Ship Structures I
Ship Structures I
CLAUDE DALEY
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© C.G.Daley 2011-19
All rights reserved. No reproduction copy or transmission of this publication may be made
without written permission.
Email: [email protected]
Table of Contents
Symbols ..................................................................................................................................................iv
Chapter 1: Introduction to Ship Structures ............................................................................................ 1
Chapter 2: Approaching Ship Structural Design ................................................................................. 20
Chapter 3: Longitudinal Strength: Buoyancy & Weight ...................................................................... 31
Chapter 4: Longitudinal Strength: Murray’s Method and Direct Integration ...................................... 46
Chapter 5: Longitudinal Strength: Wave Bending Moments .............................................................. 59
Chapter 6: Longitudinal Strength: Inclined Bending / Section Modulus ............................................ 65
Chapter 7: Beam Theory ..................................................................................................................... 73
Chapter 8: Solving Beam Equations ................................................................................................... 92
Chapter 9: Indeterminate Beams – Force Method ........................................................................... 107
Chapter 10: Indeterminate Beams – Stiffness Method .................................................................... 120
Chapter 11: Solving Beam Problems using Superposition .............................................................. 130
Chapter 12: The Moment Distribution Method .................................................................................. 134
Chapter 13: The Moment Distribution Method with Sway ................................................................ 148
Chapter 14: Matrix Structural Analysis .............................................................................................. 155
Chapter 15: Overview of Finite Element Theory............................................................................... 168
Chapter 16: Hull Girder Shear Stresses ........................................................................................... 179
Chapter 17: Shear Stresses in multi-cell sections ............................................................................ 188
Chapter 18: Shear Flow in adjacent Closed Cells ............................................................................ 200
Chapter 19: Torsion in ships.............................................................................................................. 203
Chapter 20: Shear Center and Shear Lag in Ship Structures .......................................................... 211
Chapter 21: Plate Bending................................................................................................................. 219
General References ........................................................................................................................... 231
Appendix 1 – Angle Formulas ............................................................................................................. A1
Appendix 2 –Material Properties ......................................................................................................... A2
Appendix 3 –Areas and Moments ....................................................................................................... A3
Appendix 4 – Fixed End Moments ...................................................................................................... A4
Appendix 5 – Beam Formulas ............................................................................................................. A5
Appendix 6 – Moment Distribution ....................................................................................................A10
Appendix 7 – Hooke’s Law, Mohr’s Circle and von-Mises ...............................................................A11
Appendix 8 - Energy Methods in Structural Analysis .......................................................................A21
Appendix 9 – Solutions to Selected Chapter Problems ...................................................................A29
Note: all images, sketches and photo's are © C. Daley unless otherwise indicated.
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Symbols
a acceleration, area, a variable INA moment of inertia about lateral
b buoyancy line load, a variable neutral axis
dv differential deflection ICL moment of inertia about center
dx differential length vertical axis
f a distance L ship length (non-specific)
g acceleration of gravity, a distance LW length of wave (e.g. crest to crest)
h a height variable LBP length between perpendiculars
lcg length to center of gravity M bending moment
m mass, meters My bending moment about y axis
p line load (e.g N/m) MZ bending moment about z axis
r radius Q shear
t thickness R radius, reaction
v beam deflection SWBM still water bending moment
x a coordinate (usually fore-aft), a T draft
variable W weight
y a coordinate (usually lateral), a 𝑊̅ average weight per meter
variable displacement (volume)
z a coordinate (usually vertical), a strain
variable curvature
AP aft perpendicular hull displacement (weight), a
B beam translation displacement
BM bending moment lcg change in lcg
CB block coefficient rolling angle, an angle, slope of a
CM midship coefficient beam
CWP waterplane coefficient
E Young’s modulus
mass density, radius of curvature
F force
FP forward perpendicular normal stress
HW height of wave (twice amplitude) shear stress
I moment of inertia midship location
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Please let me know when you find errors and typos. Notice I didn’t say ‘if ’.
General comments and suggestions are also welcome.
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The course is intended to develop the student’s knowledge of ship structures. The focus is on
various types of intact structural behavior, building upon concepts from mechanics of materials
and statics. The follow-on course (7002) will move from the consideration of intact behavior to
the mechanics of structural failure.
There are many types of structures. The definition of the word structure (Webster’s) is;
structure
1. manner of building, constructing, or organizing
2. something built or constructed, as a building or dam
3. the arrangement or interrelation of all the parts of a whole; manner of organization or
construction: the structure of the atom, the structure of society
4. something composed of interrelated parts forming an organism or an organization
There are many types of structures, some built by nature, some built by people.
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A ship structure is quite a distinct type of structure, especially in the arrangement of components,
but also in the many unique constraints and the special regulatory context that influences ship
structural design. While this course will naturally share aspects that are common to other courses
in structures, it will emphasize some topics that are especially important to ships. All forms of
structural analysis rest on common fundamentals. However, ships differ from many conventional
structures used in civil construction, where frameworks of beams and columns are the most
common type of structure. In machine design and mechanical engineering more broadly, many
structural components are complex and require a general stress analysis, often based on 3D elastic
analysis. Ship structures are primarily comprised of stiffened panels and are highly redundant.
There is more need to cover topics such as complex shear flow and plate bending than would be
the case in a first course in civil structures. Also the regulatory aspects of ship design and quite
different from any other field of structures and this tends to lead to differing emphasis from other
branches of Engineering.
This course will focus on the technical elements of structural design and analysis. However,
students are encouraged to think about the wider social, economic and political issues that
influence ship structures.
Guesstimation: One of the aims of the course is for the students to develop the ability to make
an educated guess. Such guesses are not wild or random. Educated guesses are based on sound
reasoning, careful approximation and simplification of the problem. In most cases the 'guess'
starts by forming an idea of the problem in its essential form, or in 'bounding' forms. Basic laws
of mechanics are considered to determine what fundamental principle might govern the outcome.
Most problems are governed by simple conservation laws, such as of forces, moments,
momentum and/or energy. The ability to make quick assessments is the mark of an expert and is a
crucial skill to avoid costly and dangerous mistakes. Such guesses never remove the need for
detailed calculations, but they do improve the quality and efficiency of the engineering.
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A related aim of the course is for the students to develop the ability to sketch a problem, by hand
and clearly. Sketching is a form of symbolic communication, no less valuable than the alphabet or
algebra. A sketch is a kind of ‘construction’ and serves as a model to examine ideas and develop
concepts.
Background
Humans have been constructing structures for a long time. A structure is a tool for
carrying and protecting. Ship structures have evolved like all other types of
structures (buildings, aircraft, bridges ...). Design was once purely a craft. Design is
evolving as we understand more about the structure itself and the environment that we subject
it to.
Traditional Design
Gondolas in Venice
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Engineering Design
Design, analysis, construction and regulation are separate specialties. Design practice is evolving:
In the 1950 tabulated requirements were found in Class Rules. By the 70s all codes had changed
to include prescriptive algebra. New trends are towards "LRFD - load and resistance factored
design", "risk based design" and "goal based design". Current practice in large (novel) projects
makes extensive use of "scenario based" design, with HAZIDs (hazard identification and
mitigation).
