Compounds and Reactions

Types of Chemical Compounds and Their Formulas

♦ Molecular Compounds
♦ The molecular formula of a compound
shows the number of atoms of each element
in one mole of the substance
Molecular compounds
Some Organic and Inorganic Molecules
H2O2 CH3CH2Cl P4O10

CH3CH(OH)CH3 HCO2H
Organic Compounds
 Ionic Compounds

z Atoms of almost all elements can gain or lose electrons to

form charged species called ions.
z Compounds composed of ions are known as ionic
compounds.

- Metals tend to lose electrons to form positively

charged ions called cations.
- Non-metals tend to gain electrons to form
negatively charged ions called anions.
 Sodium Chloride
An extended array of Na+ and Cl- ions
The simplest formula unit is NaCl
 The Mole Concept and Chemical Calculations

♦ Formula mass
• the mass of a formula unit in atomic mass units (u)
♦ Molecular mass
• a formula mass of a molecular compound
♦ Weighted average mass
• add up the weighted average atomic masses
♦ Exact Mass
• add up the isotopic masses (see mass spectrometry)
 Molecular Mass

The Molecular mass is the sum mass of all the

relative atomic mass of atoms in the molecule.

Example: the Molar mass of H2O

 Mole of a compound

♦ Recall from last lecture.

“A mole of a compound is an amount of
compound containing avogardro’s number
6.02214×1023
♦ 1 mol H2O = 6.02214×1023 H2O molecules
♦ 1 mol MgCl2 = 6.02214×1023 MgCl2 Molecules
♦ 1 mol MgCl2 = 1.806 x 1024 ATOMS
 Molecular Mass
H OH
H O Glucose
HO Molecular formula C6H12O6
HO H
H OH Empirical formula CH2O
H OH

Molecular Mass: Use the naturally occurring mixture of isotopes,

6 × 12.01 + 12 × 1.01 + 6 × 16.00 = 180.18

Exact Mass: Use the most abundant isotopes,

6 × 12.000000 + 12 × 1.007825 + 6 × 15.994915

= 180.06339
EXAMPLE 3-2
Combining Several Factors in a Calculation Involving Molar
Mass. The volatile liquid ethyl mercaptan, C2H5SH is one of the
most odoriferous substances known. It is sometimes added to
natural gas to make gas leaks detectable. How many C2H5SH
molecules are contained in a 1.0 µL sample given the following
information?
The density is 0.84 g/mL, a drop of liquid is about 0.05 mL and
1.0 µL is only 0.02 of a drop.
EXAMPLE 7-3
Solution.
The strategy to follow can be laid out in a flow diagram.
1 mol
10-6 L/µL 103 mL/L 0.84 g/mL 6.02 1023 molec/mol
62.1 g
µL L mL g mol molecules
The factors in each conversion may be added above the arrows.
Don t worry if your conversion factors are upside down, fix them when you
write the equations by making sure the units cancel properly.
Using the strategy and the conversion factors, write the equation:

Check the units cancel and only then calculate.

 Composition of Chemical Compounds

Halothane C2HBrClF3

Mole ratio nC/nhalothane

Mass ratio mC/mhalothane

M(C2HBrClF3) = 2MC + MH + MBr + MCl + 3MF

= (2 × 12.01) + 1.01 + 79.90 + 35.45 + (3 × 19.00)
= 197.38 g/mol
EXAMPLE 7-3
Calculating the Mass Percent Composition of a Compound
What is the mass percent composition of halothane, C2HBrClF3?
Calculate the molecular mass
M(C2HBrClF3) = 197.38 g/mol

For one mole of compound, formulate the mass

ratio and convert to percent:
12.01 g C
2 mol C ×
1 mol C
%C = × 100% = 12.17%
197.38 g C2HBrClF3
EXAMPLE 7-3
1.01 g H
1 mol H ×
%H = 1 mol H × 100% = 0.51% H
197.38 g C2HBrClF3

79.90 g Br
1 mol Br ×
%Br = 1 mol Br × 100% = 40.48% Br
197.38 g C2HBrClF3

35.45 g Cl
1 mol C ×
%Cl = 1 mol Cl × 100% = 17.96% Cl
197.38 g C2HBrClF3

19.00 g F
3 mol C ×
%F = 1 mol F × 100% = 28.88% F
197.38 g C2HBrClF3
 Example
♦ In an iron ore. The iron found is an impure
compound Fe2O3.
♦ We can obtain the mass of iron that can be
obtained from Fe2O3 by molar mass.

