relate to the nature of how
things are. They maybe in the form of a word or an image.
 Procedural: This includes knowledge on how to do things.
 Episodic: This includes memories of life events.
 Conditional: This is about “knowing when and why” to apply declarative or
procedural strategies.
Stages in the Information Processing Theory

The stages of IPT involve the functioning of the senses, sensory register,
short term memory, and the long term memory. Basically, IPT asserts three primary
stages in the progression of external information becoming incorporated into the

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internal cognitive structure of choice (schema, concept, script, frame, mental model,
etc).

These three primary stages in IPT are:

 Encoding - Information is sensed, perceived and attended to.

 Storage - The information is stored for either a brief or extended period of
time, depending upon the processes following encoding.
 Retrieval - the information is brought back at the appropriate time and
reactivated for use on a current task, the true measure of effective memory.
What made IPT plausible is the notion that cognitive processes could described in a
stage-like model. The stages to processing follow a trail along which information is
taken into the memory system, and brought back (recalled) when needed. Most
theorist of information processing revolved around three main stages in the memory
process:

Sensory Register

The first step in the IP model holds all sensory information to a very brief time.

 Capacity: Our mind receives a great amount of information but it is more than
what our minds can hold or perceive
 Duration: The sensory register only holds the information for an extremely
brief period- the order of one to three seconds.
 There is a difference in duration based on modality: auditory memory is more
persistent than visual.
Short-Term Memory (STM or Working Memory)

 Capacity: The STM can only hold 5 to 9 “chunks” of information, sometimes

described as 7 + /-2. It is called working memory because it is where new
information is temporarily placed while it is mentally processed. STM
maintains information for a limited time, until the learner has adequate
researches to process the information or until the information is forgotten.
 Duration: around 18 seconds or less.
 To reduce the loss of information in 18 seconds, you need to do maintenance
rehearsal. It is using repetition to keep the information active on STM.

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Long- Term Memory (LTM)
The LTM is the final or permanent storing house for memory information. It holds
the stored information until needed again.
 Capacity: LTM has unlimited capacity.
 Duration: duration in the LTM is indefinite.
Executive Control Processes

The executive control processes involve the executive processor or what is

referred to as metacognitive skills. These processes guide the flow of information
through the system help the learner make informed decisions about how to
categorize, organize or interpret information.

Forgetting

Forgetting is the inability to retrieve or access information when needed.

There are two main ways in which forgetting likely occurs:

 Decay: information is not attended to, and eventually ‘fades’ away. Very
prevalent in working memory.
 Interference: New or old information 'blocks' access to the information in
question.
Methods for Increasing Retrieval for Information

1. Rehearsal: This is repeating information verbatim, either mentally or allowed.

2. Meaningful Learning: This is making connections between new information
and prior knowledge.
3. Organization: It is making connections among various pieces of information.
Info that is organized efficiently should be recalled.
4. Elaboration: This is adding additional ideas to new information based on what
one already knows. It is connecting new info with old to gain meaning.
5. Visual Imagery: This means forming a “teacher” of the information.
6. Generation: Things we ‘produce’ are easier to remember than things we
‘hear’.
7. Context: Remembering the situation helps recover information.
8. Personalization: It is making the information relevant to the individual.

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Other Memory Methods

1. Serial Position Effect (recency and primacy): You will remember the beginning
and end of a ‘list’ more readily.
2. Part Learning: Break up the ‘list’ or “chunk” information to increase
memorization.
3. Distributed Practice: Break up learning sessions, rather than cramming all the
info in at once (Massed Practice).
4. Mnemonic Aids: These are memory techniques that learners may employ to
help them retain and retrieve information more effectively.

The Information Processing Model

Information is received through the senses and goes to the sensory memory
for a brief amount of time. If not found relevant, information may decay. It goes to the
STM and if given attention and is perceived and found to be relevant, it is sent to the
LTM. If not properly encoded, forgetting occurs. Different cognitive processes
applied to the information will then determine if information can be retrieved when
needed later.

Teaching and Learning Activities

 Ask the students to discuss the topic as shown on the link provided. Write a
summary of your readings
https://lo.unisa.edu.au

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Learning materials and resources for supplementary reading.
 Handouts (pdf) upload
Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted
 Google classroom
 Module
 exercises
Assessment Task

Guide Questions

1. What is the importance of IPT or Information Processing Theory?

2. What is the difference between long term and short term theory?
3. What are some methods that can increase your retrieval of information?

Activity 24

As a small group, cite a teaching implication of the information process given

below. Number one is given.

Process Teaching Implication/s

1. Information is received through the 1.1 Be sure that the learners’

senses. senses are functioning well.
1.2

2. If information is not relevant, it 2.1

decays.
2.2

3. If information goes to the Short 3.1

Term Memory and if given attention
and is found to be relevant, it is sent 3.2
to the Long Term Memory.

4. If information is not properly 4.1

encoder, forgetting occurs.
4.2

5. There are methods to increase 5.1

retrieval of information when needed.

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 5.2

Evaluation

Essay. Answer the following questions briefly.

1. As a student, how are you going to use the different techniques to make
information processing more effective?
2. How will you apply this theory in your daily life?
3. What do you think is the importance of the IPM in your learning?

Reference:

A. Book

 Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition

Process: Lorimar Publishing

Topic 3: Gagne's Conditions of Learning

This module stipulates that there are several different types of or levels of
learning. The significance of these classifications is that each different type requires
different types of instruction. Gagne identifies five major categories of learning:
verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes.
Different internal and external conditions are necessary for each type of learning. For
example, for cognitive strategies to be learned, there ,must be a chance to practice
developing new solutions to problems; to learn attitudes, the learner must be
exposed to a credible role model or persuasive arguments.

Learning Outcomes

After completing this module, you should be able to:

1. outline the lesson using Gagne’s instruction events

2. explain Gagne’s conditions of learning;
3. make a simple lesson outline(teaching sequence) using Gagne’s instruction
events; and

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 4. articulate the benefits of using Gagne’s principles in teaching.

Learning Content

In his theory, Gagne specified several different types or levels of learning. He

stressed that different internal and external conditions are needed for each type of
learning, thus his theory is called conditions of learning. He also provided nine
instruction events that serve as basis for the sequencing of instruction.

Gagne's Conditions of Learning

1. Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes. Gagne's

theory asserts that there are several different types or levels of learning.
Futhermore, the theory implies that each different type of learning calls for
different types of instruction. Gagne named five categories of learning;
verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills
and attitudes. Distinct internal and external conditions are required for each
type of learning. For instance, for cognitive strategies to be learned, there
must be an opportunity for problem solving; to learn attitudes, the learner
must be exposed to credible role model or arguments that are convincing and
moving. Below are the categories of learning worth corresponding learning
outcomes and conditions of learning.

Category of Examples of Conditions of Learning

Learning Learning Outcome
Verbal Stating 1. Draw attention to
Information previously learned distinctive features by
materials such as variations in print and
facts, concepts, speech.
principles and
produces, e.g. 2. Present information so that
listing the 14 it can be made into chunks.
learner-centered
psychological 3. Provide a meaningful
principles. context for effective encoding
of information.

4. Provide cues for effective

recall and generalization of
information.
Intellectual Discriminations: 1. Call attention to distinctive
Skills: Distinguishing features.
Discrminations, objects, features or
Concrete symbols, e.g., 2. Stay within the limits of

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 Concepts, distinguishing an working memory.
Defined even and an odd
Concepts, number. 3. Stimulate the recall of
Rules, Higher previously learned
Order Rules Concrete Concepts: component.
Identifying classes
of concrete objects, 4. Present verbal cues to the
features or events ordering or combination of
e. g., picking out all components skills.
the red beads from
a bowl of beads. 5. Schedule occasions for
practice and spaced review.
Defined Concepts:
classifying new 6. Use a variety of contexts to
examples of events promote transfer.
or ideas by their
definition, e.g.,
nothing "she sells
sea shells" as
alliteration.

Rules: Applying a
single relationship
to solve a class of
problems, e.g.,
computing average
monthly income of a
company.

Order Rules:
Applying a new
combination of rules
to solve a compels
problem, e.g.,
generating a
balanced budget for
a school
organization.
Cognitive Employing personal 1. Describe or demonstrate
Strategies ways to guide the strategy.
learning, thinking,
acting and feeling, 2. Provide a variety of
e.g. Constructing occasions for practice using
concept maps of

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 topics being the strategy.
studied.
3. Provide informative
feedback as to the creativity
or origibality of the strategy or
outcome.

Attitudes Choosing personal 1. Establish an expectancy of

actions based on success associated with the
internal states of desired attitude.
understanding and
feeling, e.g., 2. Assure student
deciding to avoid identification with an admired
soft drinks and human model.
drinking at least 8
glasses of water 3. Arrange for communication
every day. or demonstration of choice of
personal action.

4. Give feedback from

successful performance; or
allow observation of feedback
in the human model.
Motor Skills Executing 1. Present verbal or other
performances guidance to cue the executive
involving the use of subroutine.
muscles, e.g., doing
the steps of the 2. Arrange repeated practice.
single dance.
3. Furnish immediate
feedback as to the accuracy of
performance.

4. Encourage the use of

mental practice.

2. Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned and

as a sequence of instruction. Gagne suggest that learning tasks for
intellectual skills can be organized in a hierarchy according to complexity;
stimulus recognition, response generation, procedure following, use of
terminology, discriminations, concept, formation, rule application, and problem
solving. The primary significance of the hierarchy is to identify prerequisites
that should be completed to facilitate learning at each level. Prerequisites are

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 identified by doing a task analysis of a learning/training task. Learning
hierarchies provide a basis for the sequencing of in instruction.
3. Events of learning operate on the learner in ways that constitute the
conditions of learning. These events should satisfy or provide the necessary
conditions for learning and serve as the basis for designing instruction and
selecting appropriate media. The theory includes nine instructional events
and corresponding cognitive processes.

(1) gaining attention (reception)

(2) informing learners of the objective (expectancy)

(3) stimulating recall of prior (selective perception)

(4) presenting the stimulus (selective perception)

(5) providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)

(6) eliciting performance (responding)

(7) providing feedback (reinforcement)

(8) assessing performance ( retrieval)

(9) enhancing retention and transfer (generalization)

Study the two examples of teaching sequences below. They reflect the events of
instruction.

Example: Lesson: Equilateral Triangles

Objective: For students to create equilateral triangles

Target group: Grade 4 pupils

1. Gain attention- show variety of computer generated triangles

2. Identify objective - pose question: "What is an equilateral triangle?"
3. Recall prior learning-review definition of equilateral triangle
4. Present stimulus- give definition of equilateral triangle
5. Guide learning-show example of how to create an equilateral triangle
6. Elicit performance- ask students to create 5 different examples
7. Provide feedback- check all examples as correct/incorrect
8. Asses performance- provide scores and remediation

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 9. Enhance retention/transfer- show pictures of objects and ask students
to identify equilaterals
Teaching and Learning Activities
 Read about Gagne's Conditions of Learning or watch a video about this topic.
Make a summary of the nine instructional events and corresponding cognitive
processes.
Learning materials and resources for supplementary reading.
 Handouts (pdf) upload
Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted
 Google classroom
 Module
 exercises
Assessment Task

Guide Questions

1. What are the different instructions required for different learning outcomes?
2. What ways constitute the conditions of learning?
3. Define what intellectual skills are to be learned and a sequence of instruction?

Activity 1

After reading the entire module, see if you can arrange the nine steps in
lesson presentation (instructional events) in their proper order. Read and arrange the
steps by numbering them. Form groups of 5 for this activity.(use Google Classroom
for grouping)

1. Guidance of student's performance

2. Recall prior learning
3. Enhance retention and transfer
4. Gain attention
5. Provide feedback
6. Assess performance
7. Present stimulus
8. Elicit performance
9. Identify the objective

Evaluation

Enumerate the categories of learning in Gagne's conditions of learning and

give your insight about it using graphic organizer.

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Reference:

A. Book

 Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition

Process: Lorimar Publishing

Topic 4: Ausubel’s Meaningful Verbal Learning/ Subsumption Theory

Many educational psychology theories often criticize the expository or

presentational manner of teaching. They say that teachers assume such a major role
in learning as providers of information, while students remain as passive receivers of
information. David Ausubel’s, instead of criticizing this manner of teaching, proposed
ways of improving it. He suggested the use of advance organizers. His ideas are
contained in his Theory of Meaningful Verbal Learning.

Learning Outcomes
After completing this module, you should be able to:
1. explain Ausubel’s subsumption theory; and
2. describe the development of the child’s ability to represent knowledge

Learning content

The main theme of Ausubel’s theory is that knowledge is hierarchically

organized; that new information is meaningful to the extent that it can be related
(attached, anchored) to what is already known. It is about how individuals learn large
amounts of meaningful material from verbal / textual presentations in a school
setting. He proposed the use of advance organizers as a tool for learning.

Basic Assumptions to Ausubel’s Meaningful Verbal Learning/

Subsumption Theory:

One of the strongest criticisms of the information processing model

was that it did not account for variation in the effort necessary to acquire knowledge
of different content types or by different learners. Ausubel was formally referring to
his theory as assimilation theory in order to “emphasize a major characteristic; the
important interactive role that existing cognitive structures play in the process of new

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learning” (Ausubel et al., 1978). To contextualize his theory, Ausubel et al.
distinguished between two types of learning, rote and meaningful, and argued that
contrary to some popular claims. Most school learning was not rote, but meaningful.

The rote learning of lists of nonsense syllables and arbitrarily paired

adjectives is representative of few defensible learning tasks in modern classrooms.
Like memorization of representational equivalents (lists of vocabulary in foreign
language study, the values of various constants in mathematics and science) tends
to form a very small portion of the curriculum, especially beyond the elementary
school years, once children have mastered the basic letter and number
symbols. While Meaningful learning of verbally presented materials constitutes the
principal means of augmenting the learner’s store of knowledge, both within and
outside the classroom. Hence, no research program purporting to advance this
objective can avoid coming to grips with the fundamental variables involved in
meaningful learning.