The future of design will be "design by simulation" in which the many interacting process and
systems will be simulated numerically. In some ways this will represent a return to the idea of
proving a design by a "proof test", except it will be a numerical proof test and will simulate the
life of the design. Another development which is likely to follow soon after “design by
simulation” is “intelligent operation”. The deep knowledge of the ship gained during design will
likely continue to be used and expanded upon during the operational life of the vessel. Imagine an
intelligent ship, fully aware of all of it systems and fully aware of the operational risks including
structural risks. Such a vessel would not be designed or evaluated using today’s rules, but by a
much more sophisticated set of requirements.
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These functions are all interrelated but should be considered somewhat separately.
Structural Arrangement
Ships are a class of structures called "semi-monocoque". In a pure monocoque, all the strength
comes from the outer shell ("coque" in french). To contrast, in "skin-on-frame" construction, the
loads are all borne by a structure of framing under the skin. In ships, the skin is structurally
integral with the framing which supports it, with the skin providing a substantial portion of the
overall strength.
Load Types
With both static and quasi-static loads, we do not need to take inertial or rate effects into account
in the structural response. With high frequency loads we need to consider structural vibrations
which includes inertial effects and damping. For impact loads, we have both transient inertial
effects and rate effects in material behavior. It is important to distinguish between loads affecting
vessel rigid body motions and elastic structural response. Wave forces may cause the vessel body
as a whole to respond with inertial effects (heaving motions) but will seldom cause anything but
quasi-static elastic response of the structure. The important determinant is the relative frequency
of the load and response. Local structure will respond elastically at frequencies in the 100hz to
3000hz range. The hull girder will flex at around the 1 hz rate. The vessel will heave and roll at
around the 0.1 hz range. (large vessels/structures will respond more slowly).
In this course we will examine the structural response to quasi-static loads. The hull girder is
sized to resist the combination of self-weights and wave forces.
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While almost all Naval Architects get involved in some structural issues, a few focus on the area
and tend to be involved in more advanced issues. This course aims to have you develop your
‘feel’ as well as your knowledge of structures. In other words, you should work at developing you
“Engineering Judgment” in the area of ship structures.
The Terry Fox is ~7000 tons displacement and capable of ramming thick old ice. It has never
been damaged.
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Boats are made from a variety of materials, including wood, fiberglass, composites,
aluminum, steel and cement. Ships are built mainly from steel. In this section we will name and
discuss the main structural features of steel ships. Ships are much longer than they are wide or
deep. They are built this way to minimize resistance (fuel consumption), and yet maintain
adequate stability and seaworthiness. This geometry results in the ship being a girder (a beam
built from compound parts). The figures below show sketches of the structural details of the
midship section of a bulk carrier.
This type of vessel is very common and has many problems. Single side shell vessels are
being replaced with double hull vessels. The FLARE had this type of construction. 3D sketches
of this type of ship is shown below.
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(from Hughes)
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Chapter 1: Problems
(§ indicates solution available in Appendix 9)
1.1 What is the difference between “low frequency dynamic” and “high frequency dynamic”
loads? Give examples.
1.2 Describe the types of loads that you would be concerned with during the launch of a vessel on
a slipway.
1.4 What are the key differences between the study of ‘strength of materials’ and the study of
‘structures’.
1.8 This sketch of the structure in the double bottom/double side of a ship was made in Rhino.
- Label the elements.
- how many different dimensional variables would be required to fully describe this
structure?
1.9 § The photograph below shows some components of ship structure. In the right half of the
photo there are longitudinal (horizontal) frames attached to the outer shell. The frames are
supported by a deep web frame.
Make two sketches by hand as follows;
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1) Sketch the web frame looking directly at (ie normal to) the web. Include in the sketch the cross
sections of the longitudinal frames. The sketch would be as viewed from a point at the right
edge of the photo. Just include the web frame and not the various bits in the left side of the
photo (i.e. not the piping, or partial bulkhead).
2) Make a 3D sketch of the detail joint between the web frame and the longitudinal frame.
1.10 § The photo below is an old wooden boat. Draw a section through the boat (like a mid-ship
section). You only need to draw the right (starboard) half. The intent is to show all the relevant
structural parts at the section.
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Prefabricated module blocks of HMS Dauntless at BAE's Portsmouth Shipyard. (Wikipedia, Public Domain)
Introduction
In this Chapter we will
Discuss the idea of Engineering.
Describe the general nature and hierarchy of ship structures.
Discuss the way to approach the problem of structural design.
~~~~~~
Science is both a methodology to create rigorous knowledge and that body of knowledge. Math is
a special branch science, concerned with numbers, quantities, shapes and the relationships among
them.
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A simple outline of the ‘scientific method’ is shown below. One could spend a lifetime studying
science, as a philosophy and an approach to knowledge. A simple, yet reasonably accurate,
statement about science would say that scientific knowledge is meant to be based on observation.
We should believe our senses, and our beliefs should be objectively verifiable by observation. If
we believe that objects fall with a constant acceleration, we should be able to confirm this belief
with a careful observation. While science is changing, and will continue to change, science seeks
to know things that do not change - those truths that can be thought of as ‘laws of nature’. Beliefs
than cannot be objectively verified are not (yet) science, but may be reasonable hypotheses.
As Engineers work towards making things, their professional standards require the highest care be
taken to ensure that their designs and devices are as safe and effective as possible. Most
engineering problems can be only partially solved precisely with scientific and mathematical
knowledge. Unfortunately, science and math alone does not ensure an Engineer can produce
products with satisfactory safety and effectiveness. Almost all the problems that Engineers deal
with contain aspects that cannot be solved absolutely. It is then that the Engineering method
comes into play. The Engineering method is a strategy for solving problems where complexity
and uncertainly prevent there being a ‘correct’ answer. In such circumstances, the proper
approach is to explore multiple solutions, and to use multiple means of assessment to produce an
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answer that ‘as good as reasonably possible and practicable’. It’s not a question of finding the one
correct answer. It is more about avoiding the many wrong answers. There is no ‘law’ that will
ever tell us what the best ship structure is any more than there is a law describing the best pie
recipe.
Engineering is really about offering the best advice in circumstances where many things are
known but many are not. Decisions and risks must be taken carefully and rationally.
Structural Behavior
Ship structural behavior, as with all structural behavior, may look complicated, but is essentially
simple because it is a combination of simple behaviors. Structures are an assemblage of parts.
This distinguishes them from objects. A beam or plate is a structural element, but only a
collection of structural elements is called a structure. The theory of structures builds upon the
field of ‘mechanics of materials’ (also called mechanics of solids, or strength of materials), by
considering the interactions and combined behaviors of collections of structural components. So,
much of this course will focus on techniques for understanding collections of structural elements.
We will also review and expand, somewhat, on the mechanics of individual elements.
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Levels of Structure
The process of ship structural design varies depending on the specific issues. Structural design
occurs after the mission is set and a general arrangement is determined. The general arrangement
allows us to determine both the environmental loads and the distribution of hull/outfit/cargo
weights. The establishment of scantlings (structural dimensions) is iterative. We assume that a
preliminary set of dimensions is settled upon from experience or by other choice. The loads will
cause a set of responses (stresses, deflections). The response criteria are then compared to the
responses. For any inadequacies we modify the structural dimensions and repeat the response
analysis. When all responses are satisfactory, we are finished.