Slide 17 of 43 General Chemistry: Chapter 3 Prentice-Hall © 2007

 Example

♦ Calculate the percentage mass of iron in

iron(III)oxide, Fe2O3.

Slide 18 of 43 General Chemistry: Chapter 3 Prentice-Hall © 2007

 Establishing Formulas from Experimentally
Determined Percent Composition

5 Step approach:

1. Choose an arbitrary sample size (100g).

2. Convert masses to amounts in moles.
3. Write a formula.
4. Convert formula to small whole numbers.
5. Multiply all subscripts by a small whole number to make the
subscripts integral.
EXAMPLE 3-5
Determining the Empirical and Molecular Formulas of
a Compound from Its Mass Percent Composition
Dibutyl succinate is an insect repellent used against
household ants and roaches. Its composition is 62.58% C,
9.63% H and 27.79% O. Its experimentally determined
molecular mass is 230 u. What are the empirical and
molecular formulas of dibutyl succinate?

Step 1: Determine the mass of each element in a 100g sample.

C 62.58 g H 9.63 g O 27.79 g

EXAMPLE 3-5
Step 2: Convert masses to amounts in moles.

Step 3: Write a tentative formula.

Step 4: Divide by the smallest subscript.

EXAMPLE 3-5
Step 5: Convert to a small whole number ratio.

The empirical formula is

Step 6: Determine the molecular formula.

Empirical formula mass is u.

Molecular formula mass is u.

The molecular formula is

 Oxidation States: A Useful Tool in Describing
Chemical Compounds

Metals tend to Non-metals tend

lose electrons. to gain electrons.
Na => Na+ + e- Cl + e- => Cl-

Reducing agents Oxidizing agents

We use the Oxidation State to keep track of the number of

electrons that have been gained or lost by an element.
 Rules for Oxidation States

1. The oxidation state (OS) of an individual atom in a free

element is 0.

2. The total of the OS in all atoms in:

i. Neutral species is 0.
ii. Ionic species is equal to the charge on the ion.

3. In their compounds, the alkali metals and the alkaline

earths have OS of +1 and +2 respectively.
 Rules for Oxidation States

5. In compounds, the OS of hydrogen is usually +1

6. In compounds, the OS of oxygen is usually –2.

7. In binary (two-element) compounds with metals:

i. Halogens have OS of –1,
ii. Group 16 have OS of –2 and
iii. Group 15 have OS of –3.
EXAMPLE 3-7
Assigning Oxidation States What is the oxidation state of the
underlined element in each of the following? a) P4; b) Al2O3;
c) MnO4-; d) NaH.

a) P4 is an element. P OS = 0
b) Al2O3: O is –2. O3 is –6. Since (+6)/2=(+3), Al OS = +3.
c) MnO4-: net OS = -1, O4 is –8. Mn OS = +7.
d) NaH: net OS = 0, rule 3 beats rule 5, Na OS = +1 and
H OS = -1.
 Naming Compounds:
Organic and Inorganic Compounds

Trivial names are used for common compounds.

A systematic method of naming compounds is known as a system
of nomenclature.
Organic compounds
Inorganic compounds

Lead (IV) oxide Lead (II) oxide

 Work out the formula of an ionic
compound
♦ Ionic compounds consist of positive and negative
ions held together in the solid by the attraction
between their opposite charge.

