LESSON 5

MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

Aristotle’s Model

 Aristotle Model of Communication is formed with 5 basic elements:

(i) Speaker, (ii) Speech, (iii) Occasion, (iv) Audience and (v) Effect.

 Aristotle advises speakers to build speech for different audience on different time
(occasion) and for different effects.
 It is the speaker‘s task to give a speech to the public. The role of the audience is
passive. This makes the Aristotle Model of Communication a one-way model, from
speaker to receiver.
 Speaker plays an important role in Public speaking. The speaker must prepare his
speech and analysis audience needs before he enters into the stage. His words should
influence in audience mind and persuade their thoughts towards him.

Aristotle Model of Communication: the Role of the Speaker

 According to the Aristotle Model of Communication, the speaker is the main figure in
communication. This person is fully responsible for all communication. In this model of
communication, it is important that the speaker selects his words carefully.

 He or she must analyse his audience and prepare his speech accordingly. At the same
time, he or she should assume the right body language, as well as ensuring proper eye
contact and voice modulations.
  In order to entice the audience, blank expressions, confused looks, and monotonous
speech must be avoided at all times. The audience must believe in the speaker‘s ability
to easily put his money where his mouth is.

An example
A politician (the speaker) gives a speech on a market square during an election
campaign (the occasion). His goal is the win the votes of the citizens (the audience) present
as well as those of the citizens potentially watching the speech on TV.

The people will vote (the effect) for the politician if they believe in his views. At the
same time, the way in which he presents his story is crucial in convincing his audience.

The politician talks about his party‘s standpoints and will probably be familiar with his
audience. In other situations, it would be more suitable to actively research the audience in
advance and determine their potential viewpoints or opinions.

Example:
Alexander gave brave speech to his soldiers in the war field to defeat Persian Empire.
Speaker – Alexander
Speech – about his invasion
Occasion – War field
Audience – Soldiers
Effect – To defeat Persian

Shannon's Model
 In 1948, Shannon was an American mathematician, Electronic engineer
  The model deals with various concepts like Information source, transmitter, Noise,
channel, message, receiver, channel, information destination, encode and decode.

The Shannon Weaver model mathematical theory of communication follows the

concept of communication in a linear fashion from sender to receiver with the following steps:
1. Sender (Information Source)
The Shannon Weaver model starts with the sender or ―information source‖. They are
the person (or object, or thing – any information source) who has the information to begin
with. The information source starts the process by choosing a message to send, someone to
send the message to, and a channel through which to send the message.
A sender can send a message in multiple different ways: it may be orally (through
spoken word), in writing, through body language, music, etc.
Example: An example of a sender might be the person reading a newscast on the
nightly news. They will choose what to say and how to say it before the newscast begins.
2. Encoder (Transmitter)
The encoder is the machine (or person) that converts the idea into signals that can be
sent from the sender to the receiver.
Examples: The encoder might be a telephone, which converts our voice into binary 1s
and 0s to be sent down the telephone lines (the channel). Another encode might be a radio
station, which converts voice into waves to be sent via radio to someone.
3. Channel
The channel of communication is the infrastructure that gets information from the
sender and transmitter through to the decoder and receiver. We sometimes also call this the
‗medium‘.
Examples: A person sending an email is using the world wide web (internet) as a
medium. A person talking on a landline phone is using cables and electrical wires as their
channel.
If we‘re face-to-face, perhaps we don‘t have a channel, except the sound waves from
our voice that carry the sound from the sender‘s mouth to the receiver‘s ear.
4. Noise
Noise interrupts a message while it‘s on the way from the sender to the receiver. It‘s
named after the idea that ‗noise‘ could interrupt our understanding of a message. There are
two types of noise: internal and external.
Internal noise happens when a sender makes a mistake encoding a message or a
receiver makes a mistake decoding the message. Here‘s the two points where it can happen:
At the point of encoding (for example, when you misspell a word in a text message);
At the point of decoding (for example, when someone misinterprets a sentence when reading
an email)
External noise happens when something external (not in the control of sender or
receiver) impedes the message. So, external noise happens:
At the point of transmission through the channel (for example, when we‘re having a
conversation by a busy highway and the receiver is having trouble hearing over the sound of
cars).
One of the key goals for people who use this theory is to identify the causes of noise
and try to minimize them to improve the quality of the message.
Examples:
Examples of external noise may include the crackling of a poorly tuned radio, a lost letter in
the post, an interruption in a television broadcast, or a failed internet connection.
Examples of internal noise may include someone having a headache so they can‘t
concentrate, someone speaking with a heavy accent, or when the sender mumbles when
speaking.
5. Decoder
Decoding is the exact opposite of encoding. Shannon and Weaver made this model in
reference to communication that happens through devices like telephones. So, in this model,
there usually needs to be a device that decodes a message from binary digits or waves back
into a format that can be understood by the receiver.
If we‘re talking about direct communication between people without the use of
technology, there may still be a need for decoding. For example, you might need to decode a
secret message, turn written words into something that makes sense in your mind by reading
them out loud, or you may need to interpret (decode) the meaning behind a picture that was
sent to you.
Examples: Decoders can include computers that turn binary packets of 1s and 0s into
pixels on a screen that make words, a telephone that turns signals such as digits or waves
back into sounds, and cell phones that also turn bits of data into readable (and listenable)
messages.
6. Receiver (Destination)
This is the step where the person finally gets the message, or what‘s left of it after
accounting for noise.
Examples: Examples of a receiver might be: the person on the other end of a
telephone, the person reading an email you sent them, an automated payments system
online that has received credit card details for payment, etc.
7. Feedback
Feedback occurs when the receiver of the message responds to the sender in order to
close the communication loop. They might respond to let the sender know they got the
message or to show the sender:
 Whether they got the message clearly without noise
 How well they understand the message
 Nonetheless, the ‗feedback‘ elements seems like a post-hoc add-on to the model, and
is the subject of a lot of criticism (see later in this article on ‗disadvantages of the
model‘ for details).
Examples: Feedback does not occur in all situations. Sometimes, like when watching
TV, we don‘t tend to let the people talking on the TV know what we‘re thinking … we simply
watch the show.
Conclusion
The Shannon Weaver model of communication is the ‗mother of all models‘ of human
communication. It is also known as the ‗information theory‘. It is a mathematical theory
considered to be a ‗linear‘ communication model. Created be Claude Shannon and Warren
Weaver, it is considered to be a highly effective communication model that explained the
whole communication process from information source to information receiver.

Berlo's Model
 Another famous communication model is Berlo's model.
 In this model, he stresses on the relationship between the person sending the
message and the receiver.
1. Source
The source means the message‘s sender who initiates the communication process by
sending information to the Receiver. David Berlo describes five factors related to the
source: Communication Skills, Attitude, Knowledge, Social Systems, and Culture.
 Communication skills - This refers to an individual's capacity to communicate
(read, write, speak, listen, and so on). The most common nonverbal communication
examples are eye contact, facial expression, body language, gestures, posture, and so
more. The communication skill of the source or sender increases the effectiveness of
the communication process.
 Attitudes - One's attitude toward the audience, subject, and oneself, for example, a
student's attitude is to learn more, and a teacher's attitude is to assist in teaching.
 Knowledge – Knowledge about the subject being communicated, for example,
anything the teacher communicates in class on the subject, so knowing what you're
communicating. Here, knowledge indicates familiarity with the subject of the discussion
topic or message.
 The social system - encompasses different components of society, such as values,
beliefs, culture, religion, and societal knowledge. It is in this location that
communication takes place. For example, the speaker delivers an anti-America
message in the American parliament election campaign. It is considerably sure that the
audience will not receive and listen to his message attentively. It is an example of a
location factor that is also part of the social system.

Note: We can only communicate to the amount that the social system allows, and
when we communicate, we must consider the social system.
 Culture- it refers to the social background of the Sender and Receiver. The meaning of
the same message might be identical when people from different cultures interpret it. It
is a significant factor from the perspective of nonverbal communication cues.
2. Message
The message is the primary substance conveyed by the source or sender of the
communication to the Receiver. David Berlo proposed another five factors related to the
message: Content, Elements, Treatment, Structure, and Code.
 Content - refers to the entire body of the message from beginning to end. It is
essential information for the discussion. Content is the whole script of the conversation.
 Elements - refer to nonverbal communication cues such as facial expression, eye
contact, gesture, posture, and body movement. It makes the conversation more
effective and productive. So, the communication might get boring without elements.
For example, the lecturer raises five fingers when mentioning the five basic noises in
the communication process.
 Treatment - refers to the communication way in which the message is conveyed to the
audience. The communication way affects the communication system. It represents the
 message packaging. The examples of treatment in communication are delivering
messages formally and casually.
For example, the teachers speak formally when delivering speeches in the classroom.
However, the lecturer talks very casually when meeting students outside of class.
 Structure - The structure of the message describes the arrangement of the
information. The effectiveness of the message depends on the message structure.
For example, the lecturer talks about the definition, types, and examples of
communication noise. The students perceive the message clearly for its good
arrangement.
 Code - refers to the form of the message transmitted from sender to receiver.
Examples of the code are text, audio, video, visual, and so more.
For example, the teacher is speaking in front of the students; hence, the code of the
message is audio.
3. Channel
It refers to the medium that carries the message from sender to Receiver. There are
many types of channels in communication, such as radio, newspapers, TV, phone call, and
social media. Berlo highlighted the five senses as the communication channel: hearing,
seeing, touching, smelling, and tasting.
For example, the face to face class is more effective than an online class. The
students can see the lecturer physically and hear the lecture. Nowadays, many institutes
conduct virtual classes through premium. The channels denote the physical and virtual
communication way to convey messages.
David Berlo mentions only five human senses as the communication channel, such
as Hearing, Seeing, Touching, Smelling, and Tasting.
 Hearing - People receive messages through listening. It is the most effective channel
in the communication process. For example, students hear lectures in the classroom.
 Seeing - People accept messages through seeing. It is one of the crucial channels in