In cases where we must satisfy additional constraints (cost, performance..) we add checks for
these items after we have checked the structural response. Again, we loop until we have met the
constraints, and reached optimal values for some measure. The sketch of the process below has
been slightly modified to show that there are multiple loads, multiple components and multiple
criteria. It is this expansion of the problem to causes design to change from a trivial ‘look-up’
process to a challenging exercise of exploring possible options.
As stated above, the structural design can only occur after the overall vessel concept and
arrangement is set, which is done during the preliminary design stage. The structural design itself
is a process that is comparable to the overall design. Just as the vessels has a mission and a
concept to satisfy that mission, so too does the structure have a mission and concept to satisfy the
mission. Prior to deciding on the structural sizes (scantlings), the designer must decide on the
overall structural concept and arrangement.
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In rule-based design (Classification Society rules), the loads and response criteria have been
combined into standard scantling requirements formulae. The user can use these formulae to
determine minimum dimensions for members and components. There can then be the need to
check additional criteria (e.g. buckling, alternate loads). When this is complete the user has a
complete structural design, but not yet a final detailed design. The final structural drawings also
include detailed design features (e.g. bracket and weld specifications). The image following is
illustrative of a structural drawing of a transverse bulkhead on an FPSO.
All the various parts and levels of a ship structure interact. Ships are "all-welded" structures,
meaning that it is all one single, complex, solid elastic body. The main thing that structures (and
all parts of structures) do is “push back”. i.e. across any interface (across every patch of every
plane, everywhere in the universe, always!) the force acts in both ways. This powerful idea is the
key to understanding what happens in a structure.
Forces (and moments) always sum to zero, whether at a point, or on any body or partial body.
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This course is mainly about structural analysis, because analysis is useful in itself, and is crucial
to design. All design requires evaluation of the performance of the design. Analysis allows that
evaluation. But of course, design is more than analysis. Design can involve factors that are
difficult or impossible to formally quantify. Emotion and aesthetics often come in. However, for
this course we will be exploring only strictly quantifiable factors of design.
Even in cases where the design challenge has a single ‘best’ answer, it can be difficult to find. In
more realistic cases, there are multiple best answers, because there are multiple non-
interchangeable goals that we wish to optimize. Let’s start with an example that begins to
illustrate the issue.
We are trying to find a value of ‘y’ that is based on the following information:
𝑥2
• A constraint: 𝑦 > 12 − 17 {𝑥 > 0}
• A relationship: 𝑦 = 𝑥 .7434 {𝑥 > 0}
10
• A parameter: 𝑚 = 𝑥 {𝑥 > 0}
The problem is to find a value of x and y that satisfies the relationship and constraint and
minimizes the value of the parameter. How would you go about this challenge?
The answer is x=17.451 and y=8.379. The solution is shown visually below, using desmos. The
constraint is shown as an allowable region (in green). All values of the relationship (orange line)
that are inside the green region are allowed, but we want the one that has the minimum value of
the parameter. That value is (in this case) where the orange line crosses the constraint boundary. It
is quite common that optimal values are on the boundaries of constraints. Assuming that this
might be the case can help you solve the problem quicker.
Let’s make a small change to the problem. Find a value of ‘y’ for the following information:
𝑥2
• A constraint: 𝑦 > 12 − 17 {𝑥 > 0}
• A relationship: 𝑦 = 𝑥 .7434 {𝑥 > 0}
10 𝑥
• A parameter: 𝑚 = 𝑥 + 10 {𝑥 > 0}
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In this case the minimum value of m corresponds to values of x and y inside the constraint
domain at x=10, y=5.539.
Dealing with multiple relationships, multiple constraints and even multiple parameters to
optimize can create a very challenging situation. But real design gets even more challenging. The
examples above have all relationships, constraints and parameters in 2D space. This would get
much harder in 3D space. But you could still picture it graphically. But what about 7 dimensional
space? This is not a joke. Design involves many independent continuous and discrete parameters,
which really do constitute a high order space, which could be 5, 10 or ever 20 dimensional.
Luckily it is possible to find acceptable answers in such situations, even though perfect may be
unattainable. As we go through the course, the idea of what a relationship, a constraint or a
parameter is, in structural terms, will become clearer.
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Chapter 2: Problems
2.2 Sketch, free hand, the structure in the double bottom of a ship. Keep it neat and label the
elements
2.3 Discuss the difference between mechanics of materials and structural design.
Introduction
In this Chapter we will discuss still water bending moments, Bonjean curves, Prohaska’s method
to preliminarily estimate weight distributions.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Overview
The first strength consideration is the longitudinal strength of the hull girder. The hull girder feels
vertical forces due to weight and buoyancy. For any floating body the total weight must equal the
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total buoyancy, and both forces must act along the same line of action. However, at each location
along the ship, the weight will not normally equal the buoyancy.
The weights are set by the combination of lightship and cargo weights. The locations of the
weights are fixed (more or less). The buoyancy forces are determined by the shape of the hull and
the location of the vessel in the water (draft and trim). The net buoyancy will adjust itself until is
exactly counteracts the net weight force. However, this does not mean that each part of the vessel
has a balance of weight and buoyancy. Local segments of the vessel may have more or less weight
than the local buoyancy. The difference will be made up by a transfer of shear forces along the
vessel.
The ‘design’ bending moment is the combination of Stillwater bending and wave bending. To
calculate these values, we will make the following assumptions;
• Ship is a beam
• Small deflection theory
• Response is quasi-static
• Lateral loading can be superimposed
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The still water bending moment is calculated from the effect of the weights and buoyancy in calm
water. The buoyancy force is a line load (e.g. kN/m). The local buoyancy per meter is found from
the x-sectional area of the hull at each location. The x-sectional area depends on the local draft and
are found from the ‘Bonjean’ curves.
Bonjean curves show the relationship between local draft and submerged cross-sectional area.
There is one Bonjean curve for each station. There are typically 21 stations from the FP to the AP,
with 0 being the FP. This divides the LBP into 20 segments.
Bonjeans are drawn on the profile of the vessel. With these curves, we can find the distribution of
buoyancy for any waterline (any draft, any trim).
For hydrostatic calculations we need to know the distribution of buoyancy along the ship. We need
to be able to find this for every possible draft/trim. If we had a wall sided vessel, it would be
relatively easy to solve for the draft/trim (as in Assignment #1). With shaped hulls, there is a non-
linear relationship between buoyancy and position. We use Bonjean curves to find the buoyancies
as follows.
For the typical 21 station ship, we divide the ship into 21 slices, each extending fore and aft of its
station. Using the Bonjean curve for each station we calculate the total displacement at our
draft/trim;
20
𝐿𝐵𝑃
∇= ∑ (𝑎𝑖 (Ti ) ∗ ) [m3 ]
20
𝑖=0
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L BP
3 = A 3 [m3]
20
The buoyant line load for station 3 is;
3 = 3 g [N/m]
The above will provide a way of calculating the buoyant forces at each station. We will now
discuss the weights.