♦ Rule 1: If the charge on the ionic is the same, the

ratio is 1:1

♦ Rule 2 If numerical charges are not given, the

numbers of each ion have to be worked out so the
positive and negative charge equals.
 3-6 Names and Formulas of
Inorganic Compounds
Binary Compounds of Metals and Nonmetals
Binary Compounds of Two Non-Metals

Molecular compounds
usually write the positive OS element first.
HCl hydrogen chloride

Some pairs form more than one compound

mono 1 penta 5
di 2 hexa 6
tri 3 hepta 7
tetra 4 octa 8
 Binary Acids

Acids produce H+ when dissolved in water.

They are compounds that ionize in water.

Emphasize the fact that a molecule is an acid by altering the

name.
HCl hydrogen chloride hydrochloric acid
HF hydrogen fluoride hydrofluoric acid
Slide 34 of 43 General Chemistry: Chapter 3 Prentice-Hall © 2007
 Work out the formula of these Ionic
compounds
What is the formula of sodium hydroxide ?
Ions are Na+ and OH- = NaOH

What is the formula of iron(II)sulphate?

Ions are Fe2+ and SO42+ = FeSO4
Work out the formula of aluminium oxide.
Ions are Al3+ and O2- = Al2O3

Slide 37 of 43 General Chemistry: Chapter 3 Prentice-Hall © 2007

 Some Compounds of Greater Complexity

A hydrous compound is a compound with the

prefix H2O
This prefix states that there is water absorbed
into the compound.

Slide 38 of 43 General Chemistry: Chapter 3 Prentice-Hall © 2007

 Some Compounds of Greater Complexity

♦ Effect of Moisture
• Blue anhydrous
• CoCl2
• Pink hexahydrate
• CoCl2• 6 H2O

18.02 g H2O
6 mol H2O ×
1 mol H2O
%H2O = × 100%
237.9 g CoCl2• 6 H2O
= 45.45% H2O
 4hemical Reactions and
Chemical Equations
As reactants are converted to products we observe:
• Color change
• Precipitate formation
• Gas evolution
• Heat absorption or evolution

Chemical evidence may be necessary.

 Chemical Reaction
Nitrogen monoxide + oxygen → nitrogen dioxide

Step 1: Write the reaction using chemical symbols.

Step 2: Balance the chemical equation.

2 NO + 1O2 → 2NO2
Molecular Representation
 Balancing Equations

♦ An equation can be balanced only by adjusting the

coefficients of formulas.

♦ Never introduce extraneous atoms to balance.

NO + O2 → NO2 + O

♦ Never change a formula for the purpose of balancing an

equation.

NO + O2 → NO3
 Balancing Equation Strategy

♦ Balance elements that occur in only one

compound on each side first.
♦ Balance free elements last.
♦ Balance unchanged polyatomics (or other
groups of atoms) as groups.
♦ Fractional coefficients are acceptable and
can be cleared at the end by multiplication.
 EXAMPLE 4-2
Writing and Balancing an Equation: The Combustion
of a Carbon-Hydrogen-Oxygen Compound. Liquid
triethylene glycol, C6H14O4, is used a a solvent and
plasticizer for vinyl and polyurethane plastics. Write a
balanced chemical equation for its complete combustion.
 EXAMPLE 4-2

Chemical Equation:

1. Balance C.
2. Balance H.
3. Balance O. 4. Multiply by two

and check all elements.

 Chemical Equations and Stoichiometry

♦ Stoichiometry includes all the quantitative

relationships involving:
• atomic and formula masses
• chemical formulas.

• Mole ratio is a central conversion factor.