nonverbal communication. People take less than one second to judge others by seeing
their appearance. The audiences form a conception of the speaker based on body
movement, facial expression, eye contact, and gesture. A proverb says that people can
lie, but eyes never lie. It means people believe what they see more than what they
hear.
 Touching - refers to an effective nonverbal communication channel that conveys
messages through touching. It is also known as Haptics in Nonverbal Communication.
The most common example of touching channels in communication is holding hands,
hugging, tickling, and kissing. These touching styles represent different messages.
 Smelling - is another channel of the intrapersonal communication process. The
intrapersonal communication process means communicating with yourself. It is also
known as olfactics nonverbal communication. People judge others based on the
 Fragrance they have used. A good smell creates a positive attitude toward the person.
The perspiration odors form a negative perception of the person. A good fragrance
represents a good personality.
For example, people smell flowers and fragrances to identify whether the flavor is
good or bad.
 Tasting - refers to nonverbal communication channels through tasting something. For
example, people test food to identify its deliciousness.
4. Receiver
Finally, R-Receiver is the person who receives the message or information in the
communication process. David Berlo adds the same factors of the sources to the Receiver,
such as Communication skills, Attitudes, Knowledge, Social Systems, and Culture, to the
Receiver. Communication gets more effective when senders and receivers have similar skills,
attitudes, and knowledge. Communication among people from the same culture and social
system reduces communication noise during the interaction.

Criticism of Berlo's SMCR communication model:

1. There is no feedback / no knowledge of the effect
2. It makes no mention of communication obstacles.
3. There is no room for noise.
4. Model that is difficult to understand
5. It is a communication model that is linear.
6. Communication requires people to be on the same level, but this is not the case in real life.
7. The model's primary flat is that it ignores the use of sixth sense as a conduit, which is
actually a gift to humans (thinking, understanding, analyzing etc).

Conclusion
SMCR is one of the significant linear communication models that describe the communication
process through multiple elements, including Sender, Message, Channel, and Receiver. It is a
linear model of communication since feedback is excluded.

Schramm's Model
 Wilber Schramm proposed the model of communication in 1954.
 Information is of no use unless and until it is carefully put into words and conveyed to
others.
  Encoding plays a very important role because it initiates the process of
communication by converting the thought into content.

This framework is often known as the communication Osgood-Schramm model. In

contrast to other communication models, this one is circular or cyclical and includes all of the
fundamental components of communication. When Schramm’s Model of
Communication was put forth in 1954, the Shannon-Weaver model served as its inspiration.
This model employs a traditional method to describe the flow of communication,
implying that communication is a continuous two-way exchange of messages between sender
and recipient.
This strategy is based on the notion that the sender and the recipient must understand
the message. For instance, a group of second-grade pupils won‘t be able to understand past
participle tense from an art professor.
The Encoder or Carrier, Decoder or Listener, Interpreter, and Message are
components of the Schramm communication model. According to this concept, information
travels in both directions between the sender and the recipient during communication. The
message is sent from the sender to the Receiver, but one model component claims that when
the Receiver sends a message back to the sender, the roles are switched. Both the
transmitter and the recipient switch roles.
The recipient typically tries to understand what the sender is attempting to say when
information is sent. The whole method of communication is useless if the recipient cannot
understand or decode the sender‘s message.
Decoding and encoding are, therefore, two essential components of good
communication. The paradigm states that sending a message is only half-completed until
receiving feedback from the recipient. In the past, communication would stop when the
recipient received the information, and the flow of communication was unidirectional.
In contrast, this concept is built on a two-way communication process in which the
roles of the sender and Receiver are switched back and forth. According to Schramm, who
was adamant about communication being a two-way process.

The characteristics of Schramm’s Model of Communication

 Source
The sender is referred to as the message‘s source because he creates and transmits
the message to the recipient. The sender‘s responsible for ensuring that the communication
is legible, clear, and easy to grasp by the recipient.
 Receiver
The individual to whom messages are sent is known as the Receiver, while the
Receiver is frequently referred to as the message decoder. It is crucial to consider several
factors to ensure the recipient can decipher the message.
 Message
The message, which might be written, audio, video, or a combination of all three, is
the communication‘s central idea. The communication sent from the sender to the Receiver is
the message.
 Feedback
Feedback occurs when the sender and Receiver start exchanging information based
on the input they received. The sender needs to determine whether the recipient has correctly
absorbed the information.
 Semantic Disruption
Because of the noise, the recipient may not understand the sender‘s intended intent
when sending messages. Noise also has the potential to change the meaning of the
message.
Perks of Schramm‘s Model of Communication
 Dynamic models: Demonstrate how circumstances may vary.
It demonstrates why redundancy is crucial.
Assume that all forms of communication are circular.
 Feedback is a crucial component. The sender can also determine whether the
communication was as intended by asking the recipient.
White’s Model of Communication
 In 1960, scientist Eugene White introduced a transactional communication theory.
Consequently, it is known as Eugene White‘s model of verbal discussion. The most
important component of Eugene White‘s model is feedback, and feedback makes it
a transactional model of communication.
 Eugene White’s model shows communication occurs in two directions. It also
indicates communication is a circular, not a linear process. The discussion occurs
between two people, and it is reciprocal.
 According to Eugene White‘s model (1960), people think to symbolize the speech; they
then speak to send the message to receivers. The receivers decode the message to
provide feedback to senders. The sender and receiver monitor the context to continue
the conversation. It is the best communication mode to describe a talk show and
debating program.

Oral communication has eight stages, according to Eugene White:

A desire, feeling, or emotion provides a trigger for a communicator to communicate a
need.
 Symbolizing - Before a communicator may create a sound, he or she must first
understand the code of oral language that will be used to convey his or her ideas and
make a decision.
The communicator uses her vocal mechanism to make linguistic sounds, which are
complemented by facial expressions, gestures, and body position.
When sound waves travel at 1,000 feet per second and light waves travel at 187,000
miles per second, the speaker's message is transmitted to her listeners.
  Receiving – when sound waves contact the listener's ears, the ensuing neural
impulses reach the brain via the auditory nerve; receiving – when light waves strike the
listener's eyes, the following nerve impulses reach the brain via the optic nerve.
 Decoding — the communicator interprets and thinks about the linguistic signals he or
she gets.
The communicator may demonstrate overt behavior such as a nod, yawn, or smile, or
he or she may not show any activity at all when providing feedback.
 Monitoring – while the communicator looks for signs of his or her message
being understood by his or her audience, he or she is also aware of what is going on
inside him or her.
The communicator is receiving and decoding messages about himself or herself from
his or her audience in order to adjust to the situation.
Example:
Debating - the speaker and receiver follow a cyclical communication process in this
context. Sometimes, the senders play the role of receiver. Consequently, the receivers play
the role of the sender. They speak and listen simultaneously.

Dance’ Helical Model of Communication

 Frank Dance proposed the Dance's Helix Model, a communication model for a better
communication process, in 1967.
  The term "helical" comes from the word "helix," which refers to a three-dimensional
object that resembles a wire wound uniformly around a cylinder or cone. He depicts
communication as a non-linear and dynamic process.
 The communication challenges were underlined in Dance's model. The communication
process is described by Frank Dance in the shape of a Helix. He came up with this
notion based on a basic helix that expands as it moves or grows. The primary feature
of the helical communication concept is that it is evolving. Frank Dance uses this Helix
structure to explain the communication process and relates it to conversation.
 The bottom or beginning of the Helix structure is extremely little, then it gradually goes
upward in a back and forth circular motion to form the larger circle at the top, and
it continues to move farther.
 The entire procedure takes some time to complete. The communication process, like
the helix, begins slowly and in a small circle. On a little piece of themselves is shared
with their relationships by communicators.
 It steadily progresses to the next level, although this will take time to achieve and
expand its borders to the next level. Later on, the communicators increase their
commitment and share more aspects of themselves.
Example:
When a child is born the only means of communication for him is crying, he cries for
everything like hunger, pain, cold etc. As the child grows the means of communication
become wider and broader. He learns to make noises then he learns a language to obtain
attention and to fulfil his needs. As a Helix, the process of communication, in this case,
started as crying and later it developed into a complex and compound means.
Conclusion
According to this theory, a communication process is the product of what we learnt.

Wood’s Symbolic Interaction Model

 Julia Wood‘s model portrayed communication as a dynamic process which
continually changes over time depending on previous interactions. How you
communicate to your parents, teachers, and peers is influenced by the history of
your relationships and the way you communicated with them in the past.
 The sender and receiver of Shared field Symbolic interactions the message are
labeled as communicators, signifying the active roles of each in constructing the
meaning of the message, as represented by the double-headed arrows. Although it
is important to listen and wait for one‘s turn in speaking, it is important to note that
feedback may be verbal or nonverbal. While speaking, a communicator
simultaneously receives information by interpreting the nonverbal gestures (e.g.,
nodding, smiling, scratching of the head, etc.) of the one listening to the message.
Both communicators are responsible for the outcome of the communication.
Lesson 6
PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION
Principles consist of the validated guidelines that are used in performing different
tasks or functions to achieve pre-defined goals. These principles guides in forming message,
its style and importance so that it becomes more effective for the target audience.

The Seven (7) Cs of Communication

1. Conciseness
 Concise in communication means that one should stick to the point and keep it brief.
 The message or information should be articulated completely in such way that it is
forwarded to the desired audience or receivers in fewer words or signals.
 Avoiding ―filler words‖
2. Courtesy
 True courtesy involves being aware not only of the perspective of others, but also their
feelings.
 The sender should show respect to the audience or receiver.
 Avoiding expressions that might hurt, irritate or insult the receiver.
 Courtesy stems from a simple ―You‖ attitude.

3. Correctness
 The core of correctness is proper grammar, punctuation, and spelling.
 Using the right level of language and acceptable writing mechanics.
 Choose a non-discriminatory language.
 Accuracy of facts, figures, and words.

4. Clarity
 The message being conveyed must be clear.
 Getting the meaning from your head to the head of your reader.
 Choose short, familiar, and conversational words depending on the situation.

5. Completeness
 The message is complete when it contains all the facts the reader or listener needs for
the reaction you desire.
 Able to answer all the questions.
 Providing extra or additional information and elaboration if necessary.

6. Coherence
 The communication should be both consistent and in logical.
 All terms of the message should be interconnected and relevant to the message being
conveyed.
 The flow of the message should be in order to be able to understand by the receiver.
 7. Concreteness
 Being specific, definite, and vivid rather than vague and general or unclear in
conveying the message.
 Use specific facts and figures to strengthen the message or idea.
 The clear and particular message is defines a concrete message.

General Principles of Effective Communication

Good communicators have a wide repertoire of skills and are able to adjust their
communication style in response to the many variables they face at a given time.
Here are a few principles to consider as you adjust and refine your communication skills.
 Understand yourself. Understanding who you are and what your natural tendencies
are is the first step to being an effective and genuine communicator. Do you tend to be
chatty, or do you like to listen? Are you assertive? Are you direct? Are you comfortable
with ambiguities, uncertainties, and risks?

 Understand your audience. As important as it is to understand yourself, it is also

important to understand your audience and their natural tendencies, motivations,
goals, challenges, and opportunities. Does your audience want to be heard,
enlightened, or get things done? How much time does your audience have? Is your
audience patient and forgiving? Are you interacting with a competitor, collaborator, or
superior party?

 Listen actively. Listening is usually an important part of most communications. It is not

enough to merely listen, however. You also want to make sure that others feel heard.
To that end, it is not enough to use your ears. Active listening that helps people feel
heard involves eye contact, nodding, appropriate and timely responses, and overall
high engagement.

 Simplify. Simple, concise messages that can be delivered quickly and powerfully
usually have the highest impact, especially when you address an audience that is
overworked or overwhelmed with information