We need the weight distribution for a variety of reasons. The weights and buoyancy combined will
determine how the vessel floats in the water; both draft and trim. They will also determine the
shear force and bending moments that the hull structure will have to support. As the design
proceeds, the weights will become more precisely known for each loading condition of the ship.
Similarly, if analysis of an existing vessel is the goal, the accuracy of the weight distribution will
increase as more data is gathered.
If the weight distribution is known (even preliminarily), we use it directly. The steps to follow
are;
• estimate the weight at each station (+- half station)
• (optionally) find the c.g. of all weights and distribute accordingly
If the weight distribution is unknown, but we know (or est.) the total displacement, and we need
to estimate the distribution, we can use the Prohaska method. Prohaska proposed a method for a
ship with parallel middle body (i.e. most cargo vessels). The weight distribution is a trapezoid on
top of a uniform distribution, as follows;
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The weights are distributed according to the pattern above. With the average weight/meter of the
Whull
hull: W = the values of a and b are;
L
a b
W W
Tankers .75 1.125
Full Cargo Ships .55 1.225
Fine Cargo Ships .45 1.275
Large Passenger Ships .30 1.35
Note that the values of a and b are related, so that the average is always W . This gives;
b a
= 1.5 −
W 2W
To move the position of the center of weight (the lcg) the fore and aft ends of the load diagram are
adjusted by equal (and opposite) amounts.
7 ∆𝑙𝑐𝑔 54
∆𝑙𝑐𝑔 = 𝑥 𝐿 or, 𝑥= (can you derive this?)
54 𝐿 7
If the weight distribution is unknown and we have a vessel without a parallel middle body (i.e.
most sail yachts), we need a smoother distribution. The method below uses a parabolic distribution
on top of a uniform distribution. The two parts each have half the weight.
W 3 2x
W= + W (1 − ( − 1) 2 )
2 4 L
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To shift the total center of weight by ‘x’ we shift the c.g. of the parabola by 2x. This is done by
‘shearing’ the curve, so that the top center, ‘D’, shifts by 5x. All other points shift proportionally.
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Chapter 3: Problems
3.1 For the three station profiles shown below, draw the bonjean curves in the space provided.
3.2 For a vessel with 4 stations, the bonjean curves are given at the 3 half stations. Lbp is 60m.
for the vessel to float level (no trim), at a 4.5 m draft, where is the C.G.?
What would the Prohaska distribution of weight be to achieve this? (plot)
If the C.G is at midships, and the draft (at midships) is 4.5 m, what is the trim?
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3.3 For the vessel body plan shown below (left), sketch the corresponding bonjean curves (on the
right).
3.4 For the bonjean shown below (right), sketch the corresponding vessel body plan curve (on the
left).
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3.5 Bonjean Curves The following figure shows 5 potential Bonjean curves. Some of them are
impossible. Identify the curves that can not be Bonjean curves and explain why. For the feasible
Bonjeans, sketch the x-section that the Bonjean describes.
3.6 For the two ship stations shown below, sketch the corresponding bonjean curves on the grid
below.
20 m 20 m
12 m
145 m2
(a) (b)
12
10
z [m] 8
6
4
2
0
0 50 100 150 200
Area [m2]
3.7 You are supervising a preliminary ship design project. You have asked one of your team to
produce a net load (weight-buoyancy) diagram, so that bending moments can be calculated. The
diagram you are given is ;
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-20
AP ¼ ¾ FP
why is this diagram impossible? Justify your answer. (hint: use SFD and/or BMD)
3.8 For the three station profiles shown below, sketch the corresponding bonjean curves
3.9 § For each of the six cross sections shown, sketch the bonjean curve.
Imagine that you are going to design the above container ships.
Battleship TEXAS
Introduction
In this chapter we will discuss Murray’s Method to estimate still water bending moments, along
with a direct integration approach.
Murray’s Method
Murray’s method is based on the idea that forces and moments in a ship beam (also called the hull
girder) are self-balancing. No net force or moment is transferred to the world at the ends of a ship
– i.e. the ends are ‘free’, quite unlike the usual boundary condition for most beams. Any set of
weight and buoyancy forces are in balance.
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Also, for any cut at x, the moment at the cut can be determined in two ways;
BM ( x) = y1 L1 − y 2 L2
= y5 L5 − y3 L3 − y 4 L4
where
ff,fa are the distances from the to the centers of weight (fore and aft)
gf,ga are the distances from the to the centers of buoyancy (fore and aft)
or
These two moments are ‘estimates’ of the maximum bending moment. We can combine the two,
and increase our accuracy, by taking the average of the two;
= BM W − BM B
weight - buoyancy
To find the buoyancy part, Murray suggested
Murray suggested a set of values for x , as a function of the ship length, block coefficient and the
ratio of draft to length;
x = L(a CB + b)
where
d/L a b
.03 .209 .03
.04 .199 .041
.05 .189 .052
.06 .179 .063
This table for a and b can be represented adequately by the equation;
a = 0.239 – d/L
b = 1.1 d/L – 0.003
d = draft, L= length
BM w = 3 ,1 2 9 ,2 2 0
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𝑊 = ∆= 𝐶𝐵 𝐿𝐵𝑑𝛾
∆
𝑑=
𝐶𝐵 ∙𝐿∙𝐵∙𝛾
= 16.68 m
𝑑 16.68
= = 0.06
𝐿 278
a=0.179, b=0.063
1
BM B = x
2
1
= 140690 57.32 = 4,032,428 t-m
2
SWBM = BMW-BMB
hog sag
= 3,129,220 − 4,032,428
= −903,145 t-m (- is sag)
Note that in this case the ship will never get in the hogging condition, because the SWBM is so
large.
A more direct calculation of the buoyancy bending moment BMB can be made if the hull form is
known. We will use a standard hull form for a container ship to compute the BMB and compare to
Murray’s Method. The main particulars and the body lines are shown below. Rhino™ was used to
create a set of offset coordinates (x,y,z at 20 stations) and a 3D surface of the hull. The 3D surface
is reasonably good for the purpose of finding still water bending moments, but its not perfect. The
fine details at the stern and bulbous bow are not exact, but these will have only minor effect on the
distribution of buoyancy.
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1
Fonseca and Guedes-Soares “Comparison of numerical and experimental results of nonlinear wave-induced
vertical ship motions and loads”, J Mar Sci Technol (2002) 6:193–204
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Station Positions and Fore and Aft centers of buoyancy (9.5 m draft)
Also, we will calculate the values in excel™ using the offsets. The offsets are the y,z coordinates
at each station. The file for these is called S175_Offsets.xlsx, which is on the course website. Pls
review the file and study how the fore and aft volumes and centroids are calculated. An example
for station 3 is show below. Also below are two tables of offsets for the aft and fore regions.
The distances to the fore and aft centers of buoyancy are slightly different. The Rhino and Excel
averages are both 30.0 vs the Murray calculated value of 28.4. So Murray is reasonable but
clearly not as accurate as a direct calculation for an actual hull.
Chapter 4: Problems
Note: problems with * are not taken from prior exams.