 EXAMPLE
Relating the Numbers of Moles of Reactant and Product
⑧How many moles of H2O are produced by burning 2.72 mol H2
9 in an excess of O2?
⑮ 59H2 -

g +28
mass= Mr mo
Write the Chemical Equation:
Balance the Chemical Equation:
56 #xess 96
2 H2 + O2 → 2 H2O
2 12 me
.
2 .
72 wo

Use the stoichiometric factor or mole ratio in an equation:

nH2O = 2 .
72 wor
 EXAMPLE
Additional Conversion Factors in a Stoichiometric
Calculation: Volume, Density, and Percent Composition.
An alloy used in aircraft structures consists of 93.7% Al and
6.3% Cu by mass. The alloy has a density of 2.85 g/cm3. A
0.691 cm3 piece of the alloy reacts with an excess of HCl(aq).
If we assume that all the Al but none of the Cu reacts with
HCl(aq), what is the mass of H2 obtained?
Al cu

6 3
93 . 7 .
EXAMPLE
Write the Chemical Equation:
Balance the Chemical Equation:
 EXAMPLE
2 Al + 6 HCl → 2 AlCl3 + 3 H2

Plan the strategy:

g alloy g Al mol Al mol H2 g H2
cm3 g alloy g Al mol Al mol H2
cm3 alloy → g alloy → g Al → mole Al → mol H2 → g H2
We need 5 conversion factors!
 Chemical Reactions in Solution

♦ Close contact between atoms, ions and

molecules necessary for a reaction to occur.
♦ Solvent
• We will usually use aqueous (aq) solution.
♦ Solute
• A material dissolved by the solvent.
 Molarity

Amount of solute (mol solute)

Molarity (M) = Volume of solution (L)

If 0.440 mol of urea is dissolved in enough water to make

1.000 L of solution the concentration is:
 Preparation of a Solution

Weigh the solid sample.

Dissolve it in a volumetric flask partially filled with solvent.
Carefully fill to the mark.
 EXAMPLE
Calculating the Mass of Solute in a Solution of Known
Molarity. We want to prepare exactly 0.2500 L (250 mL) of
an 0.250 M K2CrO4 solution in water. What mass of K2CrO4
should we use?
mol g
L mol
Plan strategy:Volume → moles → mass
We need 2 conversion factors!
Write equation and calculate:
Solution Dilution
Mi × V i

Mf × V f

n
M=
V
 4-4 Determining Limiting Reagent

♦ The reactant that is completely consumed

determines the quantities of the products
formed.
 EXAMPLE 4-12
Determining the Limiting Reactant in a Reaction.
Phosphorus trichloride, PCl3, is a commercially important
compound used in the manufacture of pesticides, gasoline
additives, and a number of other products. It is made by the
direct combination of phosphorus and chlorine

P4 (s) + 6 Cl2 (g) → 4 PCl3 (l)

What mass of PCl3 forms in the reaction of 125 g P4 with

323 g Cl2?

Strategy: Compare the actual mole ratio to the

required mole ratio.
EXAMPLE 4-12

Chlorine gas is the limiting reagent.

 EXAMPLE 4-12
Strategy for calculation:
mol Cl2 mol PCl3 g PCl3
g Cl2 mol Cl2 mol PCl3
mass Cl2 → moles Cl2 → moles PCl3 → mass PCl3

Write the Equation and calculate:

4-54-5Other
OtherPractical
PracticalMatters ReactionStoichiometry
Matters in Reaction Stoichiometry

Theoretical yield is the expected yield from a reactant.

Actual yield is the amount of product actually produced.

Actual yield
Percent yield = × 100%
Theoretical Yield
 Theoretical, Actual and Percent Yield

♦ When actual yield = % yield the reaction is

said to be quantitative.
♦ Side reactions reduce the percent yield.
♦ By-products are formed by side reactions.
 Electrolytes

♦ Some solutes can

dissociate into ions.
♦ Electric charge can be
carried.
 Types of Electrolytes

♦ Strong electrolyte dissociates completely.