According to Ausubel et al. (1978) both rote and meaningful learning could
occur in two different modes, reception and discovery. Though not completely
against them, Ausubel et al. felt that “discovery methods of teaching hardly constitute
an efficient primary means of transmitting the content of an academic discipline. This
inefficiency was due to the extra effort required by the learner. Where in reception
learning “the entire content of what is to be learned is presented to the learner in its
final form” (Ausubel, 1961), discovery learning requires a much greater effort in
which learners must “rearrange a given array of information, integrate it with existing
cognitive structure, and reorganize or transform the integrated combination in such a
way as to create a desired end product or discover the missing means-end
relationship”. In the end “the discovered content is internalized just as in reception
learning”.

In verbal reception learning, presented material is merely “internalized,” i.e.,

made available (functionally reproducible) for future use. Reception learning is
meaningful provided that the learner adopts a set to relate the material to cognitive
structure, and that the material itself is logically, i.e., non-arbitrarily, relatable thereto.
In other words, pupils do not independently have to discover concepts or

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generalizations before they can understand or use them meaningfully. (Ausubel,
1962)

Ausubel assumed a model of cognitive organization that supposed “the

existence of a cognitive structure that is hierarchically organized in terms of highly
inclusive conceptual traces under which are subsumed traces of less inclusive sub-
concepts as well as traces of specific informational data”. Ausubel et al. (1978) later
described three learning processes by which new knowledge is assimilated into
existing cognitive structure.

Ausubel’s Meaningful Verbal Learning/ Subsumption Theory

Focus of Ausubel’s Theory

1. The important factor influencing learning is the quantity, clarity and

organization of the learner’s present knowledge. This present knowledge
consists of facts, concepts, propositions, theories and raw perceptual data
that the learner has available to his/her cognitive structure.

2. Meaningful learning takes place when an idea to be learned is related in some

sensible way to ideas that the learner already posses. Ausubel believed that
before new material can be strengthened. When this is done, acquisition and
retention of new information is facilitated (assimilation). The way to strengthen
the student’s cognitive structure is by using advance organizers that allow
students to already have a bird’s eye view or to see the “big picture “of the
topic to be learned even before going to the details.

Ausubel’s belief of the use of advance organizers is anchored on the principle

of subsumption. He thought that the primary way of learning was subsumption: a
process by which new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive
structure. Likewise, Ausubel pointed out, that what is learned is based on what is
already known. This signifies that one’s own prior knowledge and biases limit and
affect what is learned. Also retention of new knowledge is greater because it is
based on prior concrete concepts.

Meaningful learning can take place through four processes:

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 Derivative subsumption. This describes the situation in which the new
information you learn is an example of a concept that you already learned. Let’s say
you have acquired a basic concept such as “bird”. You know that a bird has feathers,
a beak, lays egg (schema). Now you learn about a kind of that you have never seen
before, let’s says an Isabela oriole (assimilation), that conforms attached to your
previous understanding of bird. Your new knowledge of Isabela oriole is attached to
your concept of bird, without substantially altering that concept in any way
(accommodation). So in Ausubel’s theory, you had learned about Isabela oriole
through the process of derivative subsumption.

Correlative subsumption. Examine this example. Now, let’s say you

see new kind of bird that has a really big body and long strong legs. It doesn’t fly but
can run fast. In order to accommodate this new information, you have to expand your
concept of bird to include the possibility of being big and having long legs. You now
include your concept of an ostrich to your previous concept of what a bird is. You
have learned about this new kind of bird through the process of correlative
subsumption. In a sense you might say that this is more “valuable” learning than that
of derivative subsumption, since it enriches the higher-level concept.

Superordinate learning. Imagine that a child was well acquainted with

passion pomegranate, strawberry, grapes, apple etc., but the child did not know, until
he or she was taught, that these were all examples of fruits. In this case, the child
already knew a lot of examples of the concept, but did not know the concept itself
until it was taught to him/her. This is Superordinate learning.

Combinatorial learning. This is when newly acquired knowledge

combines with prior knowledge to enrich the understanding of both concepts. The
first three learning processes all include new information that relates to a hierarchy at
a level that is either below or above previously acquired knowledge. Combinatorial
learning is different; it describes a process by which the new idea is derived from
another idea that is neither higher nor lower in the hierarchy, but at the same level (in
a different, but related, “branch”). It is a lot like as learning by analogy. For example,
to teach someone how plants “breathe” you might relate it to previously acquired
knowledge of human respiration where man inhales oxygen and exhales carbon
dioxide.

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 Advance Organizers.

The advance organizer is a major instructional tool proposed by

Ausubel. The advance organizer gives you two benefits:

1. You will find it easier to connect new information with what you already know
about the topic.

2. You can readily see how the concepts in a certain topic are related to each
other.

As you go about learning and go through the four learning processes, the
advance organizers helps you link the new learning to your existing scheme. As
such, advance organizers facilitate learning by helping you organize and strengthen
your cognitive structure.

Ausubel stressed that advance organizers are not the same with overviews
and summaries which simply emphasize key ideas that presented at the same level
of abstraction and generality as the rest of the material. Organizers acts as a
subsuming bridge between new learning material and existing related ideas.

Types of Advance Organizers:

1. Expository - describes the new content.

2. Narrative – presents the new information in the form of a story to students.

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 3.

Skimming – is done by looking over the new content to gain abasic overview.

4. Graphic Organizer – visual set up or outline the new information. This may
include pictographs, descriptive patterns, concept patterns and concept maps.

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 Ausubel’s Meaningful Verbal Learning /Subsumption Theory.

Ausubel’s theory is concerned with how individuals learn large amounts of

meaningful material from verbal/textual presentations in a school setting (in contrast
to theories developed in the context of laboratory experiments). According to
Ausubel, learning is based upon the kinds of superordinate, representational, and
combinatorial processes that occur during the reception of information. A primary
process in learning is subsumption in which new material is related to relevant ideas
in the existing cognitive structure on a substantive, non-verbatim basis. Cognitive
structures represent the residue of all learning experiences; forgetting occurs
because certain details get integrated and lose their individual identity.

Furthermore Ausubel emphasizes that advance organizers are different from

overviews and summaries which simply emphasize key ideas and are presented at
the same level of abstraction and generality as the rest of the material. Organizers
act as a subsuming bridge between new learning material and existing related ideas.

Ausubel’s theory has commonalities with Gestalt theories and those that
involve schema (e.g., Bartlett) as a central principle. There are also similarities
with Bruner’s “spiral learning” model , although Ausubel emphasizes that
subsumption involves reorganization of existing cognitive structures not the
development of new structures as constructivist theories suggest. Ausubel was
apparently influenced by the work of Piaget on cognitive development.

Teaching and Learning Activities

Watch the video as shown on the link provided. Make a summary of Ausubel’s
meaningful learning..

https://aminsalmee.wixsite.com

Learning materials and resources for supplementary reading.

 Reading text (pdf)

Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted

 Google classroom

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  Module

Assessment Task

Guide Questions

1. How do advance organizers hasten the learning of the students?

2. As a future educator, how would you apply Ausubel’s Meaningful Verbal

Learning/ Subsumption Theory?

3. How does Ausubel’s theory , Gestalt Psychology and Bruner’s theory are
interrelated and explain how their concepts and principles complement each
other.

Activity 12

Directions: Choose any topics in this module and present your output using a
graphic organizer. Work individually.

Evaluation

Name:__________________________ Course & Year

level:___________

Directions: Give your answer on the following questions. Write it on a sheet

of paper.

1. Discuss the implications of four meaningful learning processes?

2. How can the advance organizer help the students?

3. How it important is that advance organizer is presented prior to the

discussion?

References:

A. Books

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  Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition
Process: Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 18, 2019

 Underwood, B. J. (1959). Verbal learning in the educative processes. Harvard

Educational Review. Retrieved November 18, 2019

 Ebbinghaus (1913). Individual differences in retention and acquisition, as well

as differences based on different content types were noted at least as early as
1913.

Retrieved November 18, 2019

 https://principlesoflearning.wordpress.com/dissertation/chapter-3-literature-
review-2/the-cognitive-perspective/subsumption-theory-david-p-ausubel-
1962/. Retrieved November 18, 2019

Topic 5: Bruner’s Constructivist Theory

Jerome Bruner was one of the first proponents of constructivism. A major

theme in the theory of Bruner is that learning is an active process in which learners
construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current or past knowledge. The
outcome of cognitive development is thinking. The intelligent mind creates from
experience "generic coding systems that permit one to go beyond the data to new
and possibly fruitful predictions" (Bruner, 1957, p. 234). Thus, children as they grow
must acquire a way of representing the "recurrent regularities" in their environment.

So, to Bruner, important outcomes of learning include not just the concepts,
categories, and problem-solving procedures invented previously by the culture, but
also the ability to "invent" these things for oneself.

Cognitive growth involves an interaction between basic human capabilities

and "culturally invented technologies that serve as amplifiers of these capabilities."
These culturally invented technologies include not just obvious things such as
computers and television, but also more abstract notions such as the way a culture
categorizes phenomena, and language itself. Bruner would likely agree with
Vygotsky that language serves to mediate between environmental stimuli and the
individual's response.

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Learning Outcomes
After completing this module, you should be able to:
1. discuss constructivism in facilitating learning;
2. describe strategies to promote knowledge construction and to facilitate
conceptual learning; and
3. explain the process of the spiral curriculum

Learning Content

The Bruner’s main concepts

Representation of Knowledge
Bruner suggested the ability to represent knowledge in three stages. These
three stages also become the three ways to represent knowledge.

1. Enactive representation (action-based)

This appears first. It involves encoding action based information and storing it
in our memory. For example, in the form of movement as a muscle memory, a baby
might remember the action of shaking a rattle.

The child represents past events through motor responses, i.e. an infant will
“shake a rattle” which has just been removed or dropped, as if the movements
themselves are expected to produce the accustomed sound. And this is not just
limited to children.

Many adults can perform a variety of motor tasks (typing, sewing a shirt,
operating a lawn mower) that they would find difficult to describe in iconic (picture) or
symbolic (word) form.

2. Iconic representation

This is where information is stored visually in the form of images (a mental

picture in the mind’s eye). For some, this is conscious; others say they don’t
experience it. This may explain why, when we are learning a new subject, it is often
helpful to have diagrams or illustrations to accompany verbal information.

3. Symbolic representation

This develops last. This is where information is stored in the form of a code or
symbol, such as language. This is the most adaptable form of representation, for
actions & images have a fixed relation to that which they represent. Dog is a
symbolic representation of a single class.

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 Symbols are flexible in that they can be manipulated, ordered, classified etc.,
so the user isn’t constrained by actions or images. In the symbolic stage, knowledge
is stored primarily as words, mathematical symbols, or in other symbol systems.

Bruner's constructivist theory suggests it is effective when faced with new

material to follow a progression from enactive to iconic to symbolic representation;
this holds true even for adult learners. A true instructional designer, Bruner's work
also suggests that a learner even of a very young age is capable of learning any
material so long as the instruction is organized appropriately, in sharp contrast to the
beliefs of Piaget and other stage theorists.

Spiral curriculum

Bruner stressed that teaching should always lead to boosting cognitive

development. Students will not understand the concept if teachers plan to teach it
using only the teacher’s level of understanding. Instruction needs to be anchored on
the learners ‘cognitive capabilities. The task of the instructor is to translate
information to be learned into a format appropriate to the learner’s current state of
understanding. Curriculum should be organized in a spiral manner so that the
student continually builds upon what they have already learned.

THE THEORY OF INSTRUCTION

Bruner (1966) states that a theory of instruction should address four major
aspects:
1. Predisposition to learn. He introduced the ideas of “readiness for learning“.
Bruner believed that any subject could be taught at any stage of development in a
way that fits the child's cognitive abilities. This feature specifically states the
experiences which move the learner toward a love of learning in general or of
learning something in particular.

 Motivational cultural and personal factors contribute to this. Bruner

emphasized social factors and early teachers and parental influence on this.
 He believed that learning and problem solving emerged out of exploration.
Part of the task of a teacher is to maintain and direct a child a spontaneous
explorations.
2. Structure of Knowledge. This refers to the ways in which a body of Knowledge
can be structured so that it can be most readily gasped by the Leaner. Bruner
emphasized the role of structure in learning and how it may be made central in
teaching. Structure refers to relationships among factual elements and techniques.

a. Understanding the fundamental structure of a subject makes it more

comprehensible.

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 b. To generate knowledge which is transferable to other context, fundamental
principles or patterns are best suited.

c. The discrepancy between beginning and advanced knowledge in a subject

area is diminished when instruction centers on I structure and principles of
orientation.

3. Effective sequencing. No one sequencing will fit every learner, but in general,
the lesson can be presented in increasing difficulty. Sequencing, or lack of it, can
make learning easier or more difficult Spiral curriculum refers to the idea of revisiting
basic ideas 'over and over, building upon them and elaborating to the level of hill
understanding and mastery.

4. Reinforcement. Rewards and punishments should be selected and paced

appropriately. He investigated motivation for learning. He felt that ideally, interest in
the subject matter is the best stimulus for learning. Brunet did not like external
competitive goals such as grades or class making

Categorization

Bruner gave much attention to categorization information in the construction

of internal cognitive maps. He believed that perception, conceptualization,
learning, decision making inferences all involved categorization. Categories are
“rules" that specify four things about objectives. Four things are given below:

1. Criteria attribute required characteristics for inclusion of an object in a

category.
2. The second rule prescribes how the criteria attributes are combined.
3. The third rule assigns weight to various properties.
4. The fourth rule sets acceptance limits on attributes.