4.1. Longitudinal strength is a primary concern during the design of a ship. Briefly explain the
idea behind Murray’s Method.
4.2. § There is a ‘rectangular’ shaped block of wood, as shown in the image below. The
block weighs 200 N and has uniform density. It is 1 m long and 0.20 m wide. It is 20 cm thick and
is floating in fresh water.
4.3. A simple barge is made of steel, is 10m long, 2m wide and 1m high. The sides and bottom
steel is all 20mm thick. Steel has a density of 7850 kg per m3 and water has a density of 1000.
4.4.
draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for the block.
Now consider the addition of a small 50 N weight on the top of the block, at a distance 2/3m from
one end. (hint - a right triangle has its centroid at 2/3 of its length)
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4.5. There is a ‘diamond’ shaped block of wood, as shown in the image below. The block
weighs 5.4 kg. and has uniform density. It is 60 cm long and 30 cm wide. It is 12 cm thick and is
floating in fresh water. Resting on the block are 2 weights, each small blocks of steel weighing 1
kg. They are symmetrically placed and are 55cm apart.
• What is the midship bending moment in units of N-cm ?
• What is the maximum bending stress in the wooden block?
• Draw the bonjean curve for a cross section of the wooden block at a point 15cm from the end.
(show actual units).
• What is the block coefficient for the block?
ANS: a) 171.5 N-cm (hog) b) 23.8 MPa c) Straight and then vertical d) 0.5
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4.6. Consider a 100m vessel resting in sheltered fresh waters (see below). The CG of all
weights fwd of midships is 23m fwd of midships (ff=23m). The CG of all weights aft of midships
is 25m aft of midships (fa=25m). The weights fwd and aft are 4200 and 4600 t respectively. Two
bonjean curves are given. Assume each refers to the average x-section area for 50m of ship (fore
and aft). The (fore and aft) buoyancy forces act at the bonjean locations, which are 18m fwd and
20 aft (of midships). The buoyancy force aft is 4650 t.
4.7. Murray's Method Consider a 100m long vessel resting in sheltered waters. The CG of all
weights fwd of midships is 20m fwd of midships (ff=20m). The CG of all weights aft of midships
is 25m aft of midships (fa=25m).
• Describe how you would use Murray’s Method to determine the still
water bending moment for this vessel.
• What other info, if any do you need?
Note: you don’t need to remember the specific values for terms suggested by Murray.
4.8. Hull girder strength The hull girder can be viewed as a beam. When floating in still
water, is the beam statically determinate or statically indeterminate? Provide reasons for your
answer.
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4.9. You see below a sketch of a ship that is 200 m long. The displacement is made up of the
lightship plus the weight of cargo in two holds. The ship has stranded itself on a submerged rock.
Draw the various curves of load and response for the vessel (weight, buoyancy, net load, shear,
moment, slope and deflection) that are compatible with the information given. The numerical
values don’t matter. The intention is to draw a set of curves that are logical for the ship as shown.
4.10. You see below a sketch of a ship that is 200 m long. The displacement is made up of the
lightship plus the weight of cargo in two holds. The forward cargo hold is empty. Draw the
various curves of load and response for the vessel (weight, buoyancy, net load, shear, moment,
slope and deflection) that are compatible with the information given. The numerical values don’t
matter. The intention is to draw a set of curves that are logical for the ship as shown.
4.11. You see below a sketch of a ship that is 200 m long. The displacement is made up of the
lightship plus the weight of ballast in 4 tanks. The cargo holds are empty. Draw the various curves
of load and response for the vessel (weight, buoyancy, net load, shear, moment, slope and
deflection) that are compatible with the information given. The numerical values don’t matter.
The intention is to draw a set of curves that are logical for the ship as shown.
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4.12. Calculate the still water bending moment (in N-cm) for the solid block of plastic sketched
below. Assume the block has density as given and is floating in fresh water (density also given).
Is the moment hogging or sagging?
4.14. § There is a floating block of wood, as shown in the image below. The block has uniform
density. It is 40 cm long and 15 cm wide. It is 10 cm thick at the ends and 15cm thick in the
middle. It is floating in salt water with a weight density of 10kN/m3.
4.15. * For the example of Murray’s method in the Chapter, remove the cargo weight and add
4000 t of ballast, with a cg of 116m fwd of midship. Re-calculate the maximum sag and hog
moments (both still water and wave).
4.16. * For the example of Murray’s method in the Chapter, instead of using the weight
locations as given, assume that the weights are distributed according to Prohaska. Re-calculate the
SWBM.
4.17. * Consider a 100m long tanker resting on an even keel (same draft fore and aft) in
sheltered waters. The CG of all weights is at midships and is 8000 tonnes.
Use Murray’s Method and Prohaska’s values to determine the still water bending moment for this
vessel (i.e. get both the weight and buoyancy BMs about midships).
4.18. * Consider the 175m long container vessel (the S-175 example) resting on an even keel
(same 9.5m draft fore and aft) in sheltered waters.
Use Murray’s Method and Prohaska’s values to determine the still water bending moment for this
vessel (i.e. get both the weight and buoyancy BMs about midships). Change the weight
distribution (same weight, same center) to better reflect a real vessel with an engine and re-do the
SWBM.
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Cape Spear
Introduction
In this Chapter we will discuss the shape of ocean design waves and the moments caused by
waves.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Design Waves
Design wave forces are considered to be quasi-static. As a wave passes by a vessel, the worst
hogging moment will occur when the midbody is on the crest of a wave and the bow and stern are
in the troughs. The worst sagging moment will happen when the bow and stern are on two crests,
with the midbody in the trough between.
Whether for sagging or hogging, the worst condition will occur when the wavelength is close to
the vessel length. If the waves are much shorter,
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or much longer than the vessel, the bending moments will be less than if the wavelength equals the
ship length.
Consequently, the design wave for any vessel will have a wavelength equal to the vessel length.
The wave height is also constrained. Waves will have a limited height to length ratio, or they will
break. This results in a standard design wave of L/20. In other words the wave height (peak to
trough) is 1/20th of the wave length.
Note that the waves sketched above did not look like sinusoids. Waves at sea tend to be trochoidal
shaped, rather than simple sine waves. This has the feature that the crests are steeper and the
troughs are more rounded.
LW = 2 R
HW = 2 r
Which gives;
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L BP L
R = , r = BP
2 40
r
=
R 20
To construct a plot of the wave, we start with a coordinate system at the crest of the wave.
L L
x = − sin
2 40
L
z = ( 1 − cos )
40
To plot the wave, it is a simple matter to calculate x and z as a function of and then plot z vs x.
This is done in the spreadsheet below.
L 100
H 5
x z
0 0 0
2
10 2.343657 -0.03798
20 4.700505 -0.15077
0
z
30 7.083333 -0.33494
-2
40 9.504142 -0.58489 -4
50 11.97378 -0.89303 -6
60 14.5016 -1.25 0 50 100 150 200
x
70 17.09521 -1.64495
80 19.7602 -2.06588
90 22.5 -2.5
100 25.31576 -2.93412
110 28.20632 -3.35505
120 31.16827 -3.75
Alternatively, the link below will bring you to a DESMOS page that plots a trochoidal wave. You
will see the rolling circle, which you can drag by selecting its center. You can edit the wave
parameters.
https://www.desmos.com/calculator/rqvqvf6uy8
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1.1 L Wave
L/20 waves have been found to be too conservative for large vessels, esp. for vessels >500 ft. A
more modern version of the 1 . 1 L wave. In this case;
as before, LW = LBP
H w = 1 . 1 L BP (in feet)
or
H w = 0 . 607 L BP (in meters)
L BP
R = , r = . 55 L BP (feet) or r = . 303 L BP (meters)
2
We can now calculate the wave bending moments by placing the ship on the design wave. We can
use the bonjean curves to determine the buoyancy forces due to the quasi-static effects of the
wave;
• at each station determine the still water buoyancy forces, using the design draft. (isw : still
water at station i)
Fisw = Aisw li g
• at each station determine the total buoyancy forces, using the local draft in that portion of
the wave. (iwt : total wave at station i)
Fiwt = Aiwt li g
The net wave buoyancy forces are the difference between wave and still water.
Fiwave=Fiwt-Fisw
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This gives us a set of station buoyancy forces due to the wave (net of still water). These forces
should be in equilibrium (no net vertical force). We can calculate the moment at midships from
either the net effect of all forces forward, or all forces aft (the two moments will balance).
** It must be noted that for every wave condition (sag, hog, height) the vessel will need to find a
new draft and trim. This makes the calculation of wave effects much more difficult. This happens
because the hull is fuller in the middle than at the ends so waves create a change in draft (vessels
rise on a hogging wave and sink on a sagging wave). Generally, one end of the vessel is fuller than
the other (might be a full bow and finer stern or the reverse) so the buoyancy forces result in the
vessel trimming (pitching). For wave bending calculations, a draft and trim must be found that
balances the weight and buoyancy perfectly. This produces a reasonably complicated set of
calculations. This can be solved in a spreadsheet, but it does get a bit complicated.
There are various ways to calculate the buoyancy forces. 3D Cad programs such as Rhino can be
used to find the still water and wave bending moments. Assuming that we have a hull modeled in
Rhino, we can find the still water buoyancy forces for the fore and aft halves of the vessel by
finding the volume and location of the centroids of the two submerged volumes.
The procedure would be as follows;
A similar procedure would determine the wave values. The only difference would be the need to
draw the trochoidal wave as a surface.
The example below shows the use of Rhino to calculate the Buoyant BM for a large vessel. The
centroids of the two half volumes are shown.
The difference between this and the weight moment (hog) will give the SWBM.
Chapter 5: Problems
5.1. Using a spreadsheet, plot the design trochoidal wave for a 250m vessel, for the L/20 wave.
5.2. Using a spreadsheet, plot the design trochoidal wave for a 250m vessel, for the 1.1 L .5
wave.
5.3. For the S-175 vessel described above, compare the total displacement and center of
bouyancy for a wave of 0m amplitude (still water condition) with that for a wave of height=8m
(amplitute = 4m). There is a spreadsheet called S175_Calcs.xlsx that is available to download,
which will require only minor editing.
5.4. How would you modify the spreadsheet above to change the draft and trim?
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Introduction
In this Chapter we will discuss the calculation of bending of an inclined vessel and the general
calculation of hull section modulus/inertia
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Inclined and Lateral Bending
When a ship rolls the weight and buoyancy forces cause lateral as well as vertical bending.
Normally the bending moment vector is aligned with the ship’s y axis. My is the bending moment
that results from buoyancy and weight forces.
When the vessels rolls by an angle , the moment vector remains horizontal. This is because the
buoyancy and gravity forces are always vertical. This means that the bending moment is no longer
aligned with the y,z axis of the vessel;
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Moments are vectors, adding in the same way that force vectors do.
−M yz Mzy
V = H = +
I NA I CL
Note: Sign convention: R.H.R., moment acting on +x cut face, compression is positive.
In this case a +My causes tension (-) on the +z part of the vessel. A +Mz causes compression (+)
on the +y side of the vessel.
The total axial stress at any point on the vessel is the sum of the stresses caused by the two
directions of bending.
−M yz Mzy
X = V + H = +
I NA I CL
− M w z cos M w y sin
= +
I NA I CL
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When we have bending moments in both y and z, there will be a line of zero axial stress that we
call the heeled neutral axis. This is not necessarily aligned with the total moment. To find the
heeled neutral axis we solve for the location of zero stress;
− M w z cos M w y sin
X = 0 = + ,
I NA I CL
Peak Stresses
I NA I
Z NA = , Z CL = CL
z deck B 2
This leads to the question: What is the worst angle of heel (cr)?
To find it we use;
which gives;
Z NA
tan cr =
Z CL
Typically Z NA Z CL 0 . 5 so cr = 26 . 6
Mw
For example, if = 0 = then
Z NA
cos 26.6 sin 26.6 𝑀𝑤
𝜎𝜃=26.6 = 𝑀𝑤 ( + )= 1.12
𝑍𝑁𝐴 2 𝑍𝑁𝐴 𝑍𝑁𝐴
i.e. for this vessel, there is a 12% increase in stress during the worst roll.
Ships are largely built of plates. This means that the moment or inertia and section modulus
calculations normally involve a collection of rectangular parts. For any individual plate:
Ina = 1/12 b t3
= 1/12 a t2
Ina = 1/12 t b3
= 1/12 a b2
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Ina = 1/12 a d2
= 1/12 t b3 cos2
~~~~~~
For compound sections we need to be able to find the inertia about other axes. We use the transfer
of axis theorem:
Izz = Ina + a c2
The overall neutral axis (NA) is found by equating 2 expressions for the 1st moment of area;
A hNA = ai hi
This gives;
hNA = ai hi / ai = (a1 h1 + a2 h2)/(a1+a2)
The overall NA goes through the centroid of the compound area.
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When the section bends the sections remain plane, meaning that the strain field is linear.
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For the modified section, ITR is calculated in the usual way. The strains and deflections for any
vertical bending moment will be correct, i.e.;
𝑀
𝑣 ′′ =
𝐸1 𝐼𝑇𝑅
The only error will be the stresses in the transformed region. The stresses in the unmodified region
will be correct, but the modified region will be wrong by the ratio of modulii. We can correct this
as follows;
𝑀𝑦
𝜎1 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐼𝑇𝑅
𝐸2 𝑀 𝑦
𝜎2 =
𝐸1 𝐼𝑇𝑅
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Chapter 6: Problems
dimensions in mm
6.2. A box steel hull is 4m x 1m with a shell thickness of 10mm. It is inclined at 15 degrees,
and subject to a vertical bending moment of 2 MN-m. Find the bending stress at the emerged deck
edge.
6.3. For a composite beam (Steel plate with Aluminum web/Flange) loaded as show below
a) find the central deflection.
b) find the maximum stress in the Aluminum
6.4. § Consider a compound steel-aluminum beam, shown below. Calculate the deflection d
(show steps)
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Introduction
In this Chapter we will develop the elastic behavior of beams and show the relationship among
load, shear, bending, slope and deflection
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Coordinate System and Sign Convention
Shear strain:
Bending moment:
section and assuming that the net force and net moment are
zero (Newton!) we derive the equations.
𝑑𝑥
−𝑀(𝑥 ) − 𝑄 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 − 𝑝(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + (𝑀(𝑥 ) + 𝑑𝑀) = 0
2
−𝑄(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑀 = 0
or;
𝑑𝑀
𝑄 (𝑥 ) =
𝑑𝑥
Adding Deformations
So far, we have differential equations for the
load/shear/moment relationships. Now we add
deformations.
𝑀𝑦
𝜎=
𝐼
For the top fiber (in the figure above) we see that the strain
is;
∆ dθ
ε= =y
dx dx
𝑑𝜃 𝑀
=
𝑑𝑥 𝐸𝐼
or
𝑀
𝑑𝜃 = 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼
We also have
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝜃 =
𝑅
𝑑𝜃 1
= =𝜅
𝑑𝑥 𝑅
𝑥
𝑀
𝜃 = 𝜃0 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼
0
For prismatic sections, EI is constant, so;
𝑥
1
𝜃 = 𝜃0 + ∫ 𝑀 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼
0
𝑑𝑣
=𝜃
𝑑𝑥
and
𝑑𝑣 = 𝜃 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑥
𝜃 (𝑥 ) = 𝜃𝑜 + ∫ 𝑀(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼 0
by inserting the expression for bending moment we get;
1 𝑥 −𝑝 𝑥 2
( )
𝜃 𝑥 = 𝜃𝑜 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼 0 2
which becomes;
𝑝 𝑥3
𝜃 (𝑥 ) = 𝜃𝑜 −
6𝐸𝐼
At this point we can either carry forward the unknown
initial slope or solve for it. We know the slope at L is zero,
so we can write;
𝑝 𝐿3
( )
𝜃 𝐿 = 0 = 𝜃𝑜 −
6𝐸𝐼
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𝑝 𝐿3 𝑝 𝑥 3
𝜃 (𝑥 ) = −
6𝐸𝐼 6𝐸𝐼
𝑝 𝐿4 𝑝 𝐿4
𝑣 (𝐿) = 0 = 𝑣𝑜 + −
6𝐸𝐼 24𝐸𝐼
which gives;
𝑝 𝐿4
𝑣𝑜 = −
8𝐸𝐼
−𝑝 𝐿4 𝑝 𝐿3 𝑥 𝑝 𝑥 4
𝑣 (𝑥 ) = + −
8𝐸𝐼 6𝐸𝐼 24𝐸𝐼
𝑝𝐿
𝑄 (𝑥 ) = −𝑝𝑥
2
The plot at the left shows the shear and bending solutions.
In this case, we were able to use statics to solve for one
unknown at the start, which simplified the problem.
Next we solve the equation for the slope, as before, by
inserting the expression for bending moment we get;
1 𝑥 𝑝𝐿𝑥 𝑝𝑥 2
𝜃(𝑥 ) = 𝜃𝑜 + ∫ − 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼 0 2 2
which becomes;
1 𝑝𝐿𝑥 2 𝑝𝑥 3
𝜃 (𝑥 ) = 𝜃𝑜 + ( − )
𝐸𝐼 4 6
1 −𝑝 𝐿3 𝑝𝐿𝑥 2 𝑝𝑥 3
𝜃 (𝑥 ) = ( + − )
𝐸𝐼 24𝐸𝐼 4 6
−𝑝 𝐿3 𝑥 𝑝𝐿𝑥 3 𝑝 𝑥 4
𝑣 (𝑥 ) = + −
24𝐸𝐼 12𝐸𝐼 24𝐸𝐼
𝑑𝑣 −τ −mQ(x)
= =
𝑑𝑥 G GIt
E E
𝐺= =
2(1 + ν) 2.6
So, we can write;
−2.6 m
𝑑𝑣𝑠 = 𝑄(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
EIt
and;
−2.6 m 𝑥
𝑣𝑠 (𝑥) = 𝑣𝑜 + ∫ 𝑄(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
EIt 0
The problem is one of a short cantilever beam with a load patch near the support,
The shear force and bending moments are found in the usual way:
Note that after finding the moment M(x), you find M(x) – Mo. This represents the
moment from the start, as if the starting moment is zero. Next the shear deflection
can be calculated but be sure you use consistent units. One way to do this is to
convert all values to N, m Pa etc.:
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The pattern of shear deflection is quite different from the normal bending deflection.
The curvature is different. The slopes are different. Is this right? One way to check
is to model the same problem in a finite element program and see. The FE program
will show the combination of bending and shear, so you should also calculate the
bending deflection for this case, combine it with the above solution and compare the
total with a finite element solution.
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Chapter 7: Problems
7.1. Consider a beam made of steel joined to aluminum. The steel is 10 x 10 mm, with 5 x 10
mm of Aluminum attached. Esteel = 200,000 MPa, EAl = 80,000 MPa. The beam is fixed as a
simple cantilever, with a length of 100mm and a vertical force at the free end of 2 kN.
convert the section to an equivalent section in steel and calculate the equivalent moment of
inertia.
What is the deflection of the end of the beam (derive from 1st principles).
What is the maximum bending stress in the Aluminum at the support?
7.3. Find and draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for the following beam. Find
the values at supports and other max/min values.
7.5. For elastic beam bending, complete Figure 1. The shear force diagram is sketched. You
need to infer from the shear what the load (including support reactions) may be, as well as an
estimate of the bending moment diagram, the slope diagram and the deflected shape. Draw the
support conditions and the applied load on the beam, and sketch the moment, slope and deflection
is the areas given.
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b) Assuming the beam is a 10cm x 10cm square steel bar, solve the problem to find the bending
stress at the fixed support. Use any method you like.
7.7. There is a length of steel that is 3.1416 m long, 50mm wide. It has a yield strength of 500
MPa (N/mm2), and a Young’s Modulus of 200 GPa. If the steel is thin enough it can be bent into
a perfect circle without yielding.
What is the maximum thickness 't' for the steel to be bent elastically (and not yield)?
If the steel thickness is 1mm, what is the stress when it is bent into a 1m Dia circle.
What would the shear force diagram look like?
(Hint :this relates directly to the derivation of the differential equations for beam bending)
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7.8. Sketch the shear, bending, slope and deflection patterns for the four cases shown below. No
numerical values are required.
7.9. Solve the shear deflections for the steel beam shown. Compare to the bending deflection.
7.10. § Sketch the shear, bending, slope and deflection patterns for the four cases shown below.
No numerical values are required.
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7.11. § For the four beams shown below. Sketch the shape of the shear force, bending moment,
slope and deflection diagrams. No numbers are required, but you should estimate the
shape as correctly as you can.
7.12. § For the two cases shown below, the bending moment diagrams are sketched. Show a
possible set of supports and loading. Sketch the shear, slope and deflection patterns. No
numerical values are required. (5 marks each problem) (answer in the answer book- not
on this sheet)
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7.13. § An L stand is sketched below. A vertical load of 1kN is applied to the tip. Using direct
integration solve the problem. Plot all responses (Q, M, , v) in terms of the path
coordinate ‘s’ (ie along the bar starting from the base – ie straighten the plots out), with
key values indicated.