• Good electrical conduction.
♦ Weak electrolyte partially dissociates.
• Fair conductor of electricity.
♦ Non-electrolyte does not dissociate.
• Poor conductor of electricity.
Representation of Electrolytes using Chemical
Equations

A strong electrolyte:

MgCl2(s) → Mg2+(aq) + 2 Cl-(aq)

A weak electrolyte:

CH3CO2H(aq)→
← 3 2
CH CO -(aq) + H+(aq)

A non-electrolyte:
CH3OH(aq)
Three Types of Electrolytes
 Relative Concentrations in Solution

MgCl2(s) → Mg2+(aq) + 2 Cl-(aq)

In 0.0050 M MgCl2:
Stoichiometry is important.

[Mg2+] = 0.0050 M [Cl-] = 0.0100 M [MgCl2] = 0 M

 EXAMPLE
Calculating Ion concentrations in a Solution of a Strong
Electolyte. What are the aluminum and sulfate ion
concentrations in 0.0165 M Al2(SO4)3?.

Write a Balanced Chemical Equation:

Al2(SO4)3 (s) → 2 Al3+(aq) + 3 SO42-(aq)

Identify the Stoichiometric Factors :
 Precipitation Reactions

♦ Soluble ions can combine

to form an insoluble
compound.
♦ Precipitation occurs.
♦ A test for the presence of
chloride ion in water.

Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl(s)

 Silver Nitrate and Sodium Iodide

AgNO3(aq) NaI(aq) AgI(s)

Na+(aq) NO3-(aq)
 Net Ionic Equation

Overall Precipitation Reaction:

AgNO3(aq) +NaI(aq) → AgI(s) + NaNO3(aq)

Complete ionic equation:

Net ionic equation:

Solubility Rules
 Bases

♦ Bases provide OH- in aqueous solution.

♦ Strong bases:
NaOH(aq) →
H2O
Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)

♦ Weak bases:
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) ←
→ OH-(aq) + NH4+(aq)
 Recognizing Acids and Bases.

♦ Acids have ionizable hydrogen ions.

• CH3CO2H or HC2H3O2

♦ Bases have OH- combined with a metal ion.

KOH

or can be identified by chemical equations

Na2CO3(s) + H2O(l)→ HCO3-(aq) + 2 Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
 5-6 Oxidizing and Reducing Agents.

♦ An oxidizing agent (oxidant):

• Contains an element whose oxidation state
decreases in a redox reaction

♦ A reducing agent (reductant):

• Contains an element whose oxidation state
increases in a redox reaction.
Oxidation-Reduction: Some General Principles

♦ Hematite is converted to iron in a blast furnace.

Δ
Fe2O3(s) + 3 CO(g) → 2 Fe(l) + 3 CO2(g)

♦ Oxidation and reduction always occur together.

Fe3+ is reduced to metallic iron.

CO(g) is oxidized to carbon dioxide.

 Oxidation State Changes

♦ Assign oxidation states:

3+ 2- 2+ 2- 0 4+ 2-
Δ
Fe2O3(s) + 3 CO(g) → 2 Fe(l) + 3 CO2(g)

Fe3+ is reduced to metallic iron.

CO(g) is oxidized to carbon dioxide.

 Thermite Reaction

Fe2O3(s) + 2 Al(s) → Al2O3(s) + 2 Fe(l)

 Oxidation and Reduction

♦ Oxidation
• O.S. of some element increases in the reaction.
• Electrons are on the right of the equation

♦ Reduction
• O.S. of some element decreases in the reaction.
• Electrons are on the left of the equation.
An Oxidation Reduction Reaction

Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)

 Oxidation and Reduction Half-Reactions

♦ A reaction represented by two half-reactions.

Oxidation: Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2 e-

Reduction: Cu2+(aq) + 2 e- → Cu(s)

Overall: Cu2+(aq) + Zn(s) → Cu(s) + Zn2+(aq)

 Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Equations

♦ Few can be balanced by inspection.

♦ Systematic approach required.

♦ The Half-Reaction (Ion-Electron) Method

 Balancing in Acid

♦ Write the equations for the half-reactions.