There are several kinds of categories:

1. Identity categories include objects based on their attributes or features.

2. Equivalent categories (provide rules for combining categories).

Equivalence can be determined by affective criteria, which render objects '

equivalent by emotional reactions, functional criteria, based on related functions (for
example, “car", “truck”. “van" could all be combined in an inclusive category called
“motor vehicle"), or by formal criteria.

3. Coding systems are categories that serve to recognize sensory input.

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 They are major organizational variables in higher cognitive functioning. Going
beyond immediate sensory data involves making inferences on the basis of related
categories. Related categories form a “coding system.” These are hierarchical
arrangements of related categories. The principles of Bruner launched the notion
that people interpret the world mostly in terms of similarities and differences. This is
a valuable contribution to how individuals construct their own models or View of the
world.

Teaching and Learning Activities

 Read about Bruner’s main concepts. Make a summary of the different
Bruner’s main concepts.
Learning materials and resources for supplementary reading.
 Handouts (pdf) upload
Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted
 Google classroom
 Module
 exercises
Assessment Task

Guide Questions

1. How can we apply Bruner’s theory to teaching learning?

2. How learning occur in constructivism?
3. How does constructivism influence learning?

Activity 13

Directions: Encircle the missing word in the puzzle bellow.

W E R G Y G N J O S E K L O

C O N S T R U C T I V I S M

O N E Y E S L E G C I A A

M L U M A A O D G O T L R H

E Y J B C N V A S N C O I A

C F I O H A E A D I A Y S L

Q O R L E O X E R C N A T D

S H N I R I L G G E E L O S
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 P E R C E P T I O N H E T G

P L A T O J K L D A G G L E

1. Jerome Bruner was one of the first proponents of _________________.

2. It involves encoding action based information and storing it in our memory.

3. This may explain why, when we are learning a new subject, it is often helpful to
have diagrams or illustrations to accompany verbal information.

4. This is the most adaptable form of representation, for actions & images have a
fixed relation to that which they represent. Dog is a symbolic representation of a
single class.

5. Bruner’s believed that____________, ______________, learning, decision

making inferences all involved categorization. Categories are “rules" that specify four
things about objectives.

Evaluation

Multiple Choice. Encircle the correct answer.

1. He introduced the ideas of “readiness for learning“

a. Vygotsky
b. Aristotel
c. Bruner
2. This are “rules" that specify four things about objectives.
a. Representation
b. Reinforcement
c. Categories
3. If baby Ana might remember the action of shaking a rattle, what is the
representation of knowledge is done.
a. Symbolic representation
b. Enactive representation
c. Iconic representation
4-10. Essay
 How does constructivism influence learning?
 How can you apply constructivism in a real situation of your life?

References:

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A. Books
 Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition
Process: Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 18, 2019
 Saul McLeod (Evauducation.Info). Retrieved November 18, 2019
 Bruner, J.S. (1957). Going beyond the information given. New York :Norton

Unit 3: Cognitive Processes

Topic 1: Constructivism: Knowledge Construction/ Concept Learning

This module discusses constructivism which was mentioned in the previous

modules of Piaget and Bruner. It is the distillation of most of the principles of
cognitive psychologist.

Learning Outcomes
After completing this module, you should be able to:
1. Discuss constructivism in facilitating learning
2. Describe strategies to promote knowledge construction and to
facilitate conceptual learning
Learning content
Two Views of Constructivism

1. Individual Constructivism.

This is also called cognitive constructivism. It emphasizes individual, internal

construction of knowledge. It is largely based on Piaget’s theory. Proponents of this
type choose child-centered and discovery learning. They believe the learners should
be allowed to discover principles through their own exploration rather than direct
instruction by the teacher.

2. Social Constructivism.

This View emphasizes that “knowledge exists in a social context and is initially
shared with others instead of being represented solely in the mind of an individual.” It
is based on Vygotsky’s theory. Here, construction of (know1edge is shared by two or
more people. According to social constructivists, the opportunities to interact and
share among learners help to shape and refine their ideas. Knowledge construction
becomes social, not individual.

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Characteristics of Constructivism

Whether one takes the individual or social view of constructivism, there are
four characteristics that these two views have in common. According to Eggen and
Kauchak, these are:

1. Learners construct understanding. As discussed earlier, constructivists do not

View learners as just empty vessels waiting to be filled up. They see learners as
active thinkers who interpret new information based on what they already know.
They construct knowledge in a way that makes sense to them.

2. New learning depends on current understanding. Background information is

very important. It is through the present views or scheme that the learner has that
new information will be interpreted.

3. Learning is facilitated by social interaction. Constructivists believe in creating a

“community of learners” within classrooms. Learning communities help learners take
responsibility for their own learning. Learners have a lot of opportunities to cooperate
and collaborate to solve problems and discover things. Teachers play the role of a
facilitator rather than an expert who has all the knowledge.

4. Meaningful learning occurs within authentic learning tasks. An authentic task

is one that involves a learning activity that involves constructing knowledge and
understanding that is so akin to the knowledge and understanding needed when
applied in the real world. Example, 3 writing activity where six-year olds prepare a
checklist of things they need to do in school is a more an authentic activity than for
them to be working only on tracing worksheets with dotted lines.

ORGANIZING KNOWLEDGE

Concepts. A concept is a way of grouping or categorizing objects of events in our

mind. A concept, of “teach” includes a group of tasks Such as model, discuss,
illustrate, explain, assist, etc. In your life as a student you would learn thousands of
concepts, some simple ones, others more complicated that may take you to learn
them more gradually. The concepts you learn are also revised as you learn more
and experience more.

Concepts as Feature Lists. Learning a Concept involves learning specific features

that characterize positive instance of the concept, Included here are defining
features and correlational feature. A defining feature is a characteristic present in
ALL instances. Example, a triangle has three sides. Having three sides is a defining
feature of a triangle because ALL triangles should have three sides. If one doesn’t,
then it is not a triangle. A correlational feature is one that is present in many positive
instances but not essential for concept membership. For example, a mother is loving.
Being loving is a feature commonly present in the concept mother. But a mother may
not be loving. So “being loving” is only a correlational feature, not a defining one.

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Concepts as Prototypes. A prototype is an idea or a visual image of a “typical”
example. It is usually formed based on the positive instances that learners encounter
most often. Example, close your eyes now and for a moment think of a cat. Picture in
mind what it looks like. You probably thought of the an image of the common cat we
see, rather than some rare breed or species. Once learners have their own concept
prototypes, the new examples that they see are checked against this existing
prototype.

Concepts as Exemplars. Exemplars represent a variety of examples. It allows

learners to know that an example under a concept may have variability. Example, a
learner’s concept of vegetable may include a wide variety of different examples like
cauliflower, kangkong, cabbage, string beans, squash, corn, potatoes. When he
encounters a new type of vegetable like “bitsuelas”, he would search from the
exemplars he knows and looks for one that is most similar, like string beans.

Making Concept-learning Effective. as a future teacher, you can help

students learn concepts by doing the following:

 Provide a clear definition of the concept. Make the defining features very
concrete and prominent
 Give a variety of positive instances.
 Give negative instances
 Cite a “best example” or a prototype
 Provide opportunity for learners to identify positive and negative instances
 Ask learners to think of their own example of the concept
 Point out how concepts can be related to each other

Schemas and scripts. A Schema is an organized body of knowledge about

something. It is like a file of information you hold in your mind about something. Like
a schema of what a teacher is. A script is a schema that includes a series of
predictable events about a specific activity.

Applying Constructivism in Facilitating Learning

Aim to make learners understand a few key ideas in an in-depth manner, rather
than taking up so many topics superficially.
 Give varied examples.
 Provide opportunities for experimentation.
 Provide lots of opportunities for quality interaction. . Have lots of hands-on
activities.
 Relate your topic to 'real life situations.
 Do not depend on the explanation method all the time.
Teaching and Learning Activities
 Ask the students to read a research or study related to knowledge
construction or concept learning. Students report on their write
up( through Google classroom)

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Learning materials and resources for supplementary reading.
 Handouts (pdf) upload
Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted
 Google classroom
 Module
 exercises
Assessment Task

Guide Questions

1. What is constructivism theory?

2. What is constructivism in teaching and learning?

Activity 14
Directions: Arrange the words below and give your own understanding about it.
JUMBLE WORDS GIVEN DEFINITION YOUR OWN OPINION
1.IDIDUANVIL This is also called
TSMRCOUCTNSIVI cognitive constructivism. It
emphasizes individual,
internal construction of
knowledge.
2.CIOSAL This View emphasizes
CUCTITRVISOSMN that “knowledge exists in
a social context and is
initially shared with others
instead of being
represented solely in the
mind of an individual.”
3. VEHIRISOBAUTS They saw learning as a
change in behaviour
brought about by
experience with little
acknowledgement of the
mental or internal aspects
of learning
4. OCCPTNSEI way of grouping or
categorizing objects of
events in our mind
5. MCHASE an organized body of
knowledge about

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 something.

Evaluation

Essay. Answer the following questions.

1. What are two views of constructivism? Give your own understanding about it
and Cite simple application in real life situation.
2. How does constructivism help the learners and facilitators in the field of
education?
3. As a future educator how can you apply constructivism in educating learners?

References:
A. Book

 Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition

Process: Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 18, 2019

Topic 2: Transfer of Learning

This module focuses on transfer of learning happens when learning in one

context or with one set of materials affects performance in another context or with
other related materials. Simply, it is applying to another situation what was previously
learned.

Learning outcome

After completing this module, you should be able to:

1. apply principles of transfer in facilitating transfer of learning

Learning content

Transfer is a very significant concept in education and learning theory

because most those concerned in education aim to achieve transfer.
Frequently, the circumstance of learning (classrooms, workbooks, tests, drills)
differs significantly from the situations when what is learned is to be applied
(in the home, on the job, within complex tasks). As a result, the educational
goals are not met until transfer occurs. This makes transfer a wry important
aspect of instruction. It may be true that in most cases the goa1 of transfer of
learning from classroom to real life situations is not achieved So it is vital that
as a future teacher you have a clear understanding of how best to teach your
learners so that transfer of learning is facilitated. After all what good is there in
providing your learners with tons of knowledge and a multitude of skills if they
cannot apply them when they need to.

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 Different Levels and Types of Learners

The levels of transfer are often referred to as positive and negative. In

addition, there are both subtle and marked differences in types of transfer.
Many of the differences lead to distinctions in how transfer is classified
depending on the level of complexity of the transfer.

1. Positive Transfer

When learning in one context improves learning or performance in another

context this is called positive transfer. For example, if someone learning a
new database package has background knowledge of databases or has used
a different database package they are likely to benefit in terms of time taken
to learn the new package. Or, for example, the previous experience of
learning algebra facilitates learning statistics.

2. Negative Transfer

Negative transfer occurs when previous learning or experience inhibits or

interferes with learning or performance in a new context. For instance, a
person for whom schooling was and unpleasant experience may avoid
‘classroom’ situations. It is common for tourists accustomed to driving on the
right hand side of the road to experience difficulty adjusting to driving on the
left hand side in New Zealand and Australia. Bransford, Brown and Cocking
(2000) suggest that previous experiences or learning can hinder the learning
of new concepts. They provide the example of where the prior experience of
learning to walk upright, on what appears to be a flat earth, hinders the
learning of concepts in physics and astronomy. Simple versus complex
transfer. Simple transfer happens when little or no effort is required to apply
what has been learned in one situation to a new situation. In class, students
are taught how to use a spread sheet to create a budget. Later they need to
create a budget for a club trip, and set up a spread sheet for this. This is an
example of simple transfer. However, if the same students were engaged in
gathering data for a research project and thought about the ways in which the
spread sheeting program could assist with the data management and
analysis, this would be an example of more complex transfer.

3. Near and Far Transfer

Another distinction used is between near and far transfer. Usually these terms
distinguish the closeness or distance between the original learning and the
transfer task, for example, learning to shift gears in a truck is an example of

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 near transfer for someone who has already learned to shift gears in a car.
Near transfer has also been seen as the transfer of learning within the school
context, or between a school task and a very similar task. For example, when
students answer similar questions in tests to those they have practised in
class. Far transfer is used to refer to the transfer of learning from the school
context to a non-school context. For example, skills learned in mathematics
such as taking care and checking all alternatives, when used in making
investment decisions is an example of far transfer.

4. Automatic and Mindful Transfer

When an individual responds spontaneously within a transfer situation, which

is very similar to the learning situation then this is automatic transfer. For
instance, learning to read English in one class, results in the learner
automatically reading English language in another context. Perkins and
Salomon (1996b) use the terms low and high road transfer to differentiate the
mechanisms of automatic and mindful transfer. Gradually, with time and
practice, the automatic transfer effect will extend or ‘reach out’ over the low
road. For example, the school student who is reading and writing in diverse
subjects is slowly and gradually gaining expertise in reading English. In
contrast, mindful, high road transfer is deliberate and involves conscious
thought and intellectual effort, and occurs in situations where there are
significant gaps or differences between the original and the transfer situations.
In an education or training course participants learn about a process in a
controlled environment. The problems encountered in the educational setting
tend to be well defined. In the workplace it may not always be obvious when,
or even desirable to use the procedure. For example, there tend to be lengthy
delays when a key person is absent, and a substantial backlog of work. The
surface question is what could be done to speed up the process, and to
automate it as much as possible. However, in real life other problems could
arise: the staff member is proud of their existing system; the existing system is
not documented; does the operating system used by the company support the
software required; what about the compatibility between branches; what about
staff training; is there money in the budget and will a transition period be
required?

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Teaching and Learning Activities
 Make a poem or a song on principles of transfer in facilitating transfer of
learning
Learning materials and resources for supplementary reading.
 Reading text (pdf) upload
Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted
 Google classroom
 module
Assessment Task

Guide Questions

1. How does transfer of learning affect individual?

2. Why is it important to have a conditions and principles of transfer of learning?

3. When do positive and negative transfer of learning occur?

Activity 15

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 Directions: Write the factors affecting transfer of learning and cite your own
implication.

FACTORS AFFECTING OWN IMPLICATION

TRANSFER OF LEARNING

Similarity between two learning

situation

Degree of
meaningfulness/relevance of
learning

Length of instructional time

Variety of learning experiences

Context for learner's experience

Focus on principles rather than

tasks

Emphasis on metacognition

Evaluation

Multiple choice: Encircle the letter of the correct answer.

1. Which of the following is a near transfer scenario?

a. using a mathematical procedure on a similar problem with different

problems.

b. applying study skills learned in school to job performance.

c. using problem solving learned in the real world to school problems.

d. remembering how to solved problem that you've already solved before.

2. Angel is learning new language, and she is using many the same skills she
used when learned other languages. This is an example of:

a. transfer of learning

b. linguistic aptitude

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 c. modeling instruction

d. specific feedback

3. Using a problem solving strategy that you learned in math class to help you
when you are out shopping is an example of _____ transfer

a. far

b. near

c. real-world

d. true

ESSAY. Answer the following questions in your own understanding.

1. What is the importance of transfer of learning?

2. Give at least 3 methods a teacher can use to facilitate transfer of learning.

3. What are the educational implications of transfer of learning? Explain the

importance of

each implication.

4. How can you promote transfer of learning in the classroom?

References:

A. Book

 Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition

Process: Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 18, 2019

B. Websites

 https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=http://
sciweb01.bard.edu/dev/uploads/images/3.-Leberman-et-al.-transfer-of-
learning.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwjL_5H7oOzlAhVJHKYKHYpDBosQFjAKegQIARA
B&usg=AOvVaw2RXMNtNp9oZmvQkA-_3RxP. Retrieved November 18,
2019

 https://www.academia.edu › Written...Web results (PDF) Written Report on

'Transfer of Learning' - Theories of Learning | Fritz. Retrieved November 18,
2019

Topic 3: The Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of Education Objectives

This module presents the original and the revised Bloom’s Taxonomy
of Educational Objectives. Although the revised taxonomy came out years

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 ago, ' it is important to still present both the old and the revised to have a
complete understanding and better appreciation of the taxonomy’s use in
education.

Learning outcome

After completing this module, you should be able to:

1. formulate learning outcomes reflecting the different levels of the
revised taxonomy

Learning content

Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives

Bloom’s taxonomy is a classification system used to define and

distinguish different levels of human cognition—i.e., thinking, learning, and
understanding. Educators have typically used Bloom’s taxonomy to inform or
guide the development of assessments (tests and other evaluations of student
learning), curriculum (units, lessons, projects, and other learning activities),
and instructional methods such as questioning strategies.

Original Taxonomy

Bloom’s taxonomy was originally published in 1956 by a team of

cognitive psychologists at the University of Chicago. It is named after the
committee’s chairman, Benjamin Bloom (1913–1999). The original taxonomy
was organized into three domains: Cognitive, Affective, and Psychomotor.
Educators have primarily focused on the Cognitive model, which includes six
different classification levels: Knowledge, Comprehension, Application,
Analysis, Synthesis, and Evaluation. The group sought to design a logical
framework for teaching and learning goals that would help researchers and
educators understand the fundamental ways in which people acquire and
develop new knowledge, skills, and understandings. Their initial intention was
to help academics avoid duplicative or redundant efforts in developing
different tests to measure the same educational objectives. The system was
originally published under the title Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The
Classification of Educational Goals, Handbook 1: Cognitive Domain.Some
users of the taxonomy place more emphasis on the hierarchical nature of the
framework, asserting that the first three elements—Knowledge,
Comprehension, and Application—represent lower levels of cognition and
learning, while Analysis, Synthesis, and Evaluation are considered higher-
order skills. For this reason, the taxonomy is often graphically represented as
a pyramid with higher-order cognition at the top.

While Bloom’s taxonomy initially received little fanfare, it gradually grew

in popularity and attracted further study. The system remains widely taught in

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 undergraduate and graduate education programs throughout the United
States, and it has also been translated into multiple languages and used
around the world.

DOMAINS IN BLOOM’S ORIGINAL TAXONOMY

DOMAIN OVERVIEW ABILITIES

COGNITIVE Content and Knowledge

intellectual knowledge:
Comprehension
What do I want
learners to know? Application

Evaluation

Synthesis

AFFECTIVE Emotional Receiving

knowledge:
Responding
What do I want
learners to think or care Valuing
about? Organizing

Characterizing

PSYCHOMOTOR Physical/ Perception

mechanical knowledge:
What action(s) do I want Simulation
learners to be able to Conformation
perform?
Production

Mastery

THE SIX LEVELS OF THE COGNITIVE DOMAIN OF BLOOM’S

ORIGINAL TAXONOMY

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 The knowledge level, at the bottom of the hierarchy, is defined as
remembering or retrieving previously learned material. Learning objectives at
this level often include defining key terms, listing steps in a process, or
repeating something heard or seen. For example, an objective for an
orientation session might include new hires recognizing a correct description
of how employees become vested in the company’s retirement plan. In this
case, knowledge-level objectives are clearly critical, as they are foundational
to understanding additional materials. However, designers tend to write too
many knowledge-level objectives because they find it so easy to pick out
definitions and details.

Comprehension represents the largest category of cognitive skills and

abilities. The key skill at this level is processing new information. For example,
after orientation new hires might be asked to use the benefits information they
were given to answer basic questions such as, if a person starts in the middle
of the month, when do medical benefits begin?

At the application level, a learner should be able to solve a new

problem by applying information without having to be prompted. Objectives at
this level might require learners to interpret information, demonstrate mastery
of a concept, or apply a skill learned. At an orientation, for example,
participants might be asked to apply time-off calculations to their own
schedules.

Analysis requires learners to recognize relationships among parts.

Objectives at this level of the hierarchy often include verbs such as
differentiate, compare and contrast, criticize, or experiment. At an employee
orientation, participants might be asked to classify workers into different
categories according to eligibility for unpaid leave

Synthesis calls for creative behavior because learners produce newly

constructed and, many times, unique products. At this level, objectives might
have learners create a plan, propose an idea, design a product, or organize
information. During an employee orientation, for example, participants might
plan the best way to maximize use of the 401K plan.

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 Evaluation involves making judgments about value. Learning
objectives at this level require learners to measure, value, estimate, choose,
or revise something, perhaps information, a product—or solve a problem. A
newly hired employee, for example, might need to evaluate which insurance
plan provides the most appropriate coverage.

REVISED TAXONOMY

In 2001, another team of scholars—led by Lorin Anderson, a former

student of Bloom’s, and David Krathwohl, a Bloom colleague who served on
the academic team that developed the original taxonomy—released a revised
version of Bloom’s taxonomy called A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and
Assessing: A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. The
“Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy,” as it is commonly called, was intentionally
designed to be more useful to educators and to reflect the common ways in
which it had come to be used in schools.

In the revised version, three categories were renamed and all the
categories were expressed as verbs rather than nouns. Knowledge was
changed to Remembering, Comprehension became Understanding, and
Synthesis was renamed Creating. In addition, Creating became the highest
level in the classification system, switching places with Evaluating. The
revised version is now Remembering, Understanding, Applying, Analyzing,
Evaluating, and Creating, in that order.

Uses of Revised Taxonomy

The revised taxonomy provides a framework that helps educators in

the following ways:

1. It provides educators with a common set of terms and levels about learning
outcomes that help in planning across subject matter and grade levels.

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 2. It helps in the drafting of learning standards across levels.

3. It serves as a guide in evaluating the school’s curriculum objectives, activities

and assessment.

4. It guides the teacher in formulating learning outcomes that tap higher –order
thinking skills

The Revised Taxonomy with Two Dimensions of the Cognitive

Domain

Practical Guided in Using the Revised Taxonomy

BLOOM’S DIGITAL TAXONOMY VERBS

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Teaching and Learning Activities
 Ask the students to formulate learning outcomes from assigned topics
Present the output through (Google classroom)
Learning materials and resources for supplementary reading.
 Handouts (pdf) upload
Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted
 Google classroom
 module
Assessment Task

Guide Questions

1. Why is the knowledge of Bloom’s taxonomy important in education?

2. How does Bloom’s taxonomy used in the classroom?

3. What are the implications of Bloom’s taxonomy in teaching and learning

activities?

4. What is the basic purpose of Bloom’s taxonomy?

Activity 16

Directions: Using Venn diagram, compare and contrast the original

and the revised taxonomy.

ORIGINAL BLOOM’S REVISED BLOOM’S

TAXONOMY TAXONOMY

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 Evaluation

Multiple Choice: Encircle the letter of the correct answer.

1. At the knowledge level students will

a. argue the point

b. recall information

c. categorize topics

d. calculate

2. Which type of question is a sample of Evaluation?

a. do you agree with the actions of Sam?

b. why was it better than.....

c. what sources can you use to support your opinion?

d. all of the above

3. What can you invent or design is a sample of?

a. knowledge

b. comprehension

c. application

d. synthesis

4. What questions would you ask Nelson Mandela in an interview?

What level of Bloom's Taxonomy is this question?

a. application

b. evaluation

c. analysis

d. none of the above

5. What ways could you change the plot of the story? Is this question...

a. synthesis

b. comprehension

c. knowledge
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 d. application

6. Defend the actions of the main character. What level of Bloom's

Taxonomy is this?

a. evaluation

b. comprehension

c. analysis

d. none of the above

7. Infer, follow, interpret, summarize, demonstrate, cite and interpolate

are all verbs representing what level of Bloom's taxonomy

a. application

b. knowledge

c. synthesis

d. comprehension

8. If students construct a model to show how something works they are

a. evaluating

b. applying

c. synthesizing

d. don't know

9. If a student does a visual presentation on a updated version or angle

connected to a topic, he or she is

a. comprehending

b. applying

c. synthesizing

d. analysizing

10. First the students will make a prediction of what will happen in the
story. The, the students must make a list of the main events in the story.
Lastly, they write a review of the story. What skills are being used?

a. application, synthesis and evaluation

b. comprehension, knowledge and analysis

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 c. comprehension, knowledge and synthesis

d. evaluation, knowledge and synthesis

References:

A. Book

 Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition

Process: Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 18, 2019

B. Websites

 https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://
www.elearningguild.com/insights/164/blooms-taxonomy-whats-old-is-new-
again/
&ved=2ahUKEwj1u87j7O3lAhVNA4gKHQoVB3wQFjABegQIDxAH&usg=AOv
Vaw1LSpbq6ppSHZ2wJ62x6Qfy. Retrieved November 18, 2019

 https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://
www.edglossary.org/bloomstaxonomy/
&ved=2ahUKEwjZ_76p7e3lAhXL7WEKHTKPASIQFjAAegQIAhAB&usg=AOv
Vaw3BGgm3a0cGfego-aJ7-rhU. Retrieved November 18, 2019

 https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://
www.apu.edu/live_data/files/333/
blooms_taxonomy_action_verbs.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwjZ_76p7e3lAhXL7WEKH
TKPASIQFjAMegQIBBAB&usg=AOvVaw2iqZ-XV5jJWBkm76SGYcd1.
Retrieved November 18, 2019

 https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=http://
www.fresnostate.edu/academics/oie/documents/assesments/Blooms
%2520Level.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwjZ_76p7e3lAhXL7WEKHTKPASIQFjAOegQI
ChAB&usg=AOvVaw1TmVNekpPzumEahYd_f8oD. Retrieved November 18,
2019

Topic 4: Sternberg's Successful Intelligence Theory and WICS Model

This module discusses about how this theory of successful intelligence

may help in achieving success and introduce the model.

Learning outcomes

1. Explain Sternberg’s Successful Intelligence Theory and WICS

(Wisdom, Intelligence and Creativity Synthesized) Model

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Learning content

What is Robert Sternberg's Successful Intelligence Theory?

Augmented from his Triarchic Theory, Successful Intelligence Theory contends

that intelligent behavior arises from a balance between analytical, creative and
practical abilities, and that these abilities function collectively to allow individuals to
achieve success within particular sociocultural contexts. In other words, it is the
ability to succeed a life, given one's own goals, within one's environmental context.
There are four skills included in the theory:

1. Memory skills help us recall facts and pieces of information and retain the
knowledge we acquire.
2. Analytical skills help us determine if a certain idea is good.
3. Creative skills allow a person to come up with new idea, usually answer a
need or solve a problem.
4. Practical skills enable a person to apply what one has learned.
The theory points "that some students who do not do well in conventional courses
may, in fact, have the ability to succeed, if they are taught in a way that better fits
their pattern of abilities.

Why WICS Model?

In the WICS model, intelligence is viewed as a set of fluid abilities to learn from
experience and to adapt to one's surroundings. It is a more recent model of how
humans think and reason that can help us understand how students will learn most
effectively. It aims to develop basic abilities to true expertise.

WICS stands for Wisdom, Intelligence, Creativity, and Synthesized. Sternberg

(2010) described the model as follows:

"The basic idea is that citizens of the world need creativity to form a vision of
where they want to go and cope with changes in the environment, analytical
intelligence to ascertain whether their creative ideas are good ones, practical
intelligence to implement their ideas and to persuade others of the value of their
ideas, and wisdom in order to ensure that the ideas will help achieve some ethically-
based common good, over the long and short terms, rather than just what is good for
them and their families and friends."

Application of WICS Model

The uses of the model include admission, instruction and assessment.

To teach analytically, make students use critical thinking. Design tasks and
activities that provide opportunity for your learners to

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 1. Analyze
2. Critique
3. Judge
4. Compare and contrast
5. Evaluate
6. Assess
To teach creatively, encourage and sustain student's creative ideas. Think out of
the box. Help your students to:

1. Create
2. Invent
3. Discover
4. Imagine if..
5. Suppose that..
6. Predict
To teach practically, have in mind real life situations where students can use what
they learn to meet their own and also other's practical needs. Let your students:

 Apply
 Use
 Put into practice
 Implement
 Employ
 Render practical what they know
To teach for wisdom, make your students learn to see and understand other's
perspectives. You teach for wisdom when you are able to move your students to:

9. try to find a common good

10. see things from other's point of view
11. balance your own interests with those of others and of institutions
12. look at the long term as well as the short term
13. reflect about how one can base his every decision on positive ethical values
14. appreciate that in life what is seen as true and effective may vary over time
and place.
Based on Sternberg and his colleague’s studies, the WICS model was successful
for teachers and theory learners because it:

5. celebrated the differences of learners through a supportive learning

environment
6. made students remember better what they learned
7. build on the strengths of the learners
8. strengthened the motivations of the learners
metacognitive processes.
Teaching and Learning Activities

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  Read about Sternberg's Successful Intelligence Theory and WICS Model.
Make a summary of the four skills included in the theory
Learning materials and resources for supplementary reading.
 Handouts (pdf) upload
Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted
 Google classroom
 Module
 exercises
Assessment Task

Guide Questions

1. What is the relevance of the successful intelligence theory to you as a

learner?
2. As a future educator, how will you apply WICS model?

Activity 17

Directions:
, Compare and contrast the successful intelligence theory and Gardner's Multiple
Intelligences. Explain how their concepts and principles oppose or complement each
other

Evaluation

True or False. Write T in the black provided if the answer is correct and F if
otherwise.

___1.Triarchic theory is augmented from Sternberg's Successful Intelligence Theory.

___2. Because of individual differences, memory skills should be given importance

than any of the other skills proposed by Sternberg.
___3. Practical skills allow a person to use one's learning into action.

___4. WICS stands for wisdom, intelligence, creativity and strength.

___5. The role of a teacher is not just to educate the mind but also the soul.

Reference:
A. Book

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  Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition
Process: Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 18, 2019

Topic 5: Problem Solving and Creativity

This module focuses on the Torrance framework for creative thinking helped
shatter the theory that IQ test alone were sufficient to gauge real intelligence.

Learning outcome
After completing this module, you should be able to:
1. explain the four criteria of creativity by Torrance

Learning content
Creative Problem Solving (CPS)

Creative Problem Solving (CPS) is an intentional process for solving problems

and discovering opportunities. It espouses the use of creativity in coming up with
solutions which are not only novel but practical as well. In the 1950's Alex Osbom
described this process in his book, Applied Imagination. Osbom opened the process
in the public domain which meant anyone can use it. Over the years countless
people have utilized the CPS in various fields and endeavours.

Osborn's Checklist, the origin of Classical Brainstorming is the root of creative

problem solving (CPS). There are a variety of general structures; 'define problem,
generate possible solutions, select and implement the best' which can be found
extensively, in several different academic traditions.

In its most extended and formalized form it has the six stages shown below each
with a divergent and a convergent phase. However, more recent publications seem
more interested in focusing on procedure and technique issues with less weight on
the full elaboration of this structure.

The following, based on Van Gundy (1988's) description, is a very brief skeleton
of a very rich process, showing it in its full 6 x 2 stages' form:

1. Stage 1: Mess finding: Sensitise yourself (scan, search) for issues (concerns,
challenges, opportunities, etc.) that need to be tackled.

• Divergent techniques include 'Wouldn't It Be Nice If...' (WIBNI) and "Wouldn't

It Be Awful If...' (WIBAI) brainstorming to identifydesirable outcomes and obstacles to
be overcome.

• Convergent techniques include the identification of hotspots (Highlighting),

expressed as a list of IWWMs ("In What Ways Might...'), and selection in terms of
ownership criteria (e.g. problem owner's motivation and ability to influence it) and
outlook criteria (e.g. urgency, familiarity, stability).

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2. Stage 2: Data finding: Gather information about the problem.

• Divergent techniques include Five Ws and H (Who, Why, What, When, Where
and How) and listing of wants, sources and data: source, list what you found. List all
your information 'wants' as a series of question, for each.

• Convergent techniques again include: identifying hotspots list possible

sources of answers; then follow these up and for each (Highlighting); Mind-mapping
to sort and classify the information gathered and also restating the problem in the
light of your richer understanding of it.

Stage 3: Problem finding: convert a fuzzy statement of the problem into a broad
statement more suitable for idea finding.

• Divergent techniques include asking 'Why?' etc. the repeatable questions and
Five W's and H.

Convergent techniques include highlighting again, reformulation of problem-

statements to meet the criteria that they contain only statement one problem and no
criteria, and selection of the most promising (but NB that the mental "stretching that
the activity gives to the participants can be as important as the chosen).

Stage 4. Idea Finding: generate as many ideas as possible

• Divergence using any of a very wide range of in techniques. The general rules
of Classic Brainstorming deferring judgement) are likely to underpin all of these.

• Convergence can again involve hotspots or mind-mapping, the combining of

different ideas, and the shortlisting of the most promising handful, perhaps with some
thought for the more obvious evaluation criteria, but not over-restrictively.

5. Stage 5: Solution finding: Generate and select obvious evaluation criteria (using
an expansion/contraction cycle) and develop (which may include combining) the
short-listed ideas from Idea Finding as much as you can in the light of these criteria.
Then opt for the best of these improved ideas (e.g. using Comparison tables).

6. Stage 6: Acceptance finding: How can the suggestion you have just startedelected
be made up to standard and put into practice? Shun negativity and continue to apply
deferred judgment problems are exposed to be solved, not to dishearten progress.
Action plans are better developed in small groups of 2 3 rather than in a large group
(unless you particularly want commitment by the whole group). Particularly for
"people problems it is often worth developing several alternative action plans.
Possible techniques include Five W's and H.

Teaching and Learning Activities

To enhance your knowledge on the topic let us try to check your understanding on
Problem Solving and Creativity

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  Formulate questions under the 4 Aspects of Creative Thinking - Fluency,
Flexibility, Elaboration and Originality and give your insights
Learning materials and resources for supplementary reading.
 Handouts (pdf) upload
Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted
 Google classroom
 module
Assessment Task

Guide Questions

1. What is mess finding?

2. What is creative problem solving?
3. What is data finding?

Evaluation

ESSAY

1. Explain in your own words Torrance's four criteria of creativity.

RUBRICS

Content - - - - - - - - - 50%
Organization - - - - - 50%
TOTAL - - - - - - - - - - 100%

Reference:
A. Book

 Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition

Process: Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 18, 2019

Module IV: Focus on Classroom Processes

UNIT 4. 1 MOTIVATION
LESSON 1 – MEANING AND TYPES OF MOTIVATION

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INTRODUCTION
Schooling is considered to be one of the hardest tasks that almost everyone
should undergo to. Some people perceive learning as an enjoyable task but there
are also those who think and feel that this is a tiring and a boring task to do. These
two different point of views exist because of a certain underlying factor that affects
the way they perceived a thing – motivation.
The right kind and right amount of motivation is enough for a person to carry out
any tasks assigned. On the other side, person who are lacking of motivation and/or
don’t have a motivation at all, would view tasks as hard to carry out despite of it
being easy. This is how motivation works on an individual.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Understand how motivation affects the behavior
 Distinguish between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation
 Justify the role of extrinsic motivation in view of the development of
intrinsic motivation
 Understand the different sources of intrinsic motivation
 Differentiate the sources of intrinsic motivation
 State and explain the social and cultural influences on motivation
 Understand how diversity in classroom affects the teaching strategy
of a teacher
 Understand the different learning theories on motivating diverse
students

LEARNING CONTENT
Motivation is an inner drive that causes you to do something and preserve at
something. It gives you the strength and energy to drive toward an action and on
your desire. It refers to the initiation, direction, intensity, and persistence of
behaviour. Learner’s motivation is the primary factor influencing both performance
and success in school (Ryan, et al, 2007).
Indicators of a High Level of Motivation
The level of motivation of an individual is evident on his/her actions,
willingness, and, persistence. A student is considered to be highly motivated if
he/she feels the excitement of attending a class; has the initiative to carry out
classroom activities without being pushed by someone else; views classroom tasks
and activities as an instrumental things to help him/her grow; has goals to achieve;
has the perseverance to accomplish assigned tasks; and withdraws satisfaction from
short goals.
It is important to know that there are two kinds of motivation from which they
arise from outside (extrinsic) and from inside (intrinsic). Both types are important
which have found that intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation can have different
effects on the behaviour and on how people pursue goals.
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 Intrinsic motivation is shown in the enjoyment of the activity itself and the
inner conviction of the learner that such things are the right things to do in order to
realize a personal goal or a life dream. Intrinsic motivation yields more advantages
than extrinsic motivation.
Extrinsic motivation plays an indispensable function when a learner is not
yet intrinsically motivated to learn. For optimum learning, this extrinsic motivation,
however must gradually take back seat as intrinsic motivation comes to the fore.
In summary, it is an intrinsic motivation when the drive is from within the
person himself/herself and/or he/she finds enjoyment of the activity itself. While it is
considered extrinsic if the drive is from the outside. You do things because you
received awards or you are avoiding punishments. When you were in kinder, you
were very fond of doing the coloring tasks because you wanted to have a star from
your teacher or you are obliged to do the coloring task because you don’t want to be
punished by your teacher – this is considered as extrinsic.
Examples:
Intrinsic Extrinsic
You joined various school programs and You joined because you want to have
activities because these are enjoyable various awards
things to do.
Cleaning your room, because you like Cleaning your room to avoid being
tidying up reprimanded by your parents.

Rewards, praises, incentives, or even punishment are some forms of external

motivation which may help develop the love for learning among poorly motivated
students. These things play a significant role in the development of motivated
students – it can be used as tools in developing their love for learning. In short, we
may employ extrinsic motivation at that start but should fade away as the students
gets intrinsically motivated.

LESSON 2 – THEORIES ON AFFECTING MOTIVATION

INTRODUCTION
You learned from the previous lesson that intrinsic motivation is considered to be
a better source of motivation compare to extrinsic motivation. By all means, let us
help develop intrinsic motivation in our student.
LEARNING CONTENT
There is no single theory that can explain the elements of intrinsic motivation.
Mostly are combined explanation of different theories from various scholars like
Weiner’s Attribution Theory, Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Theory, Maslow’s Hierarchy of
needs, Glasser’s Choice theory and other studies relating to goal orientation.

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ATTRIBUTION THEORY
TV host Carla Estrada, mother of Daniel Padilla was once a non-celebrity.
She joined The Voice audition but unluckily she did not make it. But after her
appearance, after some times, she was able to become one of the celebrities. We
possibly say that she made either because (1) her son is known/popular or (2) it was
because of her performance. In this example, attribution theory can be explained.
We attribute our failure and/or success to several factors. These attributions may
differ from one another in three ways – locus, stability, & controllability (Ormrod,
2004).
- LOCUS (place): internal vs. external. Ryan, a third year student, had good
final grades. If Ryan traces his good grades to his hard work and his ability,
he attributes it to internal factors. However, if he claims that his good grades
were because of the effective teaching of his teachers, because of the
complete notes which his classmate lent to him, hence he attributes his good
grades to external factors.
- STABILITY: stable vs. unstable. If a student attributes his poor performance
to what he has inherited for his parents, then he is attributing it to a stable
factor, something within him that cannot be changed. But if a student attribute
his poor performance because of excessive using of cellphone, he attributes it
to an unstable factor, something that can be changed.
- CONTROLABILITY: controllable vs. uncontrollable. If Ryan attributes his
poor performance to his teacher’s ineffective teaching, he attributes it to
something beyond his control or uncontrollable. But he attributes his poor
performance to his poor study habits, then it is within his control, which can be
changed.

In summary, motivation directly affects attribution. If student attributes his/her

success or failure to something within (internal) him/her, and to something within
his/her control (controllable) or to something unstable, hence, a student is more likely
to be motivated. On the other side, if student attributes his/her success or failure to
something outside which is also beyond his control (stable & uncontrollable), he/she
is likely to be less motivated.

SELF-EFFICACY THEORY
When facing a challenge, do you feel like you can rise up and accomplish
your goal or do you feel like giving up because you cannot carry out? This is the
concept of self-efficacy – the belief in your own abilities and the behaviour in
responding to various situations. A sense of high self –efficacy means a high sense
of competence. If you feel like you have the necessary abilities to perform tasks, or
even to meet highly challenging activities, it manifest a high self-efficacy within you.
If your students manifest a high self-esteem, their competence towards
accomplishing task, then they are more likely to be intrinsically motivated.

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 This idea is central to Bandura’s Social Cognitive theory, which emphasize
the role of observational learning, social experience, and reciprocal determinism.
Social cognitive theorists identified several self-efficacy – enhancing strategies:
- Make sure students master the basic skills
- Help them make noticeable progress on difficult tasks
- Communicate confidence in student’s abilities through words and
actions
- Expose them to successful peers
Other recommendations from motivation theorists are:
- Provide competence-promoting feedback
- Promote mastery on challenging tasks. Don’t give your students extremely
difficult nor extremely easy tasks.
- Promote self-comparison rather that comparison with others.
- Be sure errors occur within an overall context of success. Learn from
errors and mistakes. Don’t allow errors to come one after the other.

SELF-DETERMINATION and SELF-REGULATION THEORIES

You can say that your students are intrinsically motivated when they have the
sense of self-determination – it is the idea of having your own choice to accomplish
tasks without external compulsion. Self-determination is demonstrated in their
capacity of self-regulation – refers to a person who can regulate him/herself or the
“I am the captain of my own soul” type of person. He/she is capable of directing
him/herself.
Indicators of self-regulation:
- Set standards for oneself
- Monitor and evaluate behaviour against standards
- Impose consequences on oneself for one’s success or failures. (Ormrod,
2004)
A person who monitors his progress, evaluates his performance, and sets his goals
and standards, is a self-regulated person who manifests high intrinsic motivation.
The following are the processes involved in self-regulated learning (Ormrod, 2004):
- Goal-setting.
- Planning
- Attention control
- Application of learning strategies
- Self-monitoring
- Self-evaluation
The following are the suggestions of motivation theorists on how to enhance
students’ self-determination on school activities and assignments:
- Present rules and instructions in an informational manner rather than
controlling manner.
- Provide opportunities for students to make choices.
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 - Evaluate student performance in anon-controlling fashion.

CHOICE THEORY
We are all born with specific needs that must be satisfied. In relation to this,
our behaviour reflects the way we attempt to satisfy our basic needs. But aside from
physical needs, there are four psychological needs that must be satisfied to become
emotionally healthy.
Belonging or connecting. We strive to be independent if we don’t consider this need.
This motivates us to develop relationships and connections with others. In classroom
setting, the teacher must create a sense of acceptance in the classroom to make
every students feel that they are belong so they would develop in them the
motivation and the love of going to school.
Power or competence. Power is gained through competence, achievement, and
mastery. It is not the act of bullying. To satisfy this need, every students should end
up competent through helping them master their lessons and becoming a part of
achieving their tasks/goals.
Freedom. Our need of free to choose must also be satisfied. A student who is
suffocated by the limits and impositions of teachers will more likely to misbehave to
get the freedom which they believe must be satisfied. In this situation, a teacher
must offer the students the freedom to choose which should be safe and
responsible, appropriate, and supportive for learning – ultimate purpose of freedom.
Fun. This is a universal motivator to human. A joyless classroom demotivates
students to perform as Glasser (1190) claims that “fun is the genetic playoff for
learning.”

MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

This is a motivational theory in psychology that comprises of five-tier model of
human needs. There are five levels on the hierarchy, from bottom to top:
Physiological needs, Safety needs, Belongingness and love needs, Esteem needs,
and Self-actualization. The first two levels are referred to as the basic needs, the
third and fourth level are referred to as Psychological needs, and the highest level is
referred to as self-fulfilment needs. It must be clear that the bottom part should be
satisfied first before going on to levelling up. Based on Maslow, a satisfied need in
not a strong motivator but an unsatisfied needs are.
Physiological needs. These are basic needs that have to be satisfied first. These
include water, rest, food, warmth and more.
Safety needs. These include the safety and security of a person. Having your own
shelter to feel secured might fulfil these needs.
Belongingness and Love needs. Family. Friends.

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Esteem needs. Feeling of accomplishment.
. Achieving one’s full potential, including creative activities.

GOAL THOERY
There Is a need to understand that whatever goals we set for ourselves, it
always affect our motivation and our behaviour. Goal theory can either be learning
goal and/or performance goal. Learning goal or mastery-focused is the desire to
master new skills while performance goal or performance-focused is the desire to
look good and to receive favourable judgement from others. Like for instance a
mastery-focused student would view errors or mistakes as a normal part of learning.
While performance-focused student would say that errors and mistakes may cause
anxiety – it’s because they always aim to look good and to receive favourable
judgment. In terms of success, mastery-focused student defines it as improvement,
while performance-focused student defines it as high grades or doing better than
others.
- Self-determined goals. A personally-relevant lesson objectives enhance a
student’s motivation. If they perceived that the lesson is somewhat relevant
and/or useful to their daily lives, it increases their motivation to learn.
- Goal Setting. For teachers, goal setting is effective as a motivational tool if the
5 major elements are present: 1) goal acceptance, 2) specificity, 3) challenge,
4) performance monitoring, and 5) performance feedback.

LESSON 3 – STUDENTS’ DIVERSITY IN MOTIVATION

INTRODUCTION

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 Teachers have always the hardest part in motivating students. A classroom
pack with variety of students, from age, gender, religion, socio-economic and cultural
background, also come with variety of motivational needs. And in this part,
instructions should also be differentiated to cater the learning desire of the students.
LEARNING CONTENT
Draw your implications from the given examples below.
Situation Implication
1. In classroom, majority of the
performing students are from
family whose economic status is
below average.
2. Shienna, a grade 1 student, is
fond of making her assignment
while her brother, Jhon, a G12
student, finds it as a boring task.
3. In Mrs. Deang’s advisory class,
female students outperform the
male.

It can be concluded from the examples above that motivations of students to

carry out a task may vary on account of age, gender, economic status, cultural
background, religion, learning disabilities, and more. The motivation of students
reflects the elements of the culture in which they grew up – family, friends, schools,
books, and church. Hence it is the job of the teachers to come up with ways to teach
all students and to find ways to motivate them.
Two principle to consider regarding social and cultural influences on motivation:
1. Students are most likely to model the behaviors they believe are relevant to
their situation.
2. Students develop greater efficacy for a task when they see others like
themselves performing task successful.
Motivating Diverse Students through the Different Learning Theories
BEHAVIORISM. This type of learning theory includes understanding – a student’s
behaviour is determined by his environment. Incorporating the natural environment
of the learners in the classroom is one of the ways. The diverse environment that the
teacher creates becomes a stimulus for the students. This external influence guides
the students’ behaviour and attitude in a positive way, making them more motivated
to learn.
COGNITIVISM. This learning theory states that meaningful learning, or linking the
prior knowledge, is extremely important. A teacher tries to make learning meaningful
and relevant through teaching them lessons according to their previous experiences.
Create lessons that allow students to come to conclusions based on their
background knowledge and experiences.

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CONSTRUCTIVISM. This is a learning theory that encourages social interactions
among learners to create learning. This is a social theory that involves a lot of
participation and communication. Have students talk among one another about how
their experiences are relevant and connected to the discussion. In this manner,
students would have a wider perspective of the world which would motivate him to
contribute in the discussion. This manner also creates tolerance and acceptance.
SOCIAL-CONSTRUCTIVISM. This learning theory encourages practicum-type
setting to learn. The teacher leads the discussion after which followed by the
students which allows them to be more active through sharing their thoughts and
experiences.

TEACHING & LEARNING ACTIVITIES

From your point of view, what is motivation? Did you feel unmotivated at some point
in the past? How did you cope with your situation?

Differentiate extrinsic from intrinsic motivation through giving situations.

Intrinsic Extrinsic

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RECOMMENDED LEARNING MATERIALS & RESOURCES FOR
SUPPLEMENTARY READING
For further explanation of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, visit this link
https://www.veryellmin.com/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation-
2795384
For further explanation of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, visit this link
https://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html
For further explanation and readings on how to motivate diverse learners, visit this
link https://motivatingdiverselearners.wordpress.com/7

FLEXIBLE TEACHING LEARNING MODALITY (FTLM) ADOPTED

SYNCHRONOUS
-
Videoconferencing (Google meeting and/or Zoom)
-
Learning Management System (Google classroom, Moodle, or any LMS
prescribed by the University)
ASYNCHRONOUS
- Printed Module

ASSESSMENT TASK
1. Explain how extrinsic motivation be a steppingstone to become an
intrinsically motivated students.
2. How motivation becomes a factor to the SUCCESS and FAILURE of a
task?
3. Explain the statement “a satisfied need is not a strong motivator but an
unsatisfied needs are.”
4. In Goal Theory, in your point of view, to empower students, which should
be the focus of their goals, learning-focused or performance-focused?
Defend your answer.
5. As a teacher what strategy are you going to impose in motivating diversed
learners?
6. State and explain the two principles on the social and cultural influences
on motivation.
Grammar and Spelling– 15%
Organization – 25%
Focus and Details – 30%
Relevance – 30%
Total – 100%

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REFERENCES
Lucas, M. & Corpuz, B. 2014. Facilitating Learning: A Metacognitive Process.
Lorimar Publishing, Inc.
https://www.veryellmin.com/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-
motivation-2795384
https://www.veryellmin.com/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-
motivation-2795384
https://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html
https://motivatingdiverselearners.wordpress.com/7

Unit 1: Motivation in the Classroom

Sub-Topics: 1. Factors that Shape Motivation

We always hear the cliché’, “you can lead a horse to water, but you can’t
make him drink.” Motivating students to listen and to study well is not that
easy to maintain nor to sustain. Motivating learners to study and sustaining
their willingness to stay focused is a basic principle in the teaching- learning
process.. Without motivation, not much learning or no effective learning at all
will take place. Motivation can mean the “success” and “failure in a classroom
setting.
Motivation is a hidden force that guides and directs a learner achieve
his/her goals. It energizes the behavior of every individual to succeed.
Motivation plays a vital role in a classroom setting, in particular, in an academic
success.

Learning Outcome/Objective

At the end of this module, the students should be able to:

1. explain the role of motivation in learning using a reflective journal.

2. evaluate, summarize and share their insights on the different factors that shape
motivation.

3. summarize the topics using appropriate graphic organizers.

Learning Content

Now, let us discuss important terms and concepts regarding the importance of
motivation in the classroom.

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 In this lesson, you'll see how motivation affects learning. Discover the
behaviors and perspectives that relate to motivation in an educational environment.

Let us study this situation, how motivation works with two unique individual.
Erik and Andrew are in the same first grade class. Erik loves any activity that
involves coloring, drawing or illustrating. He spends all of his free time engaged in
these sorts of activities, sometimes oblivious to other things going on in the
classroom. Andrew, on the other hand, dislikes drawing and art and will avoid it at all
costs. Both students are high achievers and good listeners, but they are motivated
by completely different interests and activities. In the classroom, motivation drives
many behaviors and it is important to understand the importance of motivation in an
educational environment.
Motivation is described as a state that energizes, directs and sustains behavior.
Motivation involves goals and requires activity. Goals provide the impetus for and the
direction of action, while action entails effort: persistence in order to sustain an
activity for a long period of time.
There are recognized indices of motivation that are important to be aware of.
Indices typically place a value or quantity on an idea; in this case, we can
understand the value or quantity of motivation for an individual by these four indices.
The selection of a task under free-choice conditions indicates the motivation
to perform the task. In our earlier example, Erik chose to engage in art activities
during his free time. This is indicative of being motivated by art and art-type
activities.
High effort levels, especially when working on different tasks and
assignments, are also indicative of motivation. For example, if a student diligently
works on a difficult algebra problem again and again, this would indicate a higher
level of motivation towards math activities.
Working for a longer period of time, especially after encountering numerous
obstacles, is also associated with higher motivation. For example, John, a student in
PE class, was unable to master jumping rope, but he chose to continue trying to
jump rope during recess; this time on task indicates a high level of motivation
towards mastering the activity of jumping rope.

The indices of motivation

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 Finally, level of achievement is affected by choice, effort and persistence. The
higher these indices, the higher the motivation and the more likely task achievement
will occur.
In the classroom, educators should be aware of these indices in an effort to
reinforce activities and interests that students already show an existing partiality for.
There is an actual term for this - it's called situational motivation.
Situational motivation is a phenomenon in which aspects of the
immediate environment enhance motivation to learn particular things or
behave in particular ways. Educators can do many things to create a
classroom environment that motivates students to learn and behave in ways
that promote their long-term success.
Types of Motivation
Although there are various types of motivation according to me there are generally two
types of motivation that are self- motivation and motivation by others.

Self-motivation- It refers to the power of someone to stay motivated without the

influence of other situations and people. Furthermore, self-motivated people always
find a way to reason and strength to complete a task. Also, they do not need other
people to encourage them to perform a challenging task.

Motivation by others- This motivation requires help from others as the person is not
able to maintain a self-motivated state. In this, a person requires encouragement from
others. Also, he needs to listen to motivational speeches, a strong goal and most
importantly and inspiration.

Motivation is a very important aspect in classroom learning in particular and in

academe in general.

Here are some factors that shape motivation among the learners.

1. EFFECTIVE TEACHERS

According to Beamon, (2011) effective teachers have a great impact on student

performance. When we ask students what they like best about classes where they
learn the most, they often begin with teachers personal traits. Comments like, ‘they
have sense of humor”, “they are friendly”, “they care about our academic needs “, “
they know what to teach and how to teach it” .

Montimore, as cited by Muijs and Reynolds of 2005, identified 8 characteristics of an

Effective Teacher in a classroom level.

1. Teachers having responsibility for ordering activities during the day for students.
2. Teacher having responsibility for their work and independence with these sessions
3. Teachers covering only one curriculum are at a time

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4. High level of interaction with the whole class
5. Teachers proving ample, challenging work
6. High levels of student involvement in tasks
7. A positive atmosphere in the classroom
8. Teachers showing high levels of praise and encouragement

Along with teacher characteristics and pedagogical knowledge lie in the teachers’
skills and competencies. The following skills are in need necessary to maintain the
willingness and help motivate learners to stay focus.

SKILLS AND COMPETENCIES OF A TEACHER

1. Pedagogical knowledge
The issue of “how to teach it” involves some degree of motivational strategies.
The knowledge and mastery of the subject matter, the way the teacher deliver, the
degree of what to teach, how to teach it are important factors to consider for the
students to learn.

2. Communication Skills

As a teacher, we should communicate ideas in a simple manner yet in an

understandable way. We may as well possess the needed knowledge about
paralinguistic and metalinguistic techniques in communication.

3. Leadership
Teaching is a form og empowerment, we have the ability to influence, lead
and guide the learners. Hence, as a teacher we must not only be transactional
leaders instead be a transformational leaders.

4. Human Relations
As a teacher, we should possess the needed good traits like patience,
sensitivity, tolerance and flexibility in dealing the diversity of our learners.

5. Technological literacy
As a teacher, we should be adept at the use of technology as we are dealing
with millennial learners, where they really explore the “wonders of technology”. It is
believe that, what they see, hear most and manipulate more goes with the success
of learning.

2. CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

Froyen and Iverson, as cited by Kain, 2003, There are three interesting ways
of conceiving the task of establishing classroom management.

These three vertices represent the components of Classroom management

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 Content management

Covenant management
Conduct
management

-Content management – accounts for organizing activities, space and instruction

Conduct management- focuses on rules and consequences

-covenant management- deals with our ability to focus on relationship between the
school and home, teachers and students and students to students.

Furthermore, we could not afford to underestimate the two different aspects that
dominate the classroom - this is ORDERLINESS AND EXCITEMENT

ORDERLINESS accounts for objects that other teaching and learning equipment that
are labeled and arranged in their proper places

Example of this is we should not allow our students to leave the classroom without
arranging the chairs and leaving the place dirty.

EXCITEMENT- refers to the classroom attractiveness. It includes to the display of

materials and our ability to make learning happen inside the classroom.

3. EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTION

There are things to consider when we talk about effective instruction. No

lesson should begin unless we provide clear instructions and gain students’ interest.

These are some tips to achieve effective Instruction:

1. Prepare and signal the students when to begin with the lesson.
2. Present, explain and elaborate on the material in the simplest way possible
3. teach the material or information in short intervals for not more than 10- to 15
minutes.
4. Stop, and if possible allow your students for them to process or apply what we
have taught them.
5. Give them ample time and opportunities to use what they have learned.
6. Give time and allow them for evaluation of their understanding.
7. Check their understanding to ensure that they understand the lesson
8. Provide them time to practice and later with praxis

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9. Encourage them, and lead them to elaborate their answers for them to realize
which part of the lesson still needs to explain or to elaborate.
10. Reteach if necessary until they achieve mastery of the needed skills and
knowledge they need
11. Do emphasis on what is important and what is not.
12. When having a new lesson, use a signal to let them know what you are moving
from one lesson to another.
13. Be patient in giving constant feedback.
14. Acknowledge, and patiently elaborate then responses or answers.
15. Try many ways which we make the lesson more interesting and meaningful
16. Patiently inform your students if there are changes in the daily routines.
17. Always believe in their ability. Show trust on their academic self-concept and
self- efficacy.

4. THE USE OF IMAGINATIVE ACTIVITIES

Activities, games, educational activities can enhance motivation and it

enhances the willingness of the students to stay focus and concentrate on the topic..
Let them experience vicarious oddities of life, let them explore, maintain their
curiosity, this may lead to develop their own learning.

Giving them imaginative activities also help enhance their concentration and
motivation to see connections between the old and new information, prior knowledge
and new information. This also give the learners the extra power to show their
ownership of learning.

5. ESTABLISHING EFFECTIVE ENVIRONMENT

How to establish an effective environment?

Let us consider the following ideas:

1. WITHITNESS- refers to our awareness of what is happening in the classroom, we

need to aware with our students behavior, including their academic standing, their
common learning problems, and their peers.

2. GROUP ALERTING- pertains to the classroom environment that signals the entire
class in a certain transition that is about to occur.

It may do using:
a. individual responses
b. group or choral responses
c. suspense among students
d. language of oculesics to gain attention

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3. STUDENT ACCOUNTABILITY- is about tasks or assignments with which we can
make ourselves busy and responsible for individual or group work.

SATIATION, VALENCE, and CHALLENGE art the three important things to

consider in the classroom environment.

SATIATION- means gratification of our desire.

VALENCE- is the experienced level of value of a certain moment,

CHALLENGE- deals with the invitation that stimulates students’ thinking.

-

6. KELLER’s ARCS MODEL IN MOTIVATION

According to ZOOK,( 2001)In this model, motivation has four categories of

motivation

A- ATTENTION
-is the basic of motivation, it is mental focus. Without attention, then we wander
aimlessly, if we do not have FOCUS, we do not know where we are headed to.

R-RELEVANCE
- Refers to the connection between that material to be learned and to our
real-life situations. Always remember that material must be logical or
sensible connections with our life or daily situations. It must always be
relevant to present life-experience or situations.
-
C-CONFIDENCE
- Is concerned with self -assurance or personal belief that we can really
work on material.

- When we feel good for ourselves, we exude a positive feeling about our
academic success. Motivation helps an individual to attain self-
confidence, and later on develops self-efficacy and positive self- concept.

S- SATISFACTION
-satisfaction supports motivation; it is a feeling of fulfilment; it is a sense of
accomplishment.

7. QUESTIONING STRATEGIES
- The questioning ability and strategy of a teacher helps our students to
develop FOCUS. Try to use adjunct questions.
- ADJUNCT QUESTIONS – these are questions to support students’
attention. They are called adjunct question because they are added in to

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 the information to be learned. Adjunct- means something essential added
to something else.

ADJUNCT QUESTIONS are strategically placed in :

1. Before the information

2. Within the information
3. after the information

Asking good and clear questions is an important way in which we can perk up
students. It could motivate students to think and generate creative imagination.

Characteristics of a GOOD QUESTIONS

1. clarity
- you must use specific words, phrases, and sentences
2. simplicity
- ask questions in a simple way in such a way it is easily understands by the
listener. It is not asking question answerable with “yes” or “no”

3. fairness
- there must be equity in the classroom, questions should be equally distributed
among the learners. Try not to show ”favouritism” among the learners.

4. stimulation of critical thinking

- ask questions that vary in their nature and complexity. Develop higher-order
thinking skills.

5. all ability levels

- questions should cater to student’s intellectual levels.

6. prompting and probing

- when we say prompting, we supply cues and hints so that learners come up with
correct answers.. Prompting and probing questions lead to discovery of new insights.

7. support mechanism
- let us ask questions for the purpose of supporting what learners have already
understood.

Consider these seven ( 7) Habits of Effective Questioners

By: Goldman,et.al, 2003)

1. Asking fewer questions

Do not bombard our learners with so many questions, instead ask question
one at a time to allow deep processing of information.

2. Differentiating questions
Questions should provide variety; consider individual differences among
your learners.
3. Questioning for depth

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 Asking questions with depth, we delve deeper into learners’ insights and
move into their individuality and focus less on the content.

4. Questioning for breadth

- it helps learners for deep understanding of knowledge and enhances their
ability to problem solving.\

5. Using with time

- it is a must to use the “wait time” when asking questions. Allow them to
think by giving cues and leading statements.

6. Selecting students
- in asking questions, consider those learners who seem reluctant to
participate. Do not keep asking questions to those who are raising their hands.

7. Giving useful feedback

- feedbacks can be in verbal or non-verbal form, keep giving praises to
those learners who perform well, and keep giving encouragement to those who
seem passive in participating during the class discussion.

Keep in mind that there are important COMPONENTS that we should always go
with FEEDBACK

Always remember these reminders when giving FEEDBACK to your learners:

1. IMMEDIACY
- feedbacks should be given right after the performance of certain task. Delayed
feedback might lessen the eagerness of the students to participate in the next set of
discussion

2. CONSITENCY
- be consistent with the purpose of the task given, so that learners will not get
confused with the meaning we wish to convey or achieve.

3.REGULARITY
- regularity pertains to something normal or that happens frequently. Teacher’s
attitude sometimes on giving tasks, feedbacks and rewards must be given
consideration to sustain the motivation of the learners to excel. Regularity accounts
for normality, frequency, and qualification.

4. SINCERITY
- our praises can be done verbally and non-verbal. We should manifest sincerity,
honesty and consistency. Our words should be accompanied by paralinguistic
techniques.

8. STORY TELLING ACTIVITIES

In creating motivation, we need to established models; hence, telling stories related

to the topic is advised. Let us connect more than the minds of our students, instead

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connect them with their heart, their emotions, with their core values and with their
significant experiences and memories.

According to McCarty & Siccone, 2001, stories are everywhere, tell them, we write
them, we read them, and let them enjoy. Stories can give inspiration, it could
motivate them.

Using good stories provides the following benefits related to Motivation

1. We could enrich the mind of our learners.

2. It provides opportunities to express their views, reveal emotions, and present

personal and professional lives. It could stimulate their creative imaginations and
enhance the memory and visualization skills.

3. Everybody has story to tell, hence, it enhances self-confidence, self-efficacy and

self-concept of learners.

4. As learning strategy, it stimulates classroom interactions in which it may

encourage learners to share their views and experiences.

5. Past experiences can be a “good teacher” to someone else. They may learned
from the past experiences of others.

6. Good stories may serve as starting points for the learners to gain insights into the
lesson. It contains unique experiences that may capture the interest and they may
think deeply into their own lives.

7. Good stories provide chances to look for opportunities, open new gate to new
horizons and found meanings of their queries. It could also provide alternatives of
doing things and creating a new ways of thinking.

8. Good stories have therapeutic value. They provide catharsis or emotional release,
it may inspire others.

9. Using good stories as a springboard for discussion gives the teacher a lot of
advantage in motivating students get hooked and focus to the lesson.

10. Good stories are good sources of additional information.

9. APPROPRIATE FEEDBACK

Giving appropriate to learners is very crucial in teaching and learning because

it is essential in self-regulation.

In giving Feedbacks, we must put this in mind:

1. Think of more interactive styles of teaching. Be patient in giving dialogs to learners

having the difficulty learning the material needed.

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2. Make sure that students are doing the right task and on in the right track. Spend
more time in dialogs and discussion if necessary.

3. If necessary, do the dialogs on one by one process to ensure positive feedback

that might troubleshoot difficult tasks.

4. Prepare a teaching tool box to list down some important comments or feedbacks.

5. Exchange and Compare with other teacher the reflective portfolio you prepared, to
come up with good feedbacks.

6. modify the overall design of the course to ensure that there are enough
opportunities for corrective feedback.

7. You may use video recordings and presentation to see the types of feedbacks we
provide for learners.

10. ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES

Always consider the WHAT, WHY, WHEN, and HOW OF ASSESMENT.

This is essential to sustain the motivation of learners to remain focus and continue
striving in their academic performance,

However, Anderson, 2003, identified THREE (3) TYPES of motivational problems

when in comes to assessment techniques:

1. Students who value schooling, but do not believe they can succeed in school.

2. Students who believe they can succeed in school, but simply do not care to do so
because schooling is unimportant to them

3. Students who neither value schooling nor believe they can be successful at it.

Nonetheless, as a teacher, we should find ways to increase the value that students
attach to schooling, we could convince them, influence them to love schooling and
let them feel their WORTH to you.

X- Modelling Technique

It is one of the most effective motivational techniques. It is where the

learners’ emotional state to admire good people that they draw inspiration from them.
It can be seen by their action, values and behaviours that they really manifest the
inspiration and motivation to excel, just having a role model of their life.

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 It is believed somehow, that the most notable role model of every learner
are their TEACHERS. Research says, that the enthusiasm, interest, excitement and
love for the lesson that a teacher shows, radiates as well to students behaviours.
Enthusiastic teachers produce higher academic achievement among his/her
students.

XI- Games and activities

It is expected that having games and activities in a classroom setting can

increase the level of motivation of the learners. However, we need to consider that
these games presented are related and relevant to the subject matter.

Here are some characteristics that make a GAME and ACTIVITIES EFFECTIVE:

1. MEANINGFUL
For a game to be effective, it should have its direct contribution to the program
objectives of the school.

2. TIME- EFFECTIVE
- being aware of your time frame is essential while having the games and activities,
and be sure that it suits its purpose to your subject matter.

3. COST- EFFECTIVE-
- be creative, be, flexible and be innovative, keep in mind that materials needed
should not be too much expensive.

4. ADAPTABLE
- Always remember that games must be suited to the level of students and also to
the content or objective we want to reinforce or emphasize within the subject matter.
It should allow change or flexibility.

5. NON- THREATENING
- we need to consider the safety of the students when conducting games and
activities. The purpose is to stimulate thinking; hence, pre cautionary measures
should be given priority.

6. PARTICIPATIVE GAMES
- Be sure that all your learners are actively participating, their participation will
mean the greater chance of learning. Keep in mind that games and activities must
provide students’ development in cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains.

XII- Teacher Expectations

It is believed that the most important and powerful influence that affect
students motivation is their TEACHER. If we expect students to be motivated,
hardworking, enthusiastic and interested in our class, hence, they expect too much
from their teacher. The convincing voice, “the commanding power, the attitude of
consistency or being firm to decision making of the teachers means a lot to the
learners.

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XIII- Reward Mechanism

This is one better way by which we can motivate our learners to perform
well in class. It is a formal system of reinforcement.

PREMACK PRINCIPLE- or DIFFERENTIAL PROBABILITY PRINCIPLE -as explain

by David Premack refers to the existence of two responses that differ in their
likelihood of occurrence when the original is given free access to both activities, he
explained REINFPORCEMENT in a different way.

He proposed that the opportunity to perform in the higher probability response will
serve as reinforce for the lower probability response. It means that all the things that
student does are collectively known as performance. And such performance
depends on many things including motivation. This reward mechanism is likened to
permack principle in the sense that learners can earn tokens, recitation chips, points,
stars, or checks for performing desirable behaviours in the classroom. Rewards can
also be exemptions from assignments, or exam, plus points, and many other tangible
objects.
-
XIV- Contingency Contracts

- Are more formal written agreements between students and teachers.

These describe exactly what learners should expect or earn in an agreement made.
It means that we are entering into an agreement or provision that has to be fulfilled

Teaching and Learning Activities

To enhance your knowledge on the topic let us try to check your

understanding on motivation.

Pleases answer it with the spaces provided below. Maximize your

answer to 5 to 6 sentences only.

1. How to Motivate Students in the Classroom?

___________________________________________________________________
_________________

___________________________________________________________________
_________________
2. How does teacher motivation affect student motivation?

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___________________________________________________________________
__________________
___________________________________________________________________
__________________
___________________________________________________________________
__________________
___________________________________________________________________
___

___________________________________________________________________
___

3. What is human environmental factors affecting motivation?

___________________________________________________________________
_________________

___________________________________________________________________
________________

___________________________________________________________________
________________

___________________________________________________________________
________________

___________________________________________________________________
_______________

To further enhance your awareness, make a good guess answer on the following
questions.

The immediate human factors that surround the learner to be fully motivated to
study are her/his

1. T_______RS 2. Other S__________ NTS 3. P_______ TS

When we talk on Diversity in motivation, we need to consider the differences

among our learners in terms of:

1. A__ ___
2. DE__ EL__P__ __ __ TAL STAGE
3.G__ __ D__R

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4. SO__ __0- ECO__ ___M__ C Status
5. C _ ___ T__ ___ __ L Background

To further enhance your ideas and insights and to explore your own experiences as
future teachers. Kindly elaborate your answers on the main topic given below.

How to Motivate Students in the Classroom

Main idea Your own explanation/ideas Your

professor’s
( be sure to give at least 3 to 5 sentences to
Comment
elaborately explain your idea
(after
reading
your
answer)
1. Foster a positive
Learning Environment

2.Builds rapport with

students

3.Prepare engaging
lessons

4. Give students
Option

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 5. Start a reward
program

With all the reading presented in this module, answer this representation on the
different factors that affect student motivation.

You may as well open the book of Corpuz and Lucas of 2012, with a title, Facilitating
learning : A metacognitive Process.

Factors that affect

Student Motivation

Let us tickle your mind, make a good guess on this word puzzle!
1. P ___________T -I ___________________T
2. T____________R EN___________________SM
4. R __________DS
5. LEA___________RS EN__________________ENT
6. PER_______AL EX______________________ES
7. PE___________L IN_______________S
8. SE__ __ -ES__ ___ ___ M
9. S__ __F – I __ __ __E

From this representation. Kindly elaborate your answer with this graphic organizer.
KWL ( what we know, What we want to know, what we learned

What we KNOW ( Factors What we want know What we learned

that Affect student
Motivation
1.

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 2

Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adapted

Asynchronous and Synchronous

For the written activity, you may answer it through Goggle classroom, and for those
who wish to have a hard copy, you may get a copy of this at my drop box at ISU-
Security Guard House.

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For the performance based, task, you may send it via messenger or you may post it
to our goggle classroom.

Assessment Task

Guide Questions

To fully realize your understanding in this module, kindly analyze the given situations
and try to choose the correct answer.

_____1. Teachers attitude makes a lot of difference in motivating students to study,

which is not a good character of a teacher.
a. be flexible at all times b. be firm in your decision making c. be enthusiastic
always d. have a sense of humor
_____2. Motivation
a. is an external process b. is an internal process c. is innate d. resides only
in students who are paying attention

______3. A teacher’s praise can be an effective motivator if:

a. praise is delivered frequently
b. praise focuses students attention on their neighbor’s task -relevant behavior
c. praise is delivered just for showing up for class
d. praise is delivered the same day the praised behavior happens

______4. If teacher communicates positive expectations, they will

a. wait for students to respond
b. avoid unnecessary achievement distinctions among students
c. treat all students equally
d. all of the above

_____5. One fundamental principle of motivation which inspires students to work

harder is when
a. students follow reasonable goals set by others
b. students know they will receive rewards
c. student set their own goals
d. students know that punishment may follow

_____6. The most effective feedback incentives are those :

a. about a student’s specific progress b. given always
c. about a student over all progress d. given frequently

_____7. Teachers can apply many strategies to reduce negative impact of anxiety
on learning and performance such as :
a. creating a classroom climate that is accepting
b. giving students a chance to correct errors or improve their work
c. providing clear, unambiguous directions
d. all of the above

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______8. According to research for motivation purposes, testing should
a. not be used at all
b. be given frequently with long tests
c. be given frequently with limited time allotted
d. be given frequently with brief quizzes

_____9. Which of the following is not a “pull force” of motivation.

a. availability of training b. performance level golas
c. rewards and compensation d. pressure for high level of output

_____10. Which of the following is not an internal motivational force?

a. goals b. needs c. attitudes d. feedback

RECITATION ACTIVITY

We will schedule a time for a zoom meeting or video conferencing for a one
on one question and answer regarding this module. A teacher made questionnaire
will be asked for each one of you.

PERFORMANCE -BASED TASK

For your performance task, think of a subject matter (base from your field of
specialization or major) and conceptualize a suited motivation activity that is related
to your subject matter. Record it through video app and you may post it to our goggle
classroom or you may send it via messenger.

References

This contains the list of references/readings which students can explore.

Aquino, Avelina M. 2011. Rex Book Store Publishing.

Example:
Chulay, M. 2011. ACCN Essentials for Critical Care Nursing. McGraw-Hill
Publishing
Brown, P. 2009. Quick References to Wound Care, James and Barfeit
Publishing.
Website:

https://study.com/academy/lesson/the-importance-of-motivation-in-an-educational-
environment.html

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MODULE 5. Revisiting the 14 Learner -Centered Psychological Principles

Introduction

Learner centered is the perspective that couples a focus on individual

learners- their heredity, experience, perspectives, backgrounds, talents, interests,
capacities, and needs – with a focus on learning- the best available knowledge about
learning and how it occurs and about teaching practices that are most effective in
promoting the highest levels of motivation, learning and achievements for all
learners. This dual will focus then forms and drives educational decision making.
Learner Centered is a reflection in practice of the learner Centered Psychological
Principles in the programs, practices, policies and people that support learning for
all. (APA 1997). These learners – centered principles are also aligned to the beliefs,
characteristics, dispositions and in particular the practices created by the instructors.
When an instructor embraces the learner principles: learners are included in
decisions regarding how they will learn, what they will learn, and how the learning
will be assessed; each learner’s unique backgrounds, interests, abilities and
experience are valued, respected and accommodated; and each learner is treated
as co-creator and partner in teaching learning process . The 14 Principles are
classified in four categories: 1) metacognitive and cognitive factors, 2) affective and
motivational factors, 3) developmental and social factors, 4) individual differences
factors.

Learning outcomes/ Objectives:

In this lesson, challenge yourself to attain the following outcomes:

 describe how the 14 principles are connected to each of the modules that you
have studied.
 advocate the use of principles in teaching learning process
 Identify ways on how you can apply the 14 principles in instruction as a future
teacher.
 align your learning insights gained to 14 principles.
 demonstrate appreciation of the 14 principles as a sound framework for
effective facilitating of learning.

Learning Content

Facilitating Learning should be firmly anchored on 14 learner Centered

Psychological Principles. The 14 principles espouse that everyone in the learning
community is a learner, not just a student. The picture below expresses this view that
to teach allows you to learn and that when you have learned well, you can teach
well. There is mutually in learning. Student learn from teachers. Student learn from
one another. And more important for you to remember, teachers learn from students.

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 .
The Fourteen (14) principles are divided into four referring to:

Cognitive and m etacognitive

M otivational and affective

Developm ental and social

Individual difference s factor

COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTOR

1. Nature of Learning Process

The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an
international
process of constructing meaning from information and experience.

2. Goals of the Learning Process

The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance,
can create
meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.

3. Construction of Knowledge
The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in
meaningful ways.
Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build links between
new information and experiences and their existing knowledge base.

4. Strategic Thinking
The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and
reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals. Successful learners
use in their approach to learning reasoning, problem solving, and concept
learning.

5. Thinking about thinking

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 Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations
facilitate creative and critical thinking.
Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set reasonable
learning or performances goals, select potentially appropriate learning
strategies or methods, and monitor their progress towards these goals.

6. Context of Learning
Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology
and instructional practices.

MOTIVATIONAL AND AFFECTIVE FACTOR

7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning.

What and how much is learned is influenced by the motivation. Motivation can
learn, in turn, is influenced by the individual’s emotional states, beliefs,
interest and goals, and habits of thinking.

The rich internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals, and expectation for success
or failure can enhance or interfere with the learner’s quality of thinking and
information processing.

8. Intrinsic motivation to learn.

The learner’s creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all
contribute to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by task of
optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and providing for
personal choice and control.

9. Effects of motivation on effort

Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort
and guided practice. Without learners’ motivation to learn, the willingness to
exert the effort is unlikely without coercion.

Effort is another major indicator of motivation to learn. The acquisition of

complex knowledge and skills demands the investment of considerable
learner energy and strategic effort, along with persistence over time.

DEVELOPMENTAL AND SOCIAL FACTOR

10. Developmental influences on learning.

Learning is most effective when differential developmental within and across
physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains is taken into account.

Individuals learn best when material is appropriate to their developmental

level and is presented in an enjoyable and interesting way.

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 11. Social influences on learning.
Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and
communications with others.

Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to interact

and to collaborate with others on instructional tasks.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES FACTOR

12. Individual differences in learning.

Learners have different strategies, approaches and capabilities for learning
that are a function of prior experience and heredity.

Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities and talents.
Educators need to help students examine their learning preferences and
expand or modify them, if necessary.

13. Learning and diversity.

Learning is most effective when differences in learners’ linguistic, cultural and
social backgrounds are taken to the account.

The same basic principles of learning, motivation, and effective instruction

apply to all learners.

14. Standards and assessment

Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the
learner as well as learning progress- including diagnostic, process and
outcome assessment- are integral parts of the learning process.

Assessment provides important information to both the learner and teacher at

all stages of the learning process.

The Learner Centered Instruction

Applying the 14 Principles, Eggen and Chauchak give us three (3) characteristics of
learner Centered Instruction.

1. Learner are the centered of learning process

The criticisms of direct instruction have led educators to put more emphasis
on the role of students in the learning process. Many opted for more student
centered set up. Learners are given more choices. Learning activities are
designed with the needs interest and developmental levels of the learners in
foremost consideration.

2. Teachers guides students construction of understanding.

The 14 principles were put together because of growing implications of
research in cognitive psychology. Teachers in learner –centered classroom
provide a lot of opportunity for the learners to actively think, figure out things

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 to learn on their own. The teacher serves more as facilitator, a guide on the
side rather than sage on stage.

3. Teachers teach for understanding.

Students are placed at the center of the learning process. Teachers help them
to take responsibility for their learning. As a result, students, through their own
active search and experimentation, experience a movement from confusion to
searching for answers, to discovery and finally to understanding.
Assessment Task:

Assessment 1: Examine the picture below.

2. What words do you see?

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________

3. What relationship does the picture show about these two words?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________
4. What message do you get from this picture? Relate it to your own role as a future
teacher?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________

Assessment 2. Form a group with 3 members each. Examine the Title

“Learner- Centered Principle “Quickly jot down at least 10 words what comes
to your mind. Go back to each word and write phrases about what you think
the words can be associated with LCP.

1 2 3 4 5

6 7 8 9 10

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Assessment 3. Observe a class (at any year level ) Note whether or not the
three characteristics of Learner centered classroom are implemented.

Description of what
Yes No Best Practices
Characteristics you observed

1. Learner are the

centered of
learning
process
2. Teachers
guides students
construction of
understanding.
3. Teacher teach
for
understanding.
Assessment 4. Fill out the matrix below to summarize and synthesis your
learning and insights. Column 1. Contains of 14 principles clustered together.
Column 2 indicates the modules and topics that are related to each cluster. In
column 3 write your learning insights especially on how you plan to apply
what you learned.

Topics/ Specific My learnings on how I

The 14 Principles Concepts from will apply what I
modules 1-25 learned

COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE

FACTORS
1. Nature of Learning Process.
The learning of complex subject matter
is most effective when it is an
international process of constructing
meaning from information and
experience.
2. Goals of the Learning Process

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 The successful learner, over time and
with support and instructional
guidance, can create meaningful,
coherent representations of
knowledge.
3. Construction of Knowledge
The successful learner can link new
information with existing knowledge in
meaningful ways.

4. Strategic Thinking
The successful learner can create and
use a repertoire of thinking and
reasoning strategies to achieve
complex learning goals.
5. Thinking about thinking
Higher order strategies for selecting
and monitoring mental operations
facilitate creative and critical thinking.
6. Context of Learning
Learning is influenced by
environmental factors, including
culture, technology and instructional
practices.

MOTIVATIONAL AND AFFECTIVE

FACTORS
7. Motivational and emotional
influences on learning.
What and how much is learned is
influenced by the motivation.
Motivation can learn, in turn, is
influenced by the individual’s emotional
states, beliefs, interest and goals, and
habits of thinking.

8. Intrinsic motivation to learn.

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 The learner’s creativity, higher order
thinking, and natural curiosity all
contribute to motivation to learn.
Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by
task of optimal novelty and difficulty,
relevant to personal interests, and
providing for personal choice and
control.
9. Effects of motivation on effort
Acquisition of complex knowledge and
skills requires extended learner effort
and guided practice. Without learners’
motivation to learn, the willingness to
exert the effort is unlikely without
coercion.

DEVELOPMENTAL AND SOCIAL

FACTOR
10. Developmental influences on
learning.
Learning is most effective when
differential developmental within and
across physical, intellectual, emotional,
and social domains is taken into
account.
11. Social influences on learning.
Learning is influenced by social
interactions, interpersonal relations,
and communications with others

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
FACTOR
12. Individual differences in
learning.
Learners have different strategies,
approaches and capabilities for
learning that are a function of prior
experience and heredity.
13. Learning and diversity.

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 Learning is most effective when
differences in learners’ linguistic,
cultural and social backgrounds are
taken to the account.
14. Standards and assessment
Setting appropriately high and
challenging standards and assessing
the learner as well as learning
progress- including diagnostic, process
and outcome assessment- are integral
parts of the learning process.

My reflection:
From this module. I realized that….
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
_

References:
Lucas, MR D et al.; (2014) Facilitating Learning A Metacognitive Process OBE and
K12. 4th Edition Lorimar Publishing.
Brawner DG et al; (2018) Facilitating learner Centered teaching. Adriana Publishing
Co Inc.
American Psychological Association (1997).Learner Centered Psychological
Principles: A framework for school reform and Redesign. Retrieved from
https//www.apa.org/ed/governance/ bea/learner centered. Pdf.

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