The naghma-ye kashâl of Afghanistan

Author(s): John Baily

Source: British Journal of Ethnomusicology , 1997, Vol. 6 (1997), pp. 117-163
Published by: British Forum for Ethnomusicology

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VOL. 6 BRITISH JOURNAL OF ETHNOMUSICOLOGY 1997

The naghma-ye kashdl of A

John Baily

The naghma-ye kashal, the "extended instrumental piece", is

music specific to Afghanistan. Prescriptive notations for 14 su
of melodic modes are presented. They were collected in the for
in the 1970s from Ustad Mohammad Omar of Kabul and Ustad Amir Jan Khushnawaz of
Herat. Some of these compositions are rarely heard today, and the aim is to put them on
record for future generations of Afghan musicians. A preliminary analysis of the
compositions is offered, and some guidance given for their performance.

1 The naghma-ye kashfi, or "extended instrumental piece"

The naghma-ye kashdil is the only genre of contemporary instrumental art music
specific to Afghanistan.' It is performed as a solo piece on plucked lutes such as
rubdb, tanbur and dutdr, and played as a group instrumental piece by the typical
urban band (singer accompanied by harmonium, rubdb, tabla, with the possible
addition of other chordophones) at the start of an evening's performance of music
at a wedding party or Ramazcn concert. The naghma-ye kashadl is also used to
begin the performance of a dancer at a clandestine dancing boy party.2 The genre
is variously called the naghma-ye kashal, meaning the "extended", "stretched
out", or "pulled out instrumental piece", or the naghma-ye chartuk, the "four part
instrumental piece". In this paper I adopt the first term because most of the
examples given here were collected from a musician, Ustad Amir Jan Khush-
nawaz of Herat, who used that term, and because many of these compositions
have more than four parts (sometimes many more).3

I The research on which this paper is based was conducted between 1973 and 1977. For
background information, see my monograph Music of Afghanistan: professional musicians in the
city of Herat (Baily 1988); frequent reference to that work is made in what follows. At the time
of writing (1998), musical instruments and the music associated with them are completely
banned in the 95% of Afghanistan under the control of the Taliban militia, which includes both
Kabul and Herat. Nevertheless, I write mainly in the present tense because despite the ban there
are no doubt musicians active in Afghanistan today, whether clandestinely in areas under Taliban
rule, or publicly in other parts, not to speak of the many refugee musicians, professional and
amateur, in Pakistan, Iran, India, Tajikistan, Europe, North America, Australia and elsewhere.
The musical transcriptions in this paper are copyright ? John Baily 1998.
2 Details of these kinds of performance context can be found in Baily 1988, Chapter 8.
3 I have discussed aspects of the naghma-ye kashdl in several other publications, such as Baily
(1987) and Baily (1988:66-74, and Examples 2-3 on the cassette accompanying that publication).
Further audio examples of the genre can be found on recordings by Essa Kassimi, Gada
Mohammad and Rahim Khushnawaz, see Discography.

117

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118 British Journal of Ethnomusicology, vol. 6 (1997)

As a musical form for solo instrument the naghma-ye kashdl has three main
stages: shakl, astdi and antara. Let us examine them in turn. (1) The shakl is an
exploration of the melodic possibilities of the mode, in free rhythm (approxi-
mately equivalent to an ctlacp or taqsim). (2) The aistc2i consists of a fixed composi-
tion in Tintdl (16-matra metric cycle), often composed over two cycles of the t0l,
played with drum accompaniment provided by tabla or dohol. The dstcai composi-
tion is played many times over, with rhythmic variations. (3) The antara consists
of a series of short compositions, also in Tintcl, played at a fast tempo, which can
be repeated and sequenced at the discretion of the musician. Overall, the naghma-
ye kashall is a vehicle for rhythmic rather than for melodic improvisation. Played
as a solo piece a naghma-ye kashal generally lasts for 5-10 minutes, but can be
extended for longer: Essa Kassimi's recording of a naghma-ye kashail in Rag
Bairami runs for 23 minutes (Kassimi 1979). When played as a group instru-
mental piece the shakl is much attenuated, and consists of little more than the
various instrumentalists getting in tune with one other.
The origins of the naghma-ye kashacl are obscure. It has many obvious
connections with North Indian instrumental art music-in terminology, concepts
of rag (melodic mode) and tal (metric cycle), note names and drum mnemonics.
However, compositions of this kind are not played outside Afghanistan, except by
members of the Afghan diaspora. According to one authorative musician source,4
the naghma-ye kashal comes originally from India, where it was used for a type of
classical dance long since abandoned. This might explain its otherwise curious
association with dancing boys in Afghanistan. The naghma-ye kashail was
cultivated at the court of the Amirs of Kabul from the 1880s to the 1930s, and is
closely linked to the Afghan rubab, the double-chested plucked lute which is
regarded as the national instrument of Afghanistan (Fig. 1).5 The genre lies at the
heart of the rubab's traditional repertoire.
In the 1970s the naghma-ye kashal was already perceived as part of an "old"
repertoire, strongly connected in musicians' minds with the great ustads ("master
musicians") of the Kabul court such as Ustad Kasem. These were singers of
ghazals and Hindustani music who also cultivated the rubab for their Pashtun
patrons. The total repertory of naghmaha-ye kashal (plural of naghma-ye kashal)
is small, no more than about 20 compositions, in different racgs. In the 1970s some
of these compositions were widely known and were recorded in performance from
many musicians, either as solos (with drum accompaniment) or as group instru-
mental pieces. Those that were widely known were surprisingly consistent from
musician to musician. Some examples of naghmahac-ye kashdl were already rare.
Some I never heard performed in context: they were given to me in the form of

4 This information was supplied by Sufi Lali, the maternal uncle of Ustad Sarahang. Sarahang
was Afghanistan's foremost singer of khydl in the later part of the twentieth century.
5 The Afghan rubdb is a short-necked double-chested plucked lute. It has three main strings,
tuned in 4ths, 2-4 long drone strings, called shdhtar ("king strings") and a set of (usually) 15
sympathetic strings, tuned to the pitches of the mode being played. The shortest sympathetic
string is raised by a protuberance on the bridge so it can readily be struck in isolation and used as
a high drone.

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 Baily: The naghma-ye kashdl of Afghanistan 119

Fig. 1: The rubaib

upper bridge string length about 70cm lower bridge

J-

skin belly
4 frets

pegs for sympathetic

strings

notation. Now, more than 20 years later, after two decades of a civil war w
continues to this day, and with the strongly anti-music Taliban militia controllin
95% of the country, these pieces are even rarer. In that sense they have bec
even more precious.
It is my aim here to put the naghmaha-ye kashal on record, and to provi
prescriptive source for a new generation of amateur and professsional Afg
musicians, and for other interested parties to study, analyse, and perform
fulfill this prescriptive role the pieces are notated here in romanised sarg
notation, as well as in slightly modified Western staff notation. Details of t
notational systems are given below. My paper concludes with a brief analysi
the naghma-ye kashdl as a musical form, with some comments on perform
practice.
The data are derived from two musician sources, Ustad Mohammad Omar of
Kabul, the capital of Afghanistan, and Ustad Amir Jan Khushnawaz, from the
provincial city of Herat. Both are now dead. They were rather different and
contrasting sources. Ustad Mohammad Omar was the foremost rubab player in
Afghanistan, a household name through his frequent radio broadcasts; Amir Jan
was a Kabuli-trained singer in a provincial city who also played the rubab (and
other instruments) and had learned these naghmaha-ye kashal from a Kabuli
musician in the 1930s. As singers trained in Kabuli art music both men were

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120 British Journal of Ethnomusicology, vol. 6 (1997)

fluent in the use of sargam as an oral notation.6 They dictated verbally to me in

the sargam system the musical compositions notated here. By writing down these
oral notations I was in effect making emic transcriptions of the pieces, what one
might term native prescriptive notations. They reveal for each composition the
presence of an underlying structure, which in actual performance is elaborated in
various ways. These underlying structures could be extracted from transcriptions
of audio recordings (a procedure followed for other material not presented here),
but in the compositions notated in this paper the underlying structures were
identified and dictated verbally by my two informants. This fact makes the data of
special interest.

2 Ustad Mohammad Omar of Kabul

Ustad Mohammad Omar was from a hereditary musician family living in the
Kucheh Kharabat, the musicians' quarter in Kabul. His original training was as a
singer, the student of the celebrated Ustad Kasem, the leading singer of Aman-
ullah's court in the 1920s. He seems to have suffered from chronic pulmonary
disease, possibly tuberculosis, and so gave up singing to concentrate on playing
the rubab. In due course he became the principal rubab player at Radio Kabul (as
the radio station was then called), the leader of various ensembles, the composer
of many instrumental sections (naghma) for popular songs, and of many
naghmaha-ye radiu, light instrumental pieces for small radio ensemble. He made
certain technical innovations to the rubab, favouring a very large instrument, and
modifying the bridge to raise the shortest sympathetic string so it could be used as
a high drone in a sophisticated technique called simkdri ("metal string work", see
Baily 1987). He was wont to complain about the frustrations of the rubab from
the point of view of a vocalist, with its narrow ambitus (effectively 112 octaves)
and limitations for microtonal inflections and ornamentation.