• Balance all atoms except H and O.
• Balance oxygen using H2O.
• Balance hydrogen using H+.
• Balance charge using e-.
♦ Equalize the number of electrons.
♦ Add the half reactions.
♦ Check the balance.
 EXAMPLE
Balancing the Equation for a Redox Reaction in Acidic
Solution. The reaction described below is used to determine the
sulfite ion concentration present in wastewater from a
papermaking plant. Write the balanced equation for this reaction
in acidic solution..

SO32-(aq) + MnO4-(aq) → SO42-(aq) + Mn2+(aq)

 EXAMPLE 5-6
Determine the oxidation states:
4+ 7+ 6+ 2+
SO32-(aq) + MnO4-(aq) → SO42-(aq) + Mn2+(aq)

Write the half-reactions:

SO32-(aq) → SO42-(aq) + 2 e-(aq)

5 e-(aq) +MnO4-(aq) → Mn2+(aq)

Balance atoms other than H and O:

Already balanced for elements.
 EXAMPLE
Balance O by adding H2O:

H2O(l) + SO32-(aq) → SO42-(aq) + 2 e-(aq)

5 e-(aq) +MnO4-(aq) → Mn2+(aq) + 4 H2O(l)

Balance hydrogen by adding H+:

H2O(l) + SO32-(aq) → SO42-(aq) + 2 e-(aq) + 2 H+(aq)

8 H+(aq) + 5 e-(aq) +MnO4-(aq) → Mn2+(aq) + 4 H2O(l)

Check that the charges are balanced: Add e- if necessary.

 EXAMPLE
Multiply the half-reactions to balance all e-:

5 H2O(l) + 5 SO32-(aq) → 5 SO42-(aq) + 10 e-(aq) + 10 H+(aq)

16 H+(aq) + 10 e-(aq) + 2 MnO4-(aq) → 2 Mn2+(aq) + 8 H2O(l)

6 3
Add both equations and simplify:

5 SO32-(aq) + 2 MnO4-(aq) + 6H+(aq) →

5 SO42-(aq) + 2 Mn2+(aq) + 3 H2O(l)

Check the balance!

 More Question
Fe2O3(s) + Al(s) → Al2O3(s) + Fe(l)

Slide 89 of 43 General Chemistry: Chapter 3 Prentice-Hall © 2007

 Balancing in Basic Solution

♦ OH- appears instead of H+.

♦ Treat the equation as if it were in acid.
• Then add OH- to each side to neutralize H+.
• Remove H2O appearing on both sides of
equation.
♦ Check the balance.
Slide 91 of 47 General Chemistry: Chapter 5 Prentice-Hall © 2007
 Disproportionation Reactions

♦ The same substance is both

oxidized and reduced.
♦ Some have practical significance
• Hydrogen peroxide
2 H2O2(aq) → H2O(l) + O2(g)
• Sodium thiosulphate
2 S2O3(aq) + H+(aq) → S(s) + SO2(g) + H2O(l)
Oxidation States of Nitrogen
 Stoichiometry of Reactions in Aqueous
Solutions: Titrations.

♦ Titration
• Carefully controlled addition of one solution to
another.
♦ Equivalence Point
• Both reactants have reacted completely.
♦ Indicators
• Substances which change colour near an
equivalence point.
 Indicators

5.0 mL CH3CO2H A few drops Add 0.1000 M NaOH The endpoint

phenolpthalein (close to the equivalence point)
 EXAMPLE 5-10
Standardizing a Solution for Use in Redox Titrations.
A piece of iron wire weighing 0.1568 g is converted to Fe2+(aq)
and requires 26.42 mL of a KMnO4(aq) solution for its titration.
What is the molarity of the KMnO4(aq)?

5 Fe2+(aq) + MnO4-(aq) + 8 H+(aq) →

5 Fe3+(aq) + Mn2+(aq) + 4 H2O(l)
 EXAMPLE
5 Fe2+(aq) + MnO4-(aq) + 8 H+(aq) → 4 H2O(l) + 5 Fe3+(aq) + Mn2+(aq)

Determine KMnO4 consumed in the reaction:

Determine the concentration: