Subject: - Data Communication (310343)

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Unit – 2: Noise
Syllabus:
Sources of Noise, Types of Noise, White Noise, Thermal noise, shot noise, partition noise, Low
frequency or flicker noise, burst noise, avalanche noise, Signal to Noise Ratio, SNR of tandem
connection, Noise Figure, Noise Temperature, Friss formula for Noise Figure, Noise Bandwidth,
Behavior of Baseband systems and Amplitude modulated systems i.e. DSBSC and SSBSC in presence
of noise.
Course Objectives:
1. To provide an in-depth introduction to all aspects of data communication system.
2. To analyze the noise performance of analog modulation techniques.
3. To introduce various digital band pass modulation schemes.
4. To provide knowledge of various multiplexing schemes.
5. To identify the need of data coding
6. To identify error detection/correction mechanism.
Course Outcomes: On completion of the course, learner will be able to
CO1: Define & explain terminology of data communications and Apply various network layer
Techniques to analyze packet flow on the basis of routing protocols.
CO2: Understand the importance of noise considerations in communication systems.
CO3: Understand and explain various digital modulation techniques used in Digital
communication systems and analyze their performance in presence of AWGN noise.
CO4: Understand working of spread spectrum communication system and analyze its
performance.
CO5: Identify and explain error detection and correction using appropriate techniques.
CO6: Use error control coding techniques to improve performance of a Digital communication
system.

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 Definition of Noise
 Noise refers to any unwanted or undesirable sound, disturbance, or variation that interferes
with the clarity, quality, or understanding of a signal or communication.
 In general, noise is considered as an irregular or random variation that disrupts or masks the
intended information or signal being transmitted or received.
It can occur in various forms, such as background noise in audio recordings, static interference
in radio or television signals, visual disturbances in images, or random fluctuations in electronic
signals.
Noise can originate from natural sources (e.g., wind, waves, or atmospheric conditions) or human
activities (e.g., machinery, traffic, or electronic interference).
In communication systems, noise is typically unwanted because it can reduce the accuracy,
reliability, and effectiveness of the transmitted or received information.

Figure 1: Typical Noise Signal

 Noise affects the following areas
 Electronics applications
 Telecommunication applications
 Audio applications
 Video applications
 Image processing applications
Thus, practically noise is random, unwanted electrical signal energy which gets added to the
transmitted signal via medium in electronic communication system.
It is very difficult to separate the added noise from the transmitted signal. Also, receiver add its
own noise, so overall signal quality degrades, hence degrades the overall performance of
communication system.

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Subject: - Data Communication (310343)
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 Noise Sources / Types / Classification
There are several ways of classifying noise. It may be subdivided according to:
 Type
 Sources
 Effect or related to receiver
 Circumstances
Thus, accordingly the following are the sources of noise.
Noise sources
Internal noise sources
1. Resistor
2. Vacuum tubes
3. BJT / FET and solid state devices

 Classification of Noise Sources

There are several way to classify Noise, but conveniently Noise is classified as
1) External Noise
2) Internal Noise

External Noise:
External noise is defined as the type of Noise which is generated externally due
to communication system. External Noise are analyzed qualitatively. Now, External Noise may be
classified as

(a) Atmospheric Noise: Atmospheric Noise is also known as static noise which is the natural
source of disturbance caused by lightning, discharge in thunderstorm and the natural disturbances
occurring in the nature.

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Figure 1: Classification of Noise

(b) Industrial Noise: Sources of Industrial noise are auto-mobiles, aircraft, ignition of electric
motors and switching gear. The main cause of Industrial noise is High voltage wires. These noises
is generally produced by the discharge present in the operations.

(c) Extraterrestrial Noise: Extraterrestrial Noise exist on the basis of their originating source.
They are subdivided into the following types:
 Solar Noise: It is due to periodic increase in solar activities (a period of 11 years) in the
form of increased sun-spots and furious sun-flares lead to major disruptions in power
transmissions and communication system.
 Cosmic Noise: Noise coming from distant stars other than sun. It is in the range of 8 MHz
to 1.5 MHz.
 Quasers Noise: Quasi-stellar radio sources in galaxy which generates the noises in
frequency ranges ranging from few MHz to several GHz.
 Pulsars Noise: Pulsars are Neutron stars which are rapidly spinning and which have the
magnetic field axis inclined to geographical polar axis of spin. Due to inclination, there is

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Subject: - Data Communication (310343)
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synchrotron radiations covering the entire span of spectrum. It emits radio waves, optical
waves, X-rays and gamma rays.
Internal Noise:

Internal Noise are the type of Noise which are generated internally or within the Communication
System or in the receiver. They may be treated qualitatively and can also be reduced or minimized
by the proper designing of the system. Internal Noises are classified as

1) Shot Noise: These Noise are generally arises in the active devices due to the random behaviour
of Charge particles or carries. In case of electron tube, shot Noise is produces due to the random
emission of electron form cathodes.
2) Partition Noise: When a circuit is to divide in between two or more paths then the noise
generated is known as Partition noise. The reason for the generation is random fluctuation in the
division.
3) Low- Frequency Noise: They are also known as FLICKER NOISE. These type of noise are
generally observed at a frequency range below few kHz. Power spectral density of these noise
increases with the decrease in frequency. That why the name is given Low- Frequency Noise.
4) High- Frequency Noise: These noises are also known TRANSIT- TIME Noise. They are
observed in the semi-conductor devices when the transit time of a charge carrier while crossing a
junction is compared with the time period of that signal.
5) Thermal Noise: Thermal Noise are random and often referred as White Noise or Johnson Noise.
Thermal noise are generally observed in the resistor or the sensitive resistive components of a
complex impedance due to the random and rapid movement of molecules or atoms or electrons.
6) Burst noise:
It is type of electronics noise that occurs in semiconductors. It is also called popcorn noise,
impulse noise, bi-state noise or random telegraph signal (RTS) noise.
7) Avalanche noise
Avalanche noise series due to avalanche breakdown process in the semiconductor devices.
8) White Noise
White noise draws its name from white light in which the power spectral density of the light is
distributed over the visible band in such a way that the eyes three color receptors (cones) are
approximately equally stimulated.
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 Types of Internal Noise
1. Thermal Noise (Nyquist or Johnson's Noise)
This noise is generated by thermal agitation of the charge carriers (usually electrons) inside an
electrical conductor at equilibrium, which happens regardless of any applied voltage.
Thus, electrons in conductor possess kinetic energy as a result of heat exchange between conductor
and its surroundings.
Due to this, electron density throughout the conductor varies in random fashion and gives the
random electrical voltage across conductor.

Figure 2: Typical Thermal Noise voltage generation and waveform

The relationship between noise bandwidth and r.m.s. noise voltage generated due to thermal noise
is given as
En = √(4xRxKxTx Bn)
En = √(4RKTBn)
Where En = r.m.s. value of noise voltage (volts)
R = Conductor resistance in ohms (ohms)
T = Temperature of conductor in kelvin (kelvins) (°C + 273)
K = Boltzmann's constant = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K
Bn = Bandwidth of noise in Hz (Hertz)
Basically, consider the equivalent circuit of a conductor with resistance 'R' as noise generator
(Thermal noise generator) as given in Fig. 3

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Figure 3: Voltage equivalent circuit for thermal noise generator

Thus, maximum noise power output of a resistor is given as
Pn = KTBn
Where K = Boltzmann's constant = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K
Pn = Maximum noise power output (watts)
T = Absolute temperature (kelvins) (°C + 273)
Bn = Bandwidth of noise in Hz (Hertz)
Pn = E2n/RL = (En/2)²/R = E2n/4R
E2n = 4RKTBn
En = √ (4RKTBn)

Example:

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2. SHOT NOISE
Shot noise is a random fluctuation which consists of any direct current (DC) which is crossing a
potential barrier.
Let's say, in semiconductors there are two types of charge carriers, holes and electrons.
Holes and electrons do not cross the potential barrier simultaneously.

Figure 4: Shot noise formation in semiconductor device and triode amplifiers

Each carrier cross the potential barrier independently which gives rise to random distribution in
the timing for each carrier, resulting random component of current superimposed on the stable
steady current.
This superimposed random current component is called as shot noise.
The random component of superimposed current on steady state dc current is as shown in Fig. 5

Figure 5: Superimposed random current on steady state dc current is shown as shot noise
Shot noise current is given by
I2n = 2Idc * Qe * Bn (amperes)2

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Idc = Direct current (steady) in amperes
Qe = Electron charge magnitude in coulombs
Qe = 1.6x10-19 C
Bn = Equivalent noise bandwidth in Hz

3. PARTITION NOISE
We have seen that shot noise is due to statistical fluctuations in the thermionic emissions from the
cathode or fluctuations in the forward biased junction diode.
Whereas partition noise is due to statistical fluctuations in the current division or current merger
in solid state devices or vacuum triode tubes.
Thus, partition noise is more in transistor than diode.
Due to this reasons in microwave frequency receivers GaAs diode or GaAs FET which draws zero
gate current is used as initial stages.

Figure 6: Typical microwave frequency receiver stages

Also, partition noise occurs in mostly amplifying solid state circuits.
It is caused when a charge carrier, moving from the source, emitter or cathode, has two distinct
paths do choose from when it reaches the charge boundary, such as an electron between the base
and collector of NPN transistors, which both appear equally positive at a point between them.
(Current division or merging in devices). Also, frequency spectrum of this type of noise is
approximately flat in nature.
4. LOW FREQUENCY OR FLICKER NOISE
The spectral density of noise increases as frequency decreases, hence it is called as 1/F noise or
low frequency noise or flicker noise.

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Figure 7: Flicker effect in vacuum triode and semiconductor devices

This type of noise appears in low frequency range, typically below few kilohertz.

5. BURST NOISE
Burst noise is a type of electronic noise that occurs in semiconductors. It is also called popcorn
noise, impulse noise, bi-state noise, or random telegraph signal (RTS) noise.
It consists of sudden step-like transitions between two or more discrete voltage or current levels,
as high as several hundred microvolts, at random and unpredictable times.
Each shift in offset voltage or current often lasts from several milliseconds to seconds, and sounds
like popcorn popping if hooked up to an audio speaker.
Popcorn noise was first observed in early point contact diodes, then re-discovered during the
commercialization of one of the first semiconductor op-amps; the 709.
No single source of popcorn noise is theorized to explain all occurrences; however, the most
commonly invoked cause is the random trapping and release of charge carriers at thin film
interfaces or at defect sites in bulk semiconductor crystal.
In cases where these charges have a significant impact on transistor performance (such as under
an MOS gate or in a bipolar base region), the output signal can be substantial.

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These defects can be caused by manufacturing processes, such as heavy ion implantation, or by
unintentional side-effects such as surface contamination.

Figure 8: Typical burst noise in the form of series of burst at two or more levels
Individual op-amps can be screened for popcorn noise with peak detector circuits, to minimize the
amount of noise in a specific application.

6. AVALANCHE NOISE (DUE TO AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN)

Avalanche noise series due to avalanche breakdown process in the semiconductor devices.
Avalanche breakdown is a current multiplication process that occurs only in strong electric fields,
which can be caused either by the presence of very high voltages, such as in electrical transmission
systems, or by more moderate voltages which occur over very short distances, such as within
semiconductor devices.
The electric field strength necessary to achieve avalanche breakdown varies greatly between
different materials in air, 3 MV/m is typical, while in a good insulator such as some ceramics,
fields in excess of 40 MV/m are required. Field strengths used in semiconductor devices that
exploit the avalanche effect are often in the 20-40 MV/m range, but vary greatly, accordingly, with
the details of the device.