Ustad Mohammad Omar became one of the best known and most highly
esteemed of Afghan musicians. Perhaps this was because his instrumental music
transcended the cultural barriers inherent in whether song texts were in Persian or
Pashto. His rubab became the distinctive voice of Afghanistan as received by the
radio audience. Amongst musicians he was known and respected for his
knowledge of art music, of which the naghma-ye kashal was a part. He became in
due course an official, government-appointed, ustad, a "master musician". Rather
few audio recordings of his playing are to be found, possibly reflecting a
disinclination to commit his work to posterity, and easy emulation by others.
I met Ustad Mohammad Omar in July 1973. Mohammad Daud had just
deposed his brother-in-law, Zahir Shah, the King of Afghanistan, the first step in
the tragic sequence of events which led to 20 years of civil war. I had a letter of

6 By "Kabuli art music" I refer to the art music performed in Kabul, consisting of two types: (a)
Hindustani (art) music of the khyal (kldsik) and naghma-ye kldsik genres, and (b) Afghan art
music, consisting of the Kabuli ghazal and naghma-ye kashdl genres (Baily 1988:ch. 5). Sargam
is a form of Indian music notation adopted in Afghanistan from the Indian Sub-Continent, and is
used as both written and oral notation.

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 Baily: The naghma-ye kashail of Afghanistan 121

introduction from a journalist in Herat whose father had been Ustad Mohammad
Omar's student. I went to find Ustad at Radio Afghanistan,7 his place of
employment, and he took me by taxi to the house of Joma Khan Qader, the rubab
maker, who was in turn sent off to his workshop in the old city to bring an
instrument for me to purchase. Joma Khan' s son Musa was also a student of Ustad
Mohammad Omar's, and he spoke some English, too. This was a great help
because my Dari (Afghan Persian) was quite limited at that stage of my work.
I came to this music with some knowledge of the rudiments of North Indian
music theory, such as sargam and tabla bols, rags and tdls. Music theory for the
rubab was clearly rooted in this system. My initial lesson, given to me that first
day at Joma Khan's house, was to write down the note names with reference to
the instrument's fretboard. I was told to familiarise myself with the names and
positions of the notes so that I could immediately find any note on the fretboard
when Ustad Mohammad Omar said its name. His was a slightly modified version
of the Indian sargam system, with 12 semitones to the octave: Sd Rd Ra Gd Ga
Ma Ma Pa Da Da Nd Ni Sd. Figure 2 shows this notation in Persian script mapped
out on the fretboard of the rubab.

Fig. 2: Ustad Mohammad Omar's system of note names

4 c

R 9 Ma

(, ;
lo a 4pa-

7 The name of Radio Kabul was changed to Radio Afghanistan in the 1960s, when the radio
station was moved from-the old city to new premises built near the airport by the USSR; see
Baily 1988:31.

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122 British Journal of Ethnomusicology, vol. 6 (1997)

In Herat I encountered a rather different set of note names used as an oral

notation: Sd Rd Re GB Ge Md Me Pe Da De Nd Ni Sa. In slightly modified form,
with no diacriticals or italicisation, this is the system I use here, even for notating
Ustad Mohammad Omar's material. The reasons for this are: most of the compo-
sitions given here were dictated to me in the Herati version of the notation, the
orthography is simpler to read, and I have used it for earlier publications. Figure 3
shows the note names on the rubatb and how they are rendered in staff notation,
with "Sa being arbitrarily equated with the C but not implying its absolute pitch"
(Jairazbhoy 1971:35).

Fig. 3: The system of notation (Baily 1981:13)

let svc~rl"
R~w 1?- A. je

Ir Ir3 2.a/ `(c ~d s4-r/

I- I-. - - -A" A-----

h)L, SICA so?

S- k - - -. Dieis r

RaL 4A C4 t- b N.. IX .. . w
I received nine lessons from Ustad Mohammad Omar ove
(25.7.73 to 29.8.73). Usually I attended his class for amateur
Kucheh Kharabat. Most of his amateur students were m
young men, university students, minor government officials,
method of teaching was through the medium of written notat
system, written in Persian script. "Ustad's method is first
piece, then to write it out for you, then to play it with you w
it. No tape recorders here" (fieldnotes 1.8.73). He would atte
turn for 10-15 minutes, while others present watched, lear

8 Ustad Mohammad Omar was recognised as a gifted teacher, as well

prolific composer. Over the years he was involved in a number of m
most of them short lived. His class for amateurs at his house was a p
conceptually owed something to the official initiatives of the Music Dep
of Information and Culture. There is an important distinction within
amateur and professional musician status (Baily 1988:101-2), and ama
learned to perform in rather different ways (Doubleday and Baily 1995

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 Baily: The naghma-ye kashal of Afghanistan 123

seeing another's difficulties. Often Ustad Mohammad Omar would play two
rubdbs with a student, sometimes trying to throw the tyro off with complex cross-
rhythms.

Unfortunately I do not have examples of notations written in his own hand.

When teaching me he would dictate the note names and I would write them down,
in roman script. Sometimes he dictated oral notation to his Afghan students.
Moreover, they would add to the notations he had written for them, trying to
clarify points of ambiguity. My experience indicates that Afghan use of written
notation represents time relationships very poorly (Baily 1988:57).
Ustad Mohammad Omar taught me two examples of naghma-ye kashal, in
Raigs Bairami and Yeman. He used the term naghma-ye chartuk ("four part instru-
mental piece") for this type of composition. He called the four parts dstai, antara,
bhog, and sanchari. These are, in fact, very close to the names of the four sections
of a dhrupad vocal or instrumental composition-sthlyi, antarJ, safic~ii and
Jbhog. It is my opinion that Ustad Mohammad Omar adapted the naghma-ye
kash^cl for his many amateur students of rubab, simplified it into four parts, and
borrowed the terms bhog and sanchari as convenient labels for two of the parts.
No further connection with dhrupad need necessarily be inferred from the use of
these terms (Baily 1988:67).9 The two naghmahd-ye kashal that I learned were
standard pieces that he taught to his amateur students. There may have been good
reason for this choice: Bairami and Yeman are sometimes regarded as the two
parent raigs, for between them they encompass all 12 notes in the scale (ibid:41).
In Bairami those notes which can take alternative forms take the lower one (Ra,
Ga, Ma, Da, Na), while in Yeman they take the upper (Re, Ge, Me, De, Ni).

Naghma-ye kashal in Radg Bairami

Bairami is the most common mode in Afghan music (Baily 1981:15). The
naghma-ye kashacl in Rdg Bairami is well known and played in one form or
another by many musicians. Bairami is exceptional in having many different
antaras, most of which can be heard on Essa Kassimi's recording of the piece
(Kassimi 1979), which uses a different dstdi from the one Ustad Mohammad
Omar taught me. The Bairami scale does not fit comfortably onto the rubdb
fretboard. One solution to this problem is to transpose Bairami up by a wholetone.
This scale is called Bairami Rekap, i.e. Bairami played from Re (Baily 1981:32).
Ustad Mohammad Omar's version of the naghma-ye kashal in Bairami is some-
what idiosyncratic, the astdi and antara are probably his own compositions, and I
do not recall hearing them played by anybody else. They are 16 matras in length,
in contrast to the older 32 matra compositions. The antara is closely related to the

9 Hindustani music terminology has undergone a number of transformations in Afghanistan. I

use the local vernacular terms here, hence astdi rather than sthayi, antara rather than antara.
Many other examples could be given. Rag Bairami is the Afghan transformation of Rig
Bhairavi The significance of Hindustani music theory in Afghanistan is discussed by Baily
1988:55-8.

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124 British Journal of Ethnomusicology, vol. 6 (1997)

astai. What Ustad Mohammad Omar labelled the bhog and sanchari are rather
stereotyped compositions which occur in one form or another in nearly all
naghmahd-ye kashcil.
The first step was to show me that Bairami has an ascending and a descending
scale, called in Afghanistan the arui and amrui. These terms (derived from groh
and avroh) and the concepts they label are further proof of the close links with the
Indian concept of rag. He then taught me the astai, and the antara, structurally
closely related to the dstai. He also showed me transformations of these,
described as du lai, "double tempo". It is not the tempo that changes, but the
rhythmic density, generally increasing to two notes per matra rather than one. He
also dictated to me two paltas, rather standardised melodic variations. These were
to be sandwiched between statements of the antara. Some days later he showed
me the bhog and sanchari, the 3rd and 4th sections of the naghma, and then a
final palta which concluded the piece. In writing out these pieces I used the
symbol - to indicate an extension of the proceeding note by a half-matra or
matra.

airui Re Ga Ma Pe De Na Sal Rel

amrui Rel Sal Na De Pe Ma Ga Re

astrai Re PePe Ma Pe Pe NaNa De Pe

Ma Ge Ma Pe Ma Ga Re Re

antara Re NaNa De Na Pe De Na Sa1

De NaNa Pe Na De Pe Ma Ma

astdi-du lai RePe MaPe -Na DePe MaGe MaPe MaGa Re

RePe MaPe -Na DePe MaGe MaPe MaGa Re

antara--du lai ReNa DeNa PeDe NaSal D

ReNa DeNa PeDe NaSal DeNa PeNa DePe Ma

palta 1 SaRe MaGe MaPe MaGe MaDe PeMa GeMa NaDe

GeMa DePe GeMa PeMa ReGa MaGa SaRe GaRe

palta 2 ReGa MaPe DeNa SalRel SalNa DePe MaGa Re

Re1Sal NaDe PeMa GaRe RelSal NaDe PeMa GaRe

bhog De De Na Na De DePe MaGe Ma

ReGa SaRe MaPe De MaPe MaGa ReSa Re

sanchari Ge Ge Ge Ge Ma Ma Pe Pe
Ma Ma Ga Ga Re Re Sa Re

palta 3 ReGa MaGa MaPe MaPe DePe DeNa DeNa Sa1Na

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 Baily: The naghma-ye kashcal of Afghanistan 125

SalRel SalNa SalNa DeNa DePe DePe MaPe MaGe

MaGa ReGa ReSa Re MaPe NaSal Re1 Rel

MaPe NaSal Rel Rel MaPe NaSal Rel Rel

Re

Naghma-ye kashal in Rdg Bairami

arui amrui

Astdi

antara

Astdi - du lai

palta 1

palta -2d
t) ? U U
Ssanc I I I ari i

sanchari

S (0 K-,m[- I

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126 British Journal of Ethnomusicology, vol. 6 (1997)

palta 3

L i f11 1 1 ' I M| I I i i
I A .1 1 I I II

I t- W ".

Naghma-ye kashal in Radg Yeman

Widely known, this composition is closely identified with Ustad Mohammad

Omar, though he did not necessarily compose it. He taught it to his students, an
he played it in public, notably at his concert at the University of Washington,
Seattle, in 1974/5, with Zakir Hussein on tabla.10 A separate recording of the
naghma-ye kashal in Yeman by Ustad Mohammad Omar was issued on an Afghan
Music cassette published in Kabul in the 1970s, with Gol Alam on dohol.11 Th
composition is widely known, played as a solo and as a group instrumental piece
at the start of an evening's performance.
The 2stdi of this naghma is a 32-matra composition, and has close structural
affinities with castdi compositions in several other modes. The antara is closely
related to the astdi, while the bhog and sanchari have obvious affinities with
those of Rag Bairami. He also taught me five paltas which are to be interpolate
in the sanchari section. Several of these can be clearly recognised on Usta
Mohammad Omar's own recordings of this piece. He also dictated for me a seh
(cf. the Hindustani tihbi), a thrice-repeated phrase which resolves onto the first
beat of the cycle (the gor beat) and is used to conclude the composition. The term
seh means "three".

Brui Sa Re Ge Me Pe De Ni Sal
amrui Sa1 Ni De Pe Me Ge Re Sa

10to Ustad Mohammad Omar spent several months at the University of Washington as an art
residence, an appointment facilitated by Dr Lorraine Sakata, then a professor of ethnomusico
at Washington who had conducted extensive resdearch in Afghanistan and been a stude
Ustad Mohammad Omar. A unique event, this concert has passed into Afghan musician folkl
"Bootleg" cassettes of the Washington concert crop up from time to time. They pro
originate from cassettes of the concert that Ustad Mohammad Omar gave out to his friends
return to Kabul.

11 It is significant that in his recordings for the cassette company Afghan Music in Kabul, U
Mohammad Omar had dohol rather than tabla for his drum accompaniment. There coul
various reasons for this choice, one of the most obvious being the dohol was argua
distinctive Afghan instrument, while the tabla was acknowledged to have been literally imp
from India. Thus dohol with rubab added a distinctly nationalistic ambiance to the recordin

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 Baily: The naghma-ye kashdl of Afghanistan 127

astai Pe Pe Pe MeGe Pe Pe Pe PeMe

De De De MePe Ge Ge Nil Sa ReGe

Nil Nil Nil NilNil Sa Sa Pe Pe

Ge Ge Nil Sa ReGe Nil Nil Sa Sa

antara Ni Ni Ni DeNi Pe Pe Pe PeMe

De De De MePe Ge Ge NilSa ReGe

Nil Nil Nil NilNil Sa Sa Pe Pe

Ge Ge NilSa ReGe Nil Nil Sa Sa

bhog Pe Pe Pe Pe MeDe PeMe GeRe Ge

De De Pe Pe GeMa GeRe SaNi1 Sa

sanchari Ge Ge Ge ReRe Ge Me Pe NiNi

De Pe Ge MaMa Ge Re Nil Sa

palta I SaRe GeMe PeDe NiSal NiDe PeMe GeRe Sa

SalNi DePe MeGe ReSa SalNi DePe MeGe ReSa

palta 2 Ni1Sa ReSa NilSa GeRe SaNil SaMe GeRe SaNi1

SaPe MeGe ReSa NilSa SalNi DePe MeGe ReSa

palta 3 SaRe GeRe GeMe GeMe PeMe PeDe PeDe NiDe

NiSal NiDe NiDe PeDe PeMe PeMe GeMe GeRe

GeRe SaGe SaNi1 Sa Ni 1Sa ReGe MePe Pe

Ni Sa ReGe MePe Pe Nil Sa ReGe MePe Pe

palta 4 NilRe GeMe DeNi RelGel RelSal NiDe PeMe GeRe

SaPe MeGe ReSa PeMe GeRe SaPe MeGe ReSa

palta 5
NiSal DeNi PeDe MePe GeMe ReGe SaRe Nil Sa
NiSal DeNi PeDe MePe GeMe ReGe SaRe Nil Sa

NiSal DeNi PeDe MePe GeMe ReGe SaRe Nil Sa

-Pe -Pe Sa -Pe -Pe Sa -Pe -Pe

seh PeMe GeMe PeNi DeNi Sal Sal PeMe GeMe

PeNi DeNi Sal Sal PeMe GeMe PeNi DeNi
Sa1
X

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128 British Journal of Ethnomusicology, vol. 6 (1997)

Naghma-ye kashdl in Rag Yeman

Alrui amrui

0 9
fiUfilD

tasttU

antara

A I. ., A .[ .... 10l
I f UU ~' P F I N II

?'.L '1 -I II -- --I -- II a .. I i - - , . I .I I I I I l

bhog
A,
ofI I Ii ili I
1. I1 I
1 1 doom In

sanchari

,io ,, 'l],
UJ W J- !iT,.l'
, i m 'i
i

palta1

f(M1i I Ilt
. Rf---
palta3 I .l
II,o
-- -,
-,Fi
F-- - -I .I "pool
..1
I I 1F ..I .,,I F
! Ii1! I I .-- I1 IJ
Apalta 2

I
A
',.dO I
F I I
I
i!--J
PRO
I ,F"I ,o i pI uI-
Apalta 5 po ampo3I
pai~a 3 awl .0m~
Ar I Mao"-Na
I~JVC? I I l. . I'iI
palta 4
, , , m I m I--L
WPM
0)- -P~. ]k-- - -40.d - -
palta 5

TII I l6,-ad w _

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 Baily: The naghma-ye kashdl of Afghanistan 129

A seh -: JPwal Fool F009FII~f

ti 1 -1ISMMO III- d

I ,". I

In November 1973 I moved to Herat to work on the dutdr. I saw little of Ustad
Mohammad Omar, and although I had further lessons from him he did not teach
me any more compositions. He did not approve of the dutdr, which he considered
the domain of opium smokers (i.e. associating it with Iran). "The rubab," he told
me, "requires lots of stamina. You have to drink whisky to play the rubab!"

3 Ustad Amir Jan-e Khushnawaz of Herat

I have discussed elsewhere the biography of Amir Jan (Fig. 4) and his role as the
leading musician in the city of Herat (Baily 1988). I had a much closer relation-
ship with him than I did with Ustad Mohammad Omar. From a professional
musician family, he dominated the urban music scene in Herat from the 1930s to
the 1960s. His pre-eminence derived from his studentship with the Kabuli musi-
cian Ustad Nabi Gol. Ustad Nabi Gol resided for long periods in Herat in the
1930s and trained Amir Jan and his brother Chacha Ghulam in Kabuli art music
so that they could function as his accompanists. He was one of a small group of
singers closely associated with the court in the 1920s and 1930s (others being
Ustad Kasem, Ustad Ghulam Hussein and Ustad Sheyda). He taught Amir Jan to
sing ghazal and a simple form of khyal, and to play the rubab, and gave him
permission to play instrumental versions of what he had learned to sing. Ustad
Nabi Gol taught Amir Jan through the medium of sargam notation, oral and
written. As well as proficiency in sargam, Amir Jan acquired considerable
knowledge of compositions, musical forms, and strategies for melodic and
rhythmic improvisation. Amir Jan certainly deferred to Ustad Mohammad Omar
(he could hardly have done otherwise), and told me on more than one occasion an
anecdote about asking Ustad at a small gathering of Kabuli musicians for his
opinion of his own new composition in Rag Jogkaus. Ustad Mohammad Omar
had declared it to be "correct". At the same time, Amir Jan was quite capable of
criticising Ustad Mohammad Omar, as we shall see with respect to certain aspects
of the naghma-ye kashal in Rag Yeman. Amir Jan claimed that he played in a
different style from Ustad Mohammad Omar because he had learned from a
different teacher, Ustad Nabi Gol.

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130 British Journal of Ethnomusicology, vol. 6 (1997)

Fig. 4: Amir Jan playing the rubaib

rrua'.

During my first year of fieldwork in Herat, 1973-74, I met Amir Jan only a few
times. I was not working much on the rubab at that stage, though I did make a
number of recordings of his son Rahim, an outstanding rubab player.12 It was also
at this time I began to realise the importance of the naghma-ye kashal. During a
six-week visit to Herat in 1975 I began having lessons with Amir Jan on rubab.
He concentrated on teaching me naghmas and paltas for naghma-ye klasik

12 Some of these recordings are published in Khushnawaz (1993).

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 Baily: The naghma-ye kashal of Afghanistan 131

("classical instrumental piece") in Rag Todi. My studentship was resumed in

1976-77, when I had many lessons with him over the year. We usually met at his
house in the old city, which gave me a window into his daily life and access to the
social world of professional male musicians in Herat. A "lesson" would be an all-
day affair, from ten or eleven in the morning to four or five in the afternoon, with
soup and bread for lunch, and time to explore other avenues of inquiry and listen
critically to tapes, especially of North Indian classical music, which he admired
greatly. This revealed his knowledge of Indian music, musicians, music history,
and rdgs.
Like Ustad Mohammad Omar, Amir Jan taught me by the medium of notation,
and was not prepared to be recorded playing these compositions. Some of them he
had not played for many years, and only remembered them with some difficulty.
Amongst Herati musicians Amir Jan, more or less uniquely, was adept in the use
of sargam notation. This gave him a precise labelling of pitch and allowed him to
dictate compositions with spoken or sung note names. In teaching a composition
he would first give me its rui and amrui, ascending and descending scales, which
he also called in Persian raft ("went") and amad ("came"). I found that in many
cases the rags used for naghmaha-ye kashal were pentatonic in ascent and
heptatonic in descent, but he never commented on this matter. He would then
dictate the shakl, phrase by phrase. He would dictate a phrase, I would write it
down, then play it back from the sargam notation, while he checked I had got it
right. Then on to the next phrase; he dictated, I notated and then played it.13 Once
the shakl was complete we would move on to the composition, each in several
parts. He would dictate the first part, the astai, and I would write it down, then he
would have me play through it a number of times while he worked out the next
section, singing quietly to himself. Once he was ready, he would have me stop
playing and get me to write down the next section (the first antara, then the
second antara, and so on). Sometimes he would take the rubab and play through a
composition a number of times in order to refresh his memory, getting me to clap
the tal and show the gor beat. To some extent he was recalling long neglected
compositions, and no doubt sometimes re-creating them. I never had the oppor-
tunity to play two ruba^bs together with him.
In this period I collected the notations for naghma-ye kashal given below. I
present them in the order in which he gave them to me: Bihag, Yeman, Kumcj,
Kausieh, Pilu, Kesturi, Bairami, Pdri, Asd, Asawari, Des, Bagheshri, Yeman
Kalydn. Only in the case of Bihag did we go over the same composition several
times over the months, when rather different versions of certain parts came up
(see below). Otherwise, we usually worked on each composition once only, which
perhaps gives a false sense of fixedness for the data.
He had a great respect for these pieces, and would refer to them as kalnn
("big"), qadimi ("ancient"), sdbeqdar ("old") and pokhteh ("cooked, mature").
Sometimes having dictated a composition he would say (in Herati dialect) Barkat

13 The nature of shakl is discussed at length in Baily (1981), where shakls for most of the
naghmas given here can be found.

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132 British Journal of Ethnomusicology, vol. 6 (1997)

sar az i naghma, "A blessing on this instrumental piece!" He told me many times
how in previous days (1920s) they would play the appropriate naghma-ye kashdl
at the start of each set of ghazals and other songs in a single rag, to warm up the
instruments for subsequent fine adjustments to the tuning (especially of sympa-
thetic strings), and to warm up musicians and audience alike. This practice had
become largely discontinued, and it was now customary to play a single naghma-
ye kashdl at the start of an evening's performance of urban music. The only
musician I observed to play more than one naghma-ye kashdl in the course of an
evening's performance was Ustad Rahim Bakhsh from Kabul, whose band played
a second naghma-ye kashcl after the interval in their Ramazdn concerts in Herat
in 1974 and 1976.

Naghma-ye kashal in Rdg Bihdag (18.9.76, 19.9.76, 20.4.77)

This was the first naghma-ye kashal that Amir Jan taught me. Bihag gave us a lot
of trouble because Amir Jan felt he had to revise the composition as originally
dictated after hearing comments about Rag Bihag from Ustad Sarahang on the
radio (see Baily 1988:44). The notation presented here combines elements from
the several slightly different versions he gave me over the months. The naghma-
ye kashdl in Rag Bihdg was widely known but I only ever heard it played as a solo
piece. Amir Jan often suggested a small modification to the last line of a composi-
tion to facilitate moving to the next section. Such a modification would only be
played once. Many such examples will be found in the compositions that follow.

drui Sa Ge Ma Pe Ni Sa1
amrui Sal Ni De Pe Ge Ma Ge Re Sa

astcdi (18.9.76 & 20.4.77)

Ni Ni Ni DeNi Sa' Sa' Sa' Sa' Sa'
Ni Ni Ni NiDe Pe Me Pe De

Ge GeMa GeRe Ni1Sa Ge Ma Pe Sa' Sa'

Ni De PeMe Pe GeMa GeRe SaNi1 Sa

antara 1 (19.9.76 & 20.4.77)

Ni Ni Sa' Sa' Ni NiDe PeMe Pe
De De PeMe Pe GeMa GeRe SaNi1 Sa
(GeMa GeSa -Ge -Ma
to antara 2)
antara 2 (19.9.76 & 20.4.77)
Pe Pe Pe Pe Ni Ni Sa' Sa'
Ni Ni DeNa DeNa PeNa DePe --Ge Ma

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 Baily: The naghma-ye kashdl of Afghanistan 133

antara 3 (20.4.77)
Sa' Sa' Sa' Sa' Sa' Sa' Sa' Sa'
Ni Ni Ni De Pe PeGe -Pe De

Ni Ni Ni Ni DeNa DeNa Pe Pe
Na De Pe Ma Ge GeMa -Pe Ni

(Ge GeSa -Ge Ma

to antara 2 or 4)

antara 4 (20.4.77)
Pe Pe Pe Pe De Ma Ge Ge
Ma Ma Ma Pe Ge Re Nil Sa
(or Ge GeRe -Ni1 Sa)

antara 5 (20.4.77)
Sa Sa Sa Nil Sa Ge Ma Na
De Pe Ge Ma Ge Re Sa Ni1
(or Ge GeRe -Sa Ni1)

seh Sa Sa Sa Nit Ge Ge Ma Na
MaPe -Ni Sa' MaPe -Ni Sa' MaPe -Ni
Sa

Naghma-ye kashal in Rag Bihag

drui amrui

1 :

dstdi

Aantara 11 . o2 TOan,,r,2
anara 2I
antara 2

,*

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134 British Journal of Ethnomusicology, vol. 6 (1997)

antara 3

AIo A| P i2. TO aara 2 or 4

S' l I I I' I I I ' I ..I - I I

antara 4 or

antara 5 or "
seh
A 10
IfF~ I I I I , I. '1 / .. . FI , I I l
)! 44~

Naghma-ye k
The naghma
group instru
naghma-ye k
by Ustad Moh
Ustad Moham
of both Me an
supposed to
two composit

bhog Pe Pe Pe Pe MeDe PeMe GeRe Ge

De De Pe Pe GePe GeRe SaNi, Sa
sanchari Ge Ge Ge Re Ge Me Pe Sa'
Ni De PeMe Pe GePe GeRe SaNi, Sa

Naghma-ye kashal in Rag Yeman (AJ)

bhog

sanchari

I I 01. - j

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 Baily: The naghma-ye kashdl of Afghanistan 135

Amir Jan did not recognise the terms bhog and sanchari, and called these two
sections antaras 2 and 3.

Naghma-ye kashc2l in Rcig Kumidj (9.1.77)

This naghma-ye kashdl is well known. I found that it was regularly played by the
Kabuli musician Ustad Rahim Bakhsh and his group for their Ramazcdn concerts
in Herat after the interval, to introduce the second half of their concert. Amir Jan,
somewhat gleefully, criticised Rahim Bakhsh's performance of this naghma-ye
kashadl because he did not play antaras 4, 5, 6 and 7: "One should play the com-
plete naghma," he said.

drui Sa Ge Ma Na De Ni Sal
amrui Sal Na De Ma Pe De Ma Ge Re Sa

astai Sa - Sa NilNi, Sa Sa GeMa PeDe

Ge Ge Ge GeGe Ma Ma Pe DeDe

Ni Ni Sa' Ni Sa' Sa' Na De Ma PeDe

Sa' Na De MaMa Ge Sa Re GeGe

antara 1 Sa - Sa' NiNi Sa' SalPe DeSa' Re'Ge'

Sa' Sa' Sa' Ni Sa' Re' Na De Ma PeDe

Ni Ni Sa' Ni Sa' Sa' Na De Ma PeDe

Sa' Na De MaMa Ge Sa Re GeGe
(antara 1 must return to a

antara 2 Sa Sa Ge Ge Ma Ma Pe De
Sa' Sa' Na Pe MaDe PeMa GeMa Ge

antara 3 Ni Ni Sa' Re' Ge' Sa'Ni Sa'Na DePe MaPe

Sa' Sa' Na Pe MaDe PeMa GeMa Ge
(MaDe PeMa GeMa GeMa
to antara 4)

antara 4 De De De De Na Na Rel Re'

Sa' Sa' Na Na De DePe MaGe Ma
(De DePe -Sa' Ni
to antara 5)

antara 5 Sa' Sa' Sa' Pe De Sa' Re' Ma'

Ge' Re' Sa' Ni Sa' Ni Sa' Re'

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136 British Journal of Ethnomusicology, vol. 6 (1997)

Sa' Sa' Na De Na Na Re' Re'

Sa' Sa' Na Na De DePe -Sa' Ni
(Sa' Sa' Sa' Sa'
to antara 6)

antara 6 Sa' Sa' Sa' Sal Na Pe Sa' Na

played once De Pe Ma Ge Ge Ma Pe De

antara 7 Ni Ni Sa' Sa' Na Pe Sa' Na

De Pe Ma Ge Ge Ma Pe De

No seh given.

Naghma-ye kashal in Rag Ku

arui amrui

I a nara3 42 a2. To anta 4

PO

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 Baily: The naghma-ye kashal of Afghanistan 137

antara 5

.,", I I r " I y r / F
antara 6 (once only)

antara 7

No seh given

Naghma-ye kashal in Rcag Kausieh (17.1.77)

This naghma-ye kashadl is often played by urban musicians at the start of an
evening's performance of music at a wedding party or Ramazan concert. In
Kausieh the tonic is transposed up a 4th to Ma, and the drone strings (shahtdar)
normally tuned to Pe are retuned to Ma. When teaching me the naghma-ye kashcal
in Kausieh Amir Jan tried to shift the note names up a 4th but found it very
confusing (Baily 1981:12). This suggests that he had the layout of note positions
on the rubab very much in mind in his representation of these compositions. Rdg
Pari is also transposed up a 4th, and Rag Kesturi up a 5th. When teaching me
these Amir Jan did not attempt to shift the positions of the note names; in giving
his notation of the naghma-ye kashal in Kausieh I have reverted to the standard
note positions, so that Ma is the tonic.

arui Ma Pe De Na Sa1 Rel Ge1 Mal

amrui Mal Ge1 Rel Sa1 Na De Pe Ma

astdi Ma Ma Ma MaMa Ge Re Ge MaMa

Ge Ge Ge SaSa Re Ge Ma PeDe
(Re Ge Ma Pe
to antara 2)

antara 1 Ma Ma Ma NaNa De Pe Pe NaNa

De Pe Pe NaNa De Pe Ma Ge
(antara 1 must return t

antara 2 (enters from dstdi)

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138 British Journal of Ethnomusicology, vol. 6 (1997)

Sa Sa Re Re Ge Ge Ma Ma
Na Na De Pe Ma GePe MaGe Ma

antara 3 Pe Pe Pe Pe De De Sa' Sa'

Na Na De De Pe Pe Ge Ma
(Pe Pe Ma Na
to antara 4)

antara 4 (played once)

De Pe Ma Ge Ge Ma Pe Sa'
Na De Pe De De Pe Ma Ge

antara 5 Ma Ma Ma Ma Ge Ma Pe Sa1
Na De Pe Na De Pe Ma Ge

seh Ma Ma Ma Ma Ge Ma Pe Sa1
SaGe -Ge Ma SaGe --Ge Ma SaGe -Ge
Ma

Naghma-ye kashal in Rag Kausieh

Grui amrui

antara 1

antara 2

arntara 2oceony

antara 3 (oc II o- ly)t, ,,

-f i 1 F ?

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 Baily: The naghma-ye kashAl of Afghanistan 139

antara 5

seh

I Add w
' - - 1-- ,L,
I [ I

Ad.

Naghma-ye kashal in Rag Pilu (23.1.77 except where otherwise indicated)

This is well known as a solo piece. Like Bairami, Pilu has a great many antaras
and Amir Jan declined to teach me all he knew, saying that if one were to play all
of them the piece would become too long. Ustad Mohammad Omar played a
rather different version of Pilu, with not only a different astdi, but different
antaras as well. His composition is not notated here.

cirui Sa Ga Ma Pe Ni Sal
amrui Sal Na De Pe Ma Ga Re Sa

aAstai Ni Ni Ni NiPe Sa' Sa' (Ni)Sa' Ga'Ga'

Rel Re' Ni Sa' Sa' Na Pe Ma PePe

Nil Ni, Ni, NilNi, Sa Sa Sa PePe

Ga Ga ReGa MaPe Re Re Nil Sa

antara 1 Ni Ni Sa' Sa' Na NaDe PeMa Pe

GeMa GeSa GeMa Pe GaMa GaRe SaNi, Sa

antara 2 Ni Ni Sa' Sa' Na NaDe PeMa Pe

GeMa GeSa GeMa PeDa PeMa GaRe SaNi1 Sa

antara 3 Ga Ga Ga Ga ReMa GaRe

Ge GeSa GeMa Pe GaMa GaRe SaNi1 Sa
(Ga GaRe -Ma -Pe
to antara 4)

antara 4 (3.2.77)
Ni Ni Ni Ni Sa' Sa' Re' Re'
Sa' Sa' Na Na De DePe Ma Pe

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140 British Journal of Ethnomusicology, vol. 6 (1997)

(De DePe Ni Sa'

to antara 5)

antara 5 (3.2.77)
Re' Re' Re' Re' Re' Re' Sa' Re'
Ga' Ga' Ga' Ga' Re' SalNi --Sa Re'
Ga' Ga' Ga' Ga' Re' Re' Sa' Sa'
Na Na De De Na Na Re' Re'

Sa' Sa' Na Na De DePe -Ni Sal

(second time round goes into antara 6:
Sa' Sa' Na Na De DePe -Ma Pe)

antara 6 Ge Ge Ge Ge Ma Ma Pe Pe
Ma Ma Ga Ga Re Re Nil Sa

seh Ge Ge Ge Ge Ma Ma Pe Pe
MaPe -Ni Sa' MaPe -Ni Sal MaPe -Ni
Sa

or (3.2.77): Ga Ma Pe Ni Sa' - Ga Ma
Pe Ni Sa' - Ga Ma Pe Ni
Sa

Naghma-ye kashdl in Rdg Pilu

arui amrui

a'I IUD

antara 1

antara 2

OMEN% -4

antara 3 I 2. To antra

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 Baily: The naghma-ye kashil of Afghanistan 141

antara 4 [ 7 T T o ~TOa s5
1.-rI ......
UM I : F i

I'IIo I I Toatr6
antara 6
se)

ii __ , i
A
IIi i
id
!iI op
IIIIiI14I0I1

o
lte
antara 6

seh

I IJi rA ,
I dO _ 1 1i.I I I
l l I i I I i N
A '.J I .I J i | i i . . , , ." I Il I

Antara 5 of Pilu is a little odd because it consists of 212 cycles of Tintdl and ha
be played twice or a multiple thereof in order to come out correctly with refe
to the tal.

Naghma-ye kashal in Rcdg Kesturi (13.2.77)

Kesturi is an important mode in Afghan popular music, but unlike most of the
Afghan modes does not seem to correspond with an Indian rig. The tonic is
transposed up a 5th to Pe. The drui and amrui are distinctly odd. Firstly, although
the tonal centre is Pe, Amir Jan's ascending scale goes from Sa to Sal, omitting
Re. Secondly, his descending scale starts on Sa1 and ends on Pe.

dcrui Sa Ge Ma Pe De Na Sal
amrui Sal Na De Pe Ma Ge Ma Pe

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142 British Journal of Ethnomusicology, vol. 6 (1997)

dstai Pe Pe Pe Pe Pe Pe Pe PePe
Ma Ma Ma GeGe Ma Ma Ma NaNa

De De Pe Pe Ma Ma Ma NaNa

De De Pe Pe Ma Ge Pe Me

(must return to

antara 1 Pe Pe Pe Pe Pe Pe Pe Sa'Sa1
Ni Ni Ni Ni Sa' Sa' Re' Rel

Sa' Sa' Na Na De Pe Pe Sa' Sa'

Na De Pe NaNa De Pe Ge Ma

antara 2

Pe Pe Pe Pe PeNa DePe --Ge Ma

De DePe DeNa Sa' DeNa DePe -Ge Ma

(DeNa DePe -Ni Ni
to antara 3)

antara 3 Sa' Sat Sa' Sa' Sa' Sa' Sa' Sa'

Re' Re' Re' Sa' Ni Ni Sa' Rel

Ma' Ma' Ma' Ma' Ge' Ge' Re' Rel

Sa' Sa' Na Na De DePe -Ni Ni
(--Ge Ma
to antara 4)

antara 4 De De De De Na Na Re' Re'

Sa' Sa' Na Na De DePe -Ge Ma

Then repeat antara 2

seh-type figure
Pe Pe Pe Pe PeNa DePe --Ge Ma
MaDe -Na Sa' MaPe -De Na SaGe -Ma
Pe

and Pe Pe Pe Pe PeNa DePe --Ge Ma

MaDe -Na Sa' MaPe -De Na SaGe -Ma

MaDe -Na Sa' MaPe -De Na SaGe -Ma

MaDe -Na Sa' MaPe -De Na SaGe -Ma
Pe

Concluding seh

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 Baily: The naghma-ye kashdl of Afghanistan 143

Pe Pe Pe Pe PeNa DePe --Ge Ma

SaGe -Ma Pe SaGe -Ma Pe SaGe -Ma
Pe

Naghma-ye kasfil in Rdg Kesturi

drui amrui

anlara i
Il 'I

U . I I I I I. , .F
antara 1

I 0 I rk

jW M I MII ' '

ftt Ir k I- F , H "
antara 4

anoIher I -O tpe r- a t a 2
se type3figure retrnstoantara2

Aagoi."iMOO

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144 British Journal of Ethnomusicology, vol. 6 (1997)

concluding seh

Ar 3
40 mi P, doC~f~cF
I L I a IL

r - Ad

Naghma-ye kashal in Rdag Bairami (29.3.77)

We have already considered Ustad Mohammad
kashdl in Bairami. Amir Jan's version differs in
from Sa rather than from Re, which is m
necessitates frequent leaps between Sa and Na
an important note in the mode, is not availab
Secondly, the dstdi is an old 32-matra composi
than in Ustad Mohammad Omar's four part c
corresponds to Ustad Mohammad Omar's
Mohammad Omar's sanchari. As already s
Bairami is well known and often played as a so
a device used in several of the compositions,
only played once.

acrui Sa Ra Ga Ma Pe Da Na Sal
amrui Sal Na Da Pe Ma Ga Ra Sa

astci Sa' Sa' Sa' Sa'Na Ra' Ra' Ra' Sa'Na

Sa' Sa' Sa' NaSa' Da Pe Ga MaPe

Na Na Na DaDa Pe Pe Ga MeMe
Ma Ma GaRe Ga Ra Ra SaNa1 Sa

antara 1 Pe PeMa PeNa Da PeDa PeMa GaRe Ga

SaRa NaSa GaMa PeDa PeMa GaRa SaNa Sa

antara 2 Pe Pe Pe Pe Da Da Sa' Sa'

Na Na Da Da Pe PeMa --Ga Ma
(Pe PeMa -Na Na
to antara 3)
(Pe Pe -Ma Ma
to antara 4)

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 Baily: The naghma-ye kashdl of Afghanistan 145

antara 3 Sa' Sa' Sa' Sa' Sa' Sa' Na Sa'

Ra' Rai Ra' Ra' Sa' Sa' Na Na

Da Da Pe Pe Da Da Sa' Sa'
Na Na Da Da Pe PeMa Na Na

(Pe PeMa -Ga Ma

to antara 2)

(Antara 3 must return to antara 2.)

antara 4 (played once only)

Ga Ga Re Re Ga Ga Ma Ma
Ga Ga Ra Ra Sa Sa Na Sa

antara 5 Re Re Re Re Ga Ga Ma Ma
Ga Ga Ra Ra Sa Sa Na Sa

(Da Na
to antara 6)

antara 6 Sa Sa Sa Sa Ra Ra Ma Ma
Ga Ga Ra Ra Sa Sa Da Na

seh Sa Sa Sa Sa Ra Ra Ma Ma
GaMa DaNa Sa' GaMa DaNa Sa' GaMa DaNa
Sa'

Naghma-ye kashdl in Rdg Bairami

arui amrui
A

Aantarap 2 oolu-I II I 3i T fa.i

antara 2 2. Toanta3 3
antara2

I BI" I I11 I 1 I I i ! IP ii i
I Vgrl , I i 1 i 1 . i i i i I I i I" P t 1 / i I! I - i 1 i I F i l
i i I il l I N I , ,

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146 British Journal of Ethnomusicology, vol. 6 (1997)

antara 3

S B I 112 ooantara2

AL
antara 4 (once only)

A antara 4,.oInc. Toon.l6

antara 6

A antara!5Ian-aI

Naghma-ye kashdl in Rag Pdri (7.4.77

The naghma-ye kashdl in Rag Pdri is w

a group instrumental piece. Pdri resemb
up a 4th to Ma and the shahtdr retuned a

drui Ma Pe De Sa1 Rel Mal

amrui Mal Rel Sal De Pe Ma

astdi Sa' Sa' Sa' DeNa Sa' Sa' Sa' DeNa

Re' Re' Re' Sa' Sa' De Ma Pe De

Sa' Sa' Sal Sa' Sa' De Ma Ma NaNa

De De Pe Pe Ma Ge Sa Re

antara 1 Ma Ma Ma Ma De DePe DeSal Na

De De Pe Pe Ma MaGe -Sa Re
(Ma Ma De Na
to antara 2)

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 Baily: The naghma-ye kash"il of Afghanistan 147

antara 2 Sa' Sa' Sa' Sa' De Na Rel Re'

Sa' Sa' Na Na De DeMa -De Na
(De De Sa' Sal
to antara 3)

antara 3 Re' Re' Re' Re' Re' Rel Sa' Re'

Ge' Ge' Ge' Rel Sa' Sa' Re' Ge'

Ma' Ma' Ma' Ma' Ma' Ma' Ge' Rel

Ge' Ge' Ge' Re' Sa' Sa' Ni Sa'
(Re' Gel
to antara 4)

antara 4 Ma' Ma' Ma' Ma' Sa' Sal Re' Re'

Sa' Sa' Na Na De De Ma Pe

antara 5 De De -Ma Pe De De -Ma Pe

De Sa' De Pe Ma MaRe -Ma Pe
(Ma MaGe Sa Re
to antara 1)

Repeat antara 1

seh Ma Ma Ma Ma De DePe DeSa' Na

SaRe -Re Ma SaRe -Re Ma SaRe -Re
Ma

Naghma-ye kashdl in Rag Pari,

arui amrui

Adstidi

I I Io I ! 1 I I " " "II II i

i '.. . -...,
A antaraPo 1. I I I 1 112. 7b . i i2
il

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148 British Journal of Ethnomusicology, voL 6 (1997)

antara 2 1 12 o arm 3

antara 3
I M I

E? 1F2. To antara
I r r r' ' -- r r I-F
antara 4 (once only)

antara 5 - must return to antara I I 2 Toantara)

S I I I I .

I An[ "I . I i I I I I iI I I II I" I

seh

,I I..
1, I I lI

Naghma-y
This is a r
collected fr
three anta
entire com

drui Sa Re Ma Pe De Sa1
amrui Sa1 Ni De Pe Ma Ge Re Sa Re Ge Sa

dsteli Sa1 Sa1 Sa1 Sa1 Sa1 Sa1 Sa1 SalSa1

Ni De Pe Ma Pe De Ni Sa1 Sa1

Ni De Pe Ma Ge Ge Re SaSa
Re Re Ma Ma Pe Pe De De

antara 1 Sa1 Sa1 Sa1 Sal De DePe MaGe MaPe

De De Pe Ma Ge GeRe SaNil Sa
(Ge GeSa --Ge Ma
to antara 2)

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 Baily: The naghma-ye kashdl of Afghanistan 149

antara 2 Pe Pe Pe Pe De De Sa1 Sal

Ni Ni De De PeNi DePe -Ge Ma
(Pe PeMa -Pe De
to antara 3)

antara 3 Sal Sa1 Sa1 Sal Rel Rel Ge1 Gel

Rel Rel Sal Sal Ni NiDe -Pe De

Return to antara 1

seh Sa1 Sa1 Sal Sal De DePe MaGe Ma

MaPe -De Sal MaPe -De Sal MaPe -De
Sa

Naghma-ye kasha l in Rag Asfl

arui amrui

dstdi
I irf a I I I I II I T. r!v
anlrarpm7

I f~I*.= I * l I l I I I . I I I l i P" i I I --i in ! I I I I II

I At
ra 01- IM I
II
l [I I
m,2.
.I, I lTola
I
J J J l
I I I I I

a 22antara 3

I11IW L L"
antar ~I
antara 3 (returns to antara 111
i~i OP.. . I, A&l ,
seh

A I i woo" L;FFF~
I I FR M

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150 British Journal of Ethnomusicology, vol. 6 (1997)

Naghma-ye kashdl in Rdg Ascawari (19.5.77)

This is another rare naghma-ye kashal composition.

drui Sa Re Ma Pe Da Sa1
amrui Sa1 Na Da Pe Ma Ga Re Sa

astdi Sa' Sa' Sa' Sa' Sa' Sa' Sa' Sa'Sa1

Na Da Pe Ma Pe De Na Sa1

Na Da Pe Ma Ga Ga Re SaSa
Re Re Ma Ma Pe Da Ma Pe

antara 1 Sa' Sa' Sa' Sa' Sa' Sa' Sa' PePe

Da Da Sa' Sa' Rel Re1 Ga' Ga1

Rel Rel Sal Sal Na Na Na Rel

Sa' Sa' Na Na Da Da Pe MaPe

(antara 1 must return

antara 2 Sa' Sa' -Na Da Na Na -Pe Da

Pe Pe -Na Da Na Na -Pe Da

Pe Pe -Na Da Na Na -Pe Da

Pe Pe -Na Da Na Na -Pe Da

(Pe Pe Pe Pe
to antara 3)

antara 3 Sa' Sa' Sa' Pe Da Sa' Rel Gal

Sa' Rel Na Sa' Da DaPe -Ma Pe

antara 4 Sa' Sa' Sa' Sa' Pe PeMa -Na Da

Pe Ma Ga Sa Re MaMa -Pe Da

seh Sa' Sa' Sa1 Sa' Pe PeMa -Ma Da

MaPe -Da Sa' MaPe -Da Sa' MaPe -Da
Sa'
X

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 Baily: The naghma-ye kashal of Afghanistan 151

Naghma-ye kashdl in Rag Asawari

irui amrui

dstdi

I 0r ,Irr 2r io ror , 31
antara 4

I AI I

antara 2

I , , 1" .ido. . 1.ii I

antara 3

antara 4

seh

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152 British Journal of Ethnomusicology, vol. 6 (1997)

Naghma-ye kashdl in Rag Des (18.6.77)

Another rare composition, played by a few musicians as a solo piece.

arui Sa Re Ma Pe Ni Sal

amrui Sal Na De Pe Ma Ge Re Sa Re Nil Sa

astdii Sa' Sa' Sa' Sa1 Sa' Sa' Sa' Sa'Rel

Na De Pe Ma Pe Pe Ni Sa'

Na De Pe De Ma Ge Re NilSa
Re Re Ma Ma Pe Pe Ni Ni

(Ni NiSal
to antara 2)

antara 1 Sa' Sa' Sa' Sa' Sa' Sa' Sa' PePe

De De Sa' Sa' Rel Rel Re' MalMal

Ge' Ge' Re' Re' Sa' Sa' Sa' RelRe'

Sa' Sa' Na Na De De Pe Ni
(antara 1 must retu

antara 2 Ni Ni Ni Ni Sa' Sa' Re' Re'

Sa' Sa' Na Na De DePe -Ma Pe
(-Ni Sa'
to antara 3)
(De De Pe Pe
to antara 4)

antara 3 Re' Re' Re' Re' Re1 Re'Sa' -Re' Ge'

Ma' Ma' Ma' Mal Ge' Ge' Re' Re'

Sal Sa' Ni Ni Sa' Sa' Re' Re'

Sa' Sa' Na Na De DePe -Ni Sa'
(-Ma Pe
to antara 2)

antara 4 (played once only)

Ma Ma Ge Ge Ma Pe -Sa' Sa'
Na De Pe De Ma MaGe -Nil Sa

antara 5 Re Re Re Sa Re Ma Pe Sa'
Na De Pe De Ma MaGe -Nil Sa

seh Re Re Re Sa Re Ma Pe Sal

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 Baily: The naghma-ye kashdl of Afghanistan 153

MaPe -Ni Sa' MaPe -Ni Sa' MaPe -Ni

Sa

Naghma-ye kashdl in Rag Des

drui amrui

am" eal

astdi

A7 7 2. Towutara 2

IAt
A
oil II I
l
I i I"
,

antara 2 % I w" , To awam 3.i To / / I I

antara 3
!:II

, 0 . ...12. To
antara 4 (once only)

antara 5
rI JL.

seh

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154 British Journal of Ethnomusicology, vol. 6 (1997)

Naghma-ye kashal in Rag Bacgheshri (23.7.77)

A very rare piece, only ever encountered from Amir Jan's dictated notation, and
from his son Rahim in 1994. I have made a few changes to Amir Jan's castdi in the
light of comments from Rahim. Amir Jan could only remember two antaras for
this composition.

arui Sa Ga Ma De Na Sal
amrui Sal Na De Ma Pe Ga Re Sa

astdi Sa] Sa1 Sa1 DeNa Sa' Sa' Sa' DeNa

Sa' Sa1 Sa1 DeNa Sa'Ga' Re'Sa' NaDe PeDe

Na Na Na Sa' Sa1 De De Ma PeDe

Ga Ga Ga MaPe Re Re SaNa Sa

antara 1 Sa1 Sal Sa' Sa1 Sa1 Re1 Sa Na DePe De

Na Na De Ma GaMa GaRe SaNa Sa

antara 2 Ma Ma Ma Ga Ma De Na Sa'
Na De MaPe De Ga Re SaNa Sa

seh Ma Ma Ma Ga Ma De Na Sa'
MaDe -Na Sa' MaDe -Na Sa' MaDe -Na

Sa1
x

Naghma-ye kashal in Rag Bageshri

ifrui amrui
all

an

1 Id I I I
antara 2

III M "

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 Baily: The naghma-ye kashal of Afghanistan 155

selh

w do

Naghma-ye kashcl in
While the naghma-ye
played with one or ot
antara 1 notated here
the time that this com

arui Sa Re Ge Me Pe De Ni Sal
amrui Sal Ni De Pe Me Ge Re Sa

astdi Pe Pe Pe Pe Pe Pe Pe GeRe

Ge Ge Ge MaMa Ge Ge Re NilNil

Sa Sa Re Re Ge Ge Ge MaMa
Ge Ge Re Re Sa Sa Ge Re

antara 1 Pe Pe Pe Pe Pe Pe Pe MeGe
Me Me Me PePe Me Me Me ReRe

Ge Ge Me Me Pe Pe Pe Sa' Sa'
Ni Ni De De Pe Pe Pe NiDe

Sa' Sa' Sa' Sa' Sa' Sa' Sa' NiDe

Ni Ni Ni Sa' Sa' Ni Ni De PeMe

Pe Pe De De Ni Ni Ni Sa' Sa'
Ni Ni De De Pe Pe Me GeMe
(antara 1 must return

antara 2 Pe Pe Pe Pe MeDe PeMe GeRe Ge

De De Pe Pe GeMa GeRe SaNi1 Sa

antara 3 Ni Ni Sa' Sa' Ni NiDe PeMe Pe

Ni NiDe PeMe Pe GeMa GeRe SaNi1 Sa

antara 4 Ge Ge Ge Re Ge Me Pe Ni

De Pe Ge Ma GeMa GeRe SaNi1 Sa

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156 British Journal of Ethnomusicology, vol. 6 (1997)

Naghma-ye kashdl in Rdg Yeman Kalydn

arui amrui

TI C ''

Ostdi

F1~I El... .. 1 40 = I I I I I

I tr~I 1

V. I iI. II

antara 2

antara 4

I o se given

No sedO given

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 Baily: The naghma-ye kashacl of Afghanistan 157

4 An analysis of the naghma-ye kashilform

Apart from the intrinsic interest of the material given here, as representative of a
unique Afghan instrumental art music form, the compositions notated illustrate a
body of closely inter-related pieces, a coherent repertory. This affords us the
opportunity to draw certain conclusions about a repertory of this kind. It should be
evident to anybody who has systematically worked their way through the pieces
notated above that they display a number of structural consistencies. One can start
thinking about the rules which would seem to govern these patterned structures
and which would allow one to compose new examples of naghma-ye kashdl
which are acceptable according to the Afghan art music aesthetic. It is appropriate
to address these issues in terms of the major structural divisions in the naghma-ye
kasha2l, into cdstcdi and antara.

The stdi

The dstai compositions notated above constitute a fascinating body of material.

As compositions, they seem seem rather abstract, and rather different from
melodies used for Afghan songs. This connects with their association with the
Afghan rubab. The acstcai compositions have some obvious connections with
Hindustani music, and could be compared with Indian gats. They are set in Tintal,
and much importance is attached to the concept of the gor beat (sam beat in
Hindustani music) as the point of rhythmic resolution. Twelve of the 14 astai
compositions given are composed across 32 beats (matras), two cycles of tdl, and
might be termed "double gats" (Silver 1976:37). The exceptions are Ustad
Mohammad Omar's Bairami, and Amir Jan's Kausieh.
Melodic movement in the astai compositions is predominantly stepwise, in
scalar patterns which are framed within the compass of the octave. Figure 5 shows
a table of interval frequencies for 12 of the astdi compositions given by Amir Jan,
showing that 70% of melodic movement is stepwise.14

14 I have discussed elsewhere this "scalar movement framed by the octave" characteristic of
rubdab music, in contrast to the melodic movement of dutdr tunes (Baily 1995). While in terms of
melodic movement the latter also procede stepwise, they are not framed within the octave and are
not scalar in the same way, but emphasise the principle of sequencing.

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158 British Journal of Ethnomusicology, vol. 6 (1997)

Fig. 5: Melodic movement in 12 examples of astii

6e O
1 Id
II I I 2..
SI I 2.

1 2. 3

T I 2. 1 I 1 6

S3 2.
2 6 4- L .5 q 4. 3 - 4- 51

a
I It3 II S 3 2 4 '%
5 - Z5 4-23 3 a&

666
L7 a

3 /

One w

4 go
3 go
1 goe
2 go
1 goe
1 goes from Sa to Sa (Kumdj)

With regard to these melodic contours, two distinct patterns emerge. The four
that go from Sal to Sa follow the contour shown in Figure 6. They stress the area

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 Baily: The naghma-ye kashal of Afghanistan 159

of the upper tonic (Sal or Ni) for 12 matras, then their precise structure varies. It
is evident that Yeman has a similar contour, despite starting on Pe rather than Sa1.

Fig. 6: Graph of melodic movement for Bairami group

The three dstdi compositions that go from Sal to Sal have the contour shown in
Figure 7. The upper tonic Sa1 is stressed for 8 matras, then there is a descent to
the lower part of the upper tetrachord, then a return to the upper tonic, and then a
descent to the lower tonic and a return to the upper tonic.

Fig. 7: Graph of melodic movement for As group

The remaining four examples present no consistent pattern.

The dstdi compositions are generally characterised by having one note per
matra time unit. In other words, there is little melodic movement within matras.
One advantage of this arrangement is to facilitate the playing of rhythmic varia-
tions using complex permutations of right hand stroke patterns.

The antara

The term antara has two meanings. As a section of the naghma-ye kashdl form as
a whole, it describes the third section of the piece (shakl, astai, antara). The
antara as a structural section consists of a series of short compositions, each an
individual antara. These are repeated at the discretion of the performer, who can
also return to an earlier antara and repeat again the sequence from that point.
It is evident that there are a number of antara types which crop up from one
naghma-ye kashal composition to another. These prototypical structures will be
referred to as Antara-Patterns (APs), and designated AP-I, AP-II, AP-III, AP-IV
and AP-V.

Antara-Pattern I (AP-I) could also be termed the "dstdi-related antara". We

see that in naghmahd-ye kashal in Yeman, Kumdj, Asdwari, Des, Kausieh, Kesturi

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160 British Journal of Ethnomusicology, vol. 6 (1997)

and Yeman Kalydn, antara 1 is closely related to the cdstcdi. Yeman and Kumnj are
the best examples, where the dstdi and antara 1 differ only in the first 8 (of 32)
matras. Ustad Mohammad Omar's composition in Bairami also has an antara
which is closely related to the dstdi. This kind of antara really belongs to the dstdi
section of the naghma. After statements of the antara one returns to the dstdi
composition. A further justification for this view is that when one replaces a 32-
matra "double-gat" stdi composition with a 16 matra one, one does not play the
cstdi-related antara, but would pass directly from astdi to antara 2.
Antara-Pattern II (AP-II) corresponds to Ustad Mohammad Omar's bhog, and
can take a number of different forms.

Antara-Pattern III (AP-III) is a highly stereotyped simple pattern. It is

introduced at the point where the tempo starts to accelerate.
Antara-Pattern IV (AP-IV) is the point in the composition where the highest
pitch range is reached, and is usually in the upper octave. AP-IV is also usually a
32-matra composition.
Antara-Pattern V (AP-V) corresponds to Ustad Mohammad Omar's sanchari.
This is usually in the lower tetrachord and brings the composition back to the
lower tonic.

Table 1 summarises the occurrence of the 5 antara types in the 14 composi-

tions notated. For example, the naghma-ye kashal in Asd has no AP-I; antara 1 is
of the AP-II type (a form of Ustad Mohammad Omar's bhog), antara 2 is of the
AP-III type, antara 3 is of the AP-IV type, and there is nothing of the AP-V type
(Ustad Mohammad Omar's sanchari). It can be seen that some naghmahd-ye
kashal depart more from the standard pattern of APs than others. Bairami, Bihcg,
Des, Kesturi, Kum~j and Pilu seem to be the most "complete", and Bdgheshri the
least so, while ,Asdwari seems quite idiosyncratic. Again, some naghmahd-ye
kashtl contain extra antaras which lie outside these AP patterns, such as Pilu and
Bairami.

From notation to performance

The compositions are notated here in their basic forms, as dictated verbally by my
teachers. The notations constitute, at the very least, "underlying models". In
performance these pieces become greatly elaborated, through rhythmic improvisa-
tion of the acstdi and the selective repetition of antara patterns. There is also some
scope for the interpolation of improvised melodic passages (paltas), though these
are more typical of the naghma-ye kldsik, the "classical instrumental piece" (Baily
1988:76-8).
A detailed examination of how the underlying models are transformed into
performance is beyond the scope of this paper, and would require the analysis of
numerous recorded performances, both solos (mainly for rubdb) and group
instrumentals. Two examples are given in Baily 1988:69-74. But an outline of the
procedure can be given to help aspiring performers, which, together with listening
to the suggested recordings, will provide much of the knowledge required to

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 Baily: The naghma-ye kashdl of Afghanistan 161

Rdg AP-I AP-II AP-III AP-IV AP-V

(UMO's (UMO's bhog) (UMO's

antara) sanchari)

Asa - Ant 1 Ant 2 Ant 3

Asawari Ant 1 - - -

BdAgheshri - Ant 1 Ant 2

Bairami (UMO) antara bhog sanchari
Bairami (AJ) - Ant 1 Ant 2 Ant 3 Ant 5
Bihdg - Ant 1 Ant 2 Ant 3 Ant 5
Des Ant 1 Ant 2 Ant 3 Ant 5
Kausieh Ant 1 - Ant 3 - Ant 5

Kesturi Ant 1 Ant 2 Ant 4 Ant 3

Kumdj Ant 1 - Ant 4 Ant 5 Ant 7

Pri - Ant 1 Ant 2 Ant 3

Pilu - Ant 1 Ant 4 Ant 5 Ant 6

Yeman antara bhog sanchari

Yeman Kaly n Ant 1 Ant 2&3 - - Ant 4

Table 1. Occurence ofAntara-Pattern types in the

notated.

perform this genre. As mentioned earlier, a nag

piece usually lasts 5-10 minutes, but may be consi
the skill of the musician, and the interest of the aud
shakl, the exploration of the melodic possibilities
Baily 1981 gives shakl phrases, dictated by Amir
tions given here. A detailed examination of a shak
Bairami played by Rahim Khushnawaz is given in
The shakl is followed by the astdi section, where
played many times over, with various kinds of rh
rhythmic improvisation has been examined in se
1987, 1991). Typically, the astai passes through a
which develops through an increase in tempo, the us
the setting up of cross-rhythms. An episode is res
back to a slower and simpler statement of the m
astai in Rag Bairami played by Rahim Khushn
matra astai composition played from Rekap. I
composition is played 23 times, with various rig
Kassimi (Kassimi 1979) plays the same acstai
performance. If the compositon as a whole is one in
antara (AP-I), as in Asawari, Ustad Mohammad O

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162 British Journal of Ethnomusicology, vol. 6 (1997)

Kesturi, Kumaj, Yeman and Yeman Kalyan, then that composition will be
interpolated within the astdi, followed by a return to the dcstdi composition itself.
The antara section proper follows the astai. Here there is a marked change of
rhythm and tempo. Although most antara compositions are 16 matras in length,
they are accompanied by tabla or dohol played du lai, double tempo, reckoned to
be two cycles of Tintal, or 32 matras. Often the drummer, unable to sustain Tintdl
at this fast tempo, switches to Geda, an Afghan version of the tdl called Kerawa,
8 matras in length. The structuring of the antara is very much at the discretion of
the peformer, and one might distinguish between a short version and an extended
version. In the short version one might play AP-II 4 times, then AP-III 4 times,
and AP-IV twice. In some compositions it is necessary to return to AP-III after
AP-IV (AP-III to be played 2-4 times), while in others it is not so. Finally, one
moves on to AP-V, the concluding section, where again the tempo may increase
markedly. The piece may or may not conclude with a seh.
In a long version of the antara one might play each separate antara composi-
tion more times, and one has the possibility of going back to patterns already
played. Thus, after AP-IV one might return to AP-III, then on to AP-IV again.
Having reached AP-V it is possible to return to AP-III, and round again. Kassimi
(1979) shows the possibilities very clearly. This flexibility in presenting short
melodies in various sequences is found in other genres of instrumental music in
Afghanistan, such as Logari dance tunes (Baily 1988:92-4). The various antaras
are usually played in slightly varied rhythmic form each time, using different right
hand stroke patterns, and, particularly in the later stages, employing the high
drone string on an instrument such as the rubab or dutdr.

5 Afterword
The aim of this paper is to document an important genre of Afghan music, at a
time when this genre, along with other kinds of music, has been banned for
religious reasons. This is not intended simply as an exercise in "conservation
ethnomusicology", though that has its place in our discipline, but to encourage
others to play these pieces, by reminding them of, and in some cases teaching
them for the first time, versions as played by musicians of the past. It is possible
to use the recurring melodic models and other elements of rule-bound structure
embodied in this collection of pieces to compose new examples of the genre. This
I have done myself, with some degree of success, as judged by the response of
Afghans to whom I have played them.
In addition to the pieces notated, I am aware of traditional naghmahd-ye kashal
in four modes not considered here: Bhimpalasi, Talang, Beiru and Bhupali.
Bhimpalasi is recorded on CD by Rahim Khushnawaz (Khushnawaz and
Mohammad 1995), and less readily available recordings of the others also exist.
These have not been included here because I do not have comparable dictated
notations for them. There are also many other 16-matra compositions in the
modes considered above which can be used as dstdi for a naghma-ye kashdl.

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 Baily: The naghma-ye kashal of Afghanistan 163

Their publication will follow in due course. The genre, far from being moribund,
has the potential for future growth.

Barkat sar az i naghmahd.

A blessing on these instrumental pieces!

REFERENCES

Baily, John (1981) "A system of modes used in the urban music of Afghanist
Ethnomusicology 25.1:1-39.
(1987) "Principes d'improvisation rythmique dans le jeu du rubab d'Afghanistan".
Bernard Lortat-Jacob (ed.) L'Improvisation dans les musiques de tradition orale, 17
selaf, paris. english version: "principles of Rhythmic Improvisation for the Afghan ru
International Council for Traditional Music UK Chapter Bulletin 1989:3-16.
(1988) Music of Afghanistan: professional musicians in the city of Herat. Cambri
University Press. With audio cassette.
(1991) "Some cognitive aspects of motor planning in musical performance"
Psychologica Belgica XXXI.2:147-62.
(1992) "Maqdms, dastgcihs and rcgs in Western Afghanistan", In J. Elsner and
Jahnichen (eds) Proceedings of the Second Conference of Study Group Maqaim, Berlin
51-74. Berlin.
(1995) "Music and the body", World of Music 37.2:11-30.
Doubleday, Veronica, and John Baily (1995) "Patterns of musical development amongst children
in Afghanistan". In Elizabeth Warnock Fernea (ed.) Children in the Middle East, 431-44.
University of Texas Press.
Jairazbhoy, N.A. (1971) The rigs of North Indian music: their structure and evolution. London:
Faber and Faber.
Silver, Brian (1976) "On becoming an ustad: Six life sketches in the evolution of a gharini".
Asian Music VII.2:27-50.

DISCOGRAPHY

Kassimi, Essa (1979) Le Luth Afghan. LP. Arion ARN 33471.

Khushnawaz, Rahim (1993) Afghanistan. The rubab of Herat. Played by Mohammad Ra
Khushnawaz. CD of field recordings made in 1974 by John Baily. Geneva: Archiv
internationales de musique populaire.
Khushnawaz, Rahim, and Gada Mohammad (1995) Afghanistan: rubab et dutdr. Ust
Mohammad Rahim Khushnawdz et Gada Mohammad. CD recorded under the direction of
John Baily by OCORA, Radio France, Paris. With booklet by John Baily.

John Baily is Reader in Ethnomusicology at Goldsmiths College, University of London.

He has conducted extensive research on the music of Afghanistan since 1973. His other
interests include music in diasporic communities, ethnomusicological film making,
musical cognition and music and the body. Address: Department of Music, Goldsmiths
College, New Cross, London SE14 6NW; e-mail: <[email protected]>.

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