 Find a perfect time. A good idea is only good when it comes at the right time. As an
effective communicator, you need to be on the lookout for a window of opportunity that
allows you to be the most effective. For example, offering a solution, product, or
service just when your audience is looking for one is a perfect time to deliver your
message.
General Principles of Effective Communication
Since communication is a two-way process, it is important that know the principles to
be observed to make it effective. For both oral and written communication, you should be able
to apply the following principles:
1. Know your purpose in communicating. Are you communicating basically to inform, to
entertain, or to persuade? While you may have more than one purpose, there is still a more
dominant objective or reason why you communicate.
2. Know your audience. In both speaking and writing, you should know your audience as it
will dictate the speaking or writing style you are going to employ. Consider the age,
educational background, profession, culture, and other salient features of your listeners or
readers.
3. Know your topic. You communicate essentially because you want to share something. In
speaking situations, speakers are invited because they have something to share. This also
applies to writing. You write because you wish that other people learn something from you.
You may then utilize several or multiple communication techniques to easily catch the
attention of the audience.
4. Adjust your speech or writing to the context of the situation. The environment in which
your speech or writing is to be delivered determines the kind of language you will use.
5. Work on the feedback given to you. Once you receive comments from the
listeners/readers, work on them. Take kindly to criticisms. In the long run, constructive
criticisms will prove beneficial to you as you learn to address them.
Lesson 7
FORMS OF COMMUNICATION
Communication means transferring messages from one to another through any medium.

Five major forms of communication:

1. Intrapersonal Communication

Intrapersonal communication is a communication which happens yourself. Here both

Source (sender) and receiver is only one. so, the feedback works without any interruption.
Example: A person can communicate himself through pain, thinking, feelings and emotion etc.

2. Dyadic Communication

In Dyadic communication, two persons are involved in this communication process.

Here the Source becomes a receiver and receiver become Source because of dynamic
communication process were the feedback‘s are shared between Source and the receiver.

3. Small Group Communication

More than two members involved in communication process will become a group
communication. If least number of persons is involved in the group communication is called
as small group communication. In this communication process, everyone becomes a Source
as well as receiver through sharing information and gives feedback to another.

4. Public Communication

In public communication, Source or messages from a single person will reach or

received by huge number of audience. But in this communication there is no mutual
feedbacks between source and receiver like small group communication and it‘s only focused
on Speaker

5. Mass Communication

In mass communication, basically have a large number of audience and they are all
can‘t grouped together in one place so we need certain tool or technology for communication
process. But in mass communication, there is no direct access with receiver. So, for that they
need media like newspaper, radio, television and internet. Here the audience feedback is very
less or delayed.

Types of Communication Styles

1. Passive Communication Style
 This communication style includes being non-reactive or indifferent to others. They
usually do not communicate their emotions or thoughts with others in an upfront manner.
They typically find it difficult to maintain eye contact and are unable to say no, even when they
want to. They seem to run away from confrontation.

This difficulty makes it hard for them to maintain healthy relationships and often causes
miscommunication or resentment towards others. They often assume that other people
should understand their feelings without actively vocalizing them.

The one good thing about passive communication style is that it supports co-operation,
and people with this style of communication often go along with plans and ideas of others and
are easy to talk to.

An example of passive communication is the case of Gady. Gady often uses this
style of communication within her relationships. Her birthday is coming up soon. Her friends
and coworkers keep asking her about what she wants and her ideas about how her birthday
should go. She does not honestly communicate her ideas, assuming and expecting them to
know what she wants. This passive communication leads to miscommunication and an
unfulfilling birthday.

2. Aggressive Communication Style

This communication style is the complete opposite of passive communication. It

involves loud, demanding and clear communication of what an individual wants or needs. It
often involves attempts to dominate or control the environment or others according to
personal demands.

This style is characterized by yelling, intense eye contact, and taunts or misbehavior in
order to fulfill one‘s own wishes. People using this style of communication primarily tend to be
bad listeners. People can get intimidated or scared by such communication.

For example, Daniel is the manager of a bottle company. He often expresses his
displeasure through yelling at his employees and being dominant with his ideas. This has led
to high turnover in his company. His employees also avoid going to him to share any
productive ideas or plans. This aggressive communication is not helping the development of
Daniel‘s company.

This communication style refers to a more collaborative style of interacting. It involves

positive statements, sharing power and responsibility comfortably and being empathetic
towards others.

For example, Vyom is affiliative while communicating with his co-workers. He

understands their perspectives and is empathetic towards their struggles. Everyone feels
comfortable around him.
How to Communicate Appropriately?

Listening is key.

- Listen to understand, not just to respond. Actively listening and being present with
others instantly helps you in communicating better as you understand when you really
listen.

Using I- statements while communicating feelings or opinions.

- For example, ‗I felt unheard by this action. I am hoping that we can work together on
this issue.‘ Using I statements help in communicating how you feel while ensuring that
the other person does not feel attacked. Taking responsibility for how you feel makes
the other person more likely to be open to hearing about the issue.

Noticing subtle non-verbal behaviors,

- Such as facial expressions, nods, body language, yawning, fidgety fingers, etc. can
help in deciphering the other person‘s motivations and intentions. This knowledge
about the other person can help an individual in communicating better.

If a conversation is leading towards an argument, find a common stance or a common

point that both the parties agree with.

- This will help the situation to not get hostile and also show the other person that you
are not as different as they assume. It can help in lowering their defenses and be more
willing towards a negotiation.

Asking questions is a good tactic.

- It gives you more information about the other person, which helps you understand
them better, which in turn leads to better communication. It also makes the other
person feel heard and important.

Saying ‘NO’ is an important part of communication.

- People often find it hard to refuse or are blatantly aggressive. The most effective way
to say no is to be assertive, without crossing any boundaries. A simple ‗no‘ can be said
in statements such as, ‗No, thank you for the opportunity, but I can‘t make it‘ or ‗No, I
can‘t this time.‘ Explanations should be avoided, if possible.

Needs and wants can be expressed in an assertive yet considerate manner.

- You can start by, ‗I would like to discuss this issue, when you have the time and space
for this conversation.‘ This statement will give the other person some value and make
them feel that they can also be a part of the conversation, without making it seem
pushy. Then, needs and wants can be discussed, with giving other people a chance to
interact and add.
Lesson 8:
Intercultural Communication
Definition and Nature of Intercultural Communication
What is Intercultural Communication?
 Happens when individuals interact, negotiate, and create meaning while bringing in
their varied cultural background.
 Pertains to communication among people from different nationalities
 Communications between people of different cultures, backgrounds, or social groups.
It includes verbal and non- verbal forms of communication.

What is the purpose of Intercultural Communication?

 It aims to improve the skills and understanding between both cultures during a social
exchange.
 It seeks to carry out a positive and productive interaction with members of another
culture should first develop a knowledge of intercultural beliefs and norms, apply their
learned knowledge and skills when necessary, and maintain a positive and inclusive
attitude toward other cultures, one that is specifically free of social or cultural bias.

What are some examples of Intercultural Communication?

 Intercultural Communication are used nearly every day in many fields of business, and
everyday people become more globally and culturally inclusive. For example, a family
may communicate with their neighbors (of other culture) by exposing them to customs,
rituals, and norms of their own culture, a business person may work with international
representatives to complete an organizational task, or a tourist in a foreign may ask
locals for directions or recommendations of what activities to experience.

 Different cultures communicate in different ways; for instance, one culture may have
informal views of communication while other place value on introductions or rituals
before a conversation. To not offend the customs of specific ethnic cultures, it is
important to recognize how certain ideas, beliefs, values, and views within cultures
outside of one‘s own can influence social interaction.

Barriers in Intercultural Communication

 Communicative Barrier- refers to any component of a social exchange that causes a

hindrance in the understanding or acceptance of another culture‘s customs or
communication methods.

 Language/ Linguistic Barrier- are often perceived as the sole source of mishap
during intercultural communication.
The Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity
- It offers a structure that explores how people experience cultural differences.
According to Bennett (2004), it has six stages. These are the following:

Stage 1: Denial – The individual does not recognize cultural differences.

An individual in the denial stage might be heard saying:
―All cities are the same; they have all tall buildings, fast food chains, and coffee shops.”
Stage 2: Defense - The individual starts to recognize cultural differences and is intimidated
by them, resulting in either a superior view on owns culture or an unjustified high regard for
the new one.
An individual in the defense stage might be heard saying:
“This culture does not view life in the way we do; our culture is certainly better.”
“Their ways are better than my own; I wish I were one of them.”
Stage 3: Minimization - Although individuals see cultural differences, they bank more on the
university of ideas rather than own cultural differences.
An individual in the minimization stage might be heard saying:
“Once we see through the cultural differences, we really are just the same!’
Stage 4: Acceptance - The individuals begins to appreciate important cultural differences in
behaviors and eventually in values.
An individual in the acceptance stage might be heard saying:
“These people and I have different values and experiences, and I think we can learn from one
another.”
Stage 5: Adaptation - The individual is very open to world views when accepting new
perspectives.
An Individual in the adaptation stage might be heard saying:
“To address our issue, I have to adjust my approach to consider both my own and my
counterpart’s background.”
Stage 6: Integration - Individuals start to go beyond their own culture and see themselves
and their actions based on multifarious cultural viewpoints.
An individual in the integration stage might heard be saying:
“I can look at things from the perspective of various cultures.”
Characteristics of Competent Intercultural Communicators
1. Flexibility and the ability to tolerate high levels of uncertainty
2. Reflectiveness or mindfulness
3. Open- mindedness
4. Sensitivity
5. Adaptability
6. Ability to engage in divergent thinking and system- level thinking (how each other in a
system or organization influences each other).
7. Politeness

Note that in addition to culture, other elements such as gender, age, social status, and
religion must also be taken into consideration when communicating with others. Refrain from
showing bias when talking to someone by following the tips below.
1. Avoid stereotypes
 i.e., generalization about a certain group.
2. Challenge gender norms – avoid using ―he‖ and ―man‖ to refer to a general group of
people. To remedy this, you may use plural nouns or rewrite a sentence to avoid using
pronouns.
3. Do not talk down on younger people and the elderly.
4. Be sensitive to the religious practices of others.
5. Be polite at all times- do not belittle people you perceive to be on a lower social class
than you.

3 approaches to Intercultural Communication

1. Social Science Approach
- It is based on the assumptions that human behavior is predictable and that there is a
describable external reality. This approach, also called the functionalist approach.
- The goal of this approach is to predict how culture influences communication.

2. Interpretative Approach
- Interpretative researchers are interested in describing human behaviors which they
believe to be unpredictable and creative.
- This approach studies culture from the perspective of members of the cultures being
studied rather than through a framework imposed by the researcher.
- They seek to find and describe patterns in communication and approach research in a
holistic and subjective way.
3. The Critical Approach
- This approach views reality as subjective and focuses on the importance of studying
the context in which communication occurs.
- They are interested not only in studying human behavior across culture, but also in
effecting change in society.

LESSON 9
WHAT IS HIGH CONTEXT AND LOW CONTEXT COMMUNICATION?

High-context Communication – The Asian Style

- A high-context style of communication is more common in Asia. This type of
communication style depends heavily on non-verbal cues like facial expressions and
body language while communicating something with someone else, rather than
focusing solely on words.
- In a high context culture, the listener is expected to understand the meaning that lies
behind the words. The speaker expects them to understand the context of what is
being spoken. They expect the listener to be able to interpret non-verbal cues and
intonation in order to fully understand their message.

- Countries that fall into this categorization are Japan, China, France, Spain, Brazil, and
more.

Low Context Communication

- Low context communication doesn‘t depend on such things since its focus is more on
what is being said than who speaks it.
- Its focus is more on what is being said than who speaks it.

Three important characteristics of low context communication include:

1. Direct communication. Conversations are explicit, words are used clearly and
precisely to convey the message, and there is little room for misinterpretation.
2. Speakers switch roles. There is no strict order of speakers in the conversation;
people address each other directly and do not wait for others to finish before they
begin talking.
 3. Informal atmosphere. The conversation is not formal; it happens between friends or
people who know each other well.

What is Sequential and Synchronic communication?

Sequential
- In sequential cultures (like North American, English, German, Swedish, and Dutch),
businesspeople give full attention to one agenda item after another.

Synchronic
- In synchronic cultures (including South America, southern Europe and Asia) the flow of
time is viewed as a sort of circle, with the past, present, and future all interrelated. This
viewpoint influences how organizations in those cultures approach deadlines, strategic
thinking, investments, developing talent from within, and the concept of "long-term"
planning.

What is Affective and Neutral communication?

Affective
- In cultures with high affect, people show their feelings plainly by laughing, smiling,
grimacing, scowling, and sometimes crying, shouting, or walking out of the room.

Neutral
- Members of neutral cultures do not telegraph their feelings, but keep them carefully
controlled and subdued.

- They are more careful to monitor the amount of emotion they display.
LESSON 10
VARIETIES AND REGISTERS OF SPOKEN AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE
Varieties of ENGLISH
 World Englishes (WE) or varieties of English.
 WE – stands for the localized varieties of English as they are used or spoken in certain
areas.

THREE CONCENTRIC OF ASIAN ENGLISHES

1. Inner Circle – English as Native Language
2. Expanding Circle- English as Foreign Language.
3. Outer Circle- English as Special Language and Foreign Language

Kinds of Language Register

1. Formal Register - used in formal speaking and writing situations. Use of highly
polished language.
2. Informal Register – more casual in tone, appropriate for people with whom you have
established a more personal relationship as in the case of friends and relatives.

Sources of misunderstanding
1. Ambiguity- lack of explicitness on the part of the speaker in the form of problematic
reference and ambiguous semantics in which an utterance is open to different
interpretations.

2. Performance- related misunderstanding – slips of the tongue and mishearing which

may be due to utterances spoken quickly and unclearly.

3. Language - related misunderstanding - ungrammaticality of sentences.

4. Gaps in world knowledge - gaps in content rather than language.