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Once the necessary field strength has been achieved, all that is necessary to start the avalanche
effect is a free electron, and since even in the best insulators a tiny number of free electrons are
always present at room temperature, an avalanche will always occur.
In devices that exploit the avalanche effect, the electric field is normally kept just below the
threshold at which avalanche breakdown is possible, resulting in a current that is highly dependent
on the generation of free electrons. In avalanche photodiodes, for example, incoming light is used
to generate these free electrons.
Free electrons within a material are accelerated by the electric field. The energy they gain depends
on the electric field strength and the distance they travel before they hit an atom. Upon impact,
they transfer some of their energy to the atom. If the transferred energy is high enough they will
kick an electron from the atom and thus create a new free electron and an ionized atom (impact
ionization).
Otherwise they will just slow down and then start accelerating again. At low field strength and/or
mean free path length free electrons tend to recombine with ionized atoms or make it to the anode
without creating many new free electrons.
If the electric field strength and/or the mean free path length is high enough new free electrons will
be generated in an exponential chain reaction - an electron avalanche, often reaching a maximum
in just picoseconds. The avalanche can result in the flow of very large currents, limited by the
external circuitry.
For a bipolar junction transistor, the strength of the base drive has an important impact on the
avalanche voltage. If a low impedance is connected to the base, then charge is quickly removed
from the base which helps hold back the avalanche process, but if the base is driven by a high
impedance, such as a current source, then the excess Charges stay in the base and avalanche occurs
at a lower electric field.
As mentioned above, this is the noise due to the multiplication process at a gain, M and is denoted
by F (M) and can often be expressed as:
F = kM + [2- (1/M)] (1- k)
Where it is the ratio of the hole impact ionization rate to that of electrons. For an electron
multiplication device, it is given by the hole impact ionization rate divided by the electron impact
ionization rate.

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It is desirable to have a large asymmetry between these rates to minimize F (M), Since F (M) is
one of the main factors that limit, among other things, the best possible energy resolution
obtainable.

7. WHITE NOISE
White Noise is a random signal (or process) with a flat power spectral density. In other words, the
signal contains equal power within a fixed bandwidth at any center frequency.
White noise draws its name from white light in which the power spectral density of the light is
distributed over the visible band in such a way that the eye's three color receptors (cones) are
approximately equally stimulated.
An infinite-bandwidth, white noise signal is purely a theoretical construction. By having power at
all frequencies, the total power of such a signal is infinite and therefore impossible to generate. In
practice, however, a signal can be "white" with a flat spectrum over a defined frequency band.
7.1 White Noise in Spatial Context
While it is usually applied in the context of frequency domain signals, the term white noise is also
commonly applied to a noise signal in the spatial domain.
In this case, it has an autocorrelation which can be represented by a delta function over the relevant
space dimensions.
7.2 Statistical Properties
The signal is then white" in the spatial frequency domain (this is equally true for signals in the
angular frequency domain, e.g. the distribution of a signal across all angles in the night sky).
The image below displays a finite length, discrete time realization of a white noise process
generated from a computer.
Being uncorrelated in time does not restrict the values a signal can take. Any distribution of values
is possible (although it must have zero DC component). Even a binary signal which can only take
on the values 1 or -1 will be white if the sequence is statistically uncorrelated, Noise having a
continuous distributlon, such as a normal distribution, can of course be white,
It is often incorrectly assumed that Gaussian noise (i.e. noise with a Gaussian amplitude
distribution - see below the Normal distribution) is necessarily white noise, yet neither property
implies the other.

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Figure 9: An example realization of a Gaussian White noise process

Gaussian Noise: Gaussian Noise is statistical noise that has a probability density function of the
normal distribution (also known as Gaussian distribution). In other words, the values that the noise
can take on are Gaussian-distributed. It is most commonly used as additive white noise to yield
additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN). Gaussian noise is properly defined as the noise with a
Gaussian amplitude distribution. This says nothing of the correlation of the noise in time or of the
spectral density of the noise. Labelling
Gaussian noise as 'white' describes the correlation of the noise. It is necessary to use the term
"white Gaussian noise" to be correct. Gaussian noise is sometimes misunderstood to be white
Gaussian noise, but this is not the case.
Normal Distribution: In probability theory and statistics, the normal distribution or Gaussian
distribution is a continuous probability distribution that describes data that cluster around mean or
average. The graph of the associated probability density function is bell-shaped, with a peak at the
mean, and is known as Gaussian function or bell curve. The Gaussian distribution is one of many
things named after Carl Friedrich Gauss, who used it to analyze astronomical data and determined
the formula for its probability density function.
Gaussianity refers to the probability distribution with respect to the value i.e. the probability that
the signal has a certain given value, while the term 'white' refers to the way the signal power is
distributed over time or among frequencies.
We can therefore find Gaussian white noise, but also Poisson, Cauchy etc. white noises.

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Thus, the two words "Gaussian" and "white" are often both specified in mathematical models of
systems. Gaussian white noise is a good approximation of many real-world situations and
generates mathematically tractable models.
These models are used so frequently that the term additive white Gaussian noise has a standard
abbreviation AWGN. Gaussian white noise has the useful statistical property that its values are
independent.
White noise is the generalized mean-square derivative of the Wiener process or Brownian motion.

7.3 Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN)

In communications, the additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) channel model is one in which
the only impairment is a linear function of wideband or white noise with a constant spectral density
(expressed as watts per hertz or bandwidth) and a Gaussian distribution of amplitude.
The model does not account for the phenomena of fading, frequency, selectivity, interference, non-
linearity or dispersion.
However, it produces simple and tractable mathematical models which are useful for gaining
insight into the underlying behaviour of a system before these other phenomena are considered.
Wideband Gaussian noise comes from many natural sources, such as the thermal vibrations of
atoms in antennas (referred to as thermal noise or Johnson-Nyquist noise), shot noise, black body
radiation from the earth and other warm objects, and from celestial sources such as the Sun.
The AWGN channel is a good model for many satellite and deep space communication links.
It is not a good model for most terrestrial links because of multipath, terrain blocking, interference
etc.
However, for terrestrial path modelling, AWGN is commonly used to stimulate background noise
of the channel under study, in addition to multipath, terrain blocking, interference, ground clutter
and self-interference that modern radio systems encounter in terrestrial operation.
7.4 Applications of White Noise
It is used by some emergency vehicle sirens due to its ability to cut through background noise,
which makes it easier to locate.
White noise is commonly used in the production of electronic music, usually either directly or as
an input for a filter to create percussive instruments such as cymbals which have high noise content
in their frequency domain.

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It is also used to generate impulse responses. To set up the equalization (EQ) for a concert or other
performance in a venue, a short burst of white or pink noise is sent through the PA system and
monitored from various points in the venue so that the engineer can tell if the acoustics of the
building naturally boost or cut any frequencies. The engineer can then adjust the overall EQ to
ensure a balanced mix.
White noise is a common synthetic noise source used for sound masking by a Tinnitus masker.
White noise is a particularly good source signal for masking devices as it contains higher
frequencies in equal volumes to lower ones, and so is capable of more effective masking for high
pitched ringing tones most commonly perceived by tinnitus sufferers.
White noise can be used for frequency response testing of amplifiers and electronic filters.
It is sometimes used with a flat response microphone and an automatic equalizer. The idea is that
the system will generate white noise and the microphone will pick up the white noise produced by
the speakers. It will then automatically equalize each frequency band to get a flat response. That
system is used in professional level equipment, some high-end home stereo and some high-end car
radios.
White noise is used as the basis of some random number generators.
White noise can be used to disorient individuals prior to interrogation and may be used as part of
sensory deprivation techniques.
White noise machines are sold as privacy enhancers and sleep aids and to mask tinnitus.
White noise CDs, when used with headphones, can aid concentration by masking irritating or
distracting noises in a person's environment.
In open plan offices, large corporations such as ExxonMobil Reynolds Porter Chamberlain and
Bank of America apply white noise to reduce the reach of speech, thus, by preventing office staff
from being distracted by conversations in the background, safeguarding productivity.

7.5 Power Spectral Density and Auto-Correlation Function of the White Noise
The power spectral density of white noise is given as
G (f) = 𝜋/2 (watts/Hz)
Here in this equation factor of '2' indicates that G (F) is a two-sided power spectral density (PSD).
This means half of the power is associated with the positive frequencies and remaining half with
the negative frequencies.

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Auto-correlation function of the power spectral density of white noise is obtained by taking IFT
(Inverse Fourier Transform) of both sides of expression.
Hence,
R (t) = (η/2) δ(t)
Also white noise has infinite average power and thus is not physically realizable.
The power spectral density and auto-correlation function of the white noise is as shown below fig.

Figure 10: PSD and auto correlation function of white noise

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