How far does the tip move (vertically and laterally)?
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Introduction
In this section we will review the differential equation set derived in the last section and discuss
solutions using direct integration, Macaulay functions and the symbolic math program Maple.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Family of Differential Equations
Simple beam behavior considers only the deflections due to bending, and only in 2 dimensions.
Torsion, shear and other elastic distortions are neglected (for now).
Consider a beam between two supports. We describe the deflections with the variable v(x).
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𝑣 (𝑥 ) = 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛[𝑚]
𝑑𝑣(𝑥 )
𝜃 (𝑥 ) = = 𝑣 ′ (𝑥 ) = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 [𝑟𝑎𝑑 ]
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 2 𝑣 (𝑥 )
𝑀(𝑥 ) = 𝐸𝐼 = 𝐸𝐼 𝑣 ′′ (𝑥) = 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 [𝑁𝑚]
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑 3 𝑣 (𝑥 )
𝑄(𝑥 ) = 𝐸𝐼 = 𝐸𝐼 𝑣 ′′′ (𝑥 ) = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟[𝑁]
𝑑𝑥 3
𝑑 4 𝑣 (𝑥 ) 𝑁
𝑝(𝑥 ) = 𝐸𝐼 4
= 𝐸𝐼𝑣 ′′′′ (𝑥 ) = 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 [ ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑚
Seen in this way, the key behavior is deflection, with all other quantities being derived from it.
There is a similar set of equations, expressed in integral form, starting from load;
𝑁
𝑝(𝑥 ) = 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 [ ]
𝑚
𝑥
𝑄(𝑥 ) = 𝑄𝑜 + ∫ 𝑝(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 [𝑁]
0
𝑥
𝑀(𝑥 ) = 𝑀𝑜 + ∫ 𝑄(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 [𝑁𝑚]
0
x
1
θ = θ0 + ∫ M dx = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 [rad]
EI
0
𝑥
𝑣 (𝑥 ) = 𝑣𝑜 + ∫ 𝜃 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 [𝑚]
0
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The set of derivative equations show that if the deflected shape is known, all other quantities can
be determined. In such a case there is no need for any boundary conditions. (to do: think of a
situation where the deflected shape is fully known, while other quantities are not.) Boundary
conditions are physical conditions that define which quantities are zero (or some other known
value) at the ends of a beam. These are equivalent to defining the values for the various
derivatives of deflection.
Normally we would not know the deflected shape. Instead we would know the load and would
want to determine the deflected shape. In that case we would employ the integral equations. One
significant issue with the integral equations is that the 'constants of integration' must be found.
These are found from the boundary conditions. Almost all types of end conditions can be
represented as some derivative of deflection being zero. More specifically, two of the derivatives
will be zero at each end of the beam. This gives four known boundary conditions for any beam (2
ends!), and so the four integral equations can be solved.
In the previous chapter we solved two beams by progressively solving the integral equations.
Those cases were relatively simple, both because they were determinant systems, and they had
simple load patterns, and in one case was symmetric. Solving non-symmetric cases of
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indeterminate beams with discontinuous loads (patch loads) can involve a lot of algebra. We will
solve one such system in three different ways; 1) directly with the integral equations, 2) with
Macaulay functions and 3) with the help of the Maple program.
part 1:
𝑄1 (𝑥 ) = 20
part 2:
𝑄2 (𝑥 ) = 𝐶 − 5 𝑥
𝑄2 (2) = 𝐶 − 5 2 = 20 => 𝐶 = 30
𝑄2 (𝑥) = 30 − 5 𝑥
part 3:
𝑄3 (𝑥) = 0
𝑥
𝑀1 (𝑥 ) = 𝑀𝐴 + ∫ 20 𝑑𝑥
0
𝑀1 (𝑥 ) = 𝑀𝐴 + 20 𝑥
𝑀𝐵 = 𝑀𝐴 + 40
part 2:
𝑥
𝑀2 (𝑥 ) = 𝑀𝐵 + ∫ (30 − 5 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
2
5
𝑀2 (𝑥 ) = 𝑀𝐴 − 10 + 30𝑥 − 𝑥 2
2
𝑀𝐶 = 𝑀2 (6) = 𝑀𝐴 + 80
part 3:
𝑥
𝑀3 (𝑥 ) = 𝑀𝐶 + ∫ 0 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑀𝐴 + 80
6
−94 2 10 3 −296
𝑣𝐵 = 𝑣1 (2) = ( 𝑥 + 𝑥 ) 10−6 = 10−6
3 3 3
part 2:
𝑥
−296 20 218 5
𝑣2 (𝑥 ) = ( +∫ − 𝑥 + 15 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥) 10−6
3 2 3 3 6
−10 20 109 2 5
𝑣2 (𝑥 ) = ( + 𝑥− 𝑥 + 5 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 4 ) 10−6
3 3 3 24
−1384
𝑣𝐶 = 𝑣2 (6) = ( ) 10−6
3
part 3:
𝑥
−1384 520 52
𝑣3 (𝑥 ) = ( +∫ − + 𝑥 𝑑𝑥) 10−6
3 6 3 3
800 520 26 2
𝑣3 (𝑥 ) = ( − 𝑥+ 𝑥 ) 10−6
3 3 3
𝑣𝐷 = 𝑣3 (10) = (−600) 10−6
Summary of solution:
20 0≤𝑥<2
𝑄(𝑥 ) = { 30 − 5𝑥 2 ≤ 𝑥 < 6
0 6 ≤ 𝑥 < 10
−62.67 + 20𝑥 0≤𝑥<2
( ) 2
𝑀 𝑥 = { −72.67 + 30𝑥 − 2.5 𝑥 2 ≤ 𝑥 < 6
17.33 6 ≤ 𝑥 < 10
−62.67𝑥 + 10𝑥 2 0≤𝑥<2
( ) −6 2 3
𝜃 𝑥 = 10 { 6.67 − 72.67𝑥 + 15 𝑥 − .83 𝑥 2 ≤ 𝑥 < 6
17.33 𝑥 − 173.3 6 ≤ 𝑥 < 10
𝑣 (𝑥 ) =
−31.33𝑥 2 + 3.33𝑥 3 0≤𝑥<2
−6
10 { −3.33 + 6.67𝑥 − 36.33 𝑥 2 + 5 𝑥 3 − .208𝑥 4 2 ≤ 𝑥 < 6
266.7 − 173.3 𝑥 + 8.67 𝑥 2 6 ≤ 𝑥 < 10
Macaulay Functions
Macaulay functions (also called singularity functions) are simply a generalization of the idea of a
step function. These functions provide a convenient way of describing point forces, moments and
piece-wise continuous functions. And when a few special rules of integration are employed, it
becomes very easy to use Macaulay functions to solve beam problems.
The fundamental Macaulay functions are shown above. Each function in the sequence represents
the integral of the previous function (with the small exception noted later). Any of the functions
can be multiplied by a constant to change the magnitude.
The triangular brackets are just a way of saying that the function is meant to be seen as "one
sided". In simple terms:
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𝐹 (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎
𝐹 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 >𝑛 = {
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 𝑎
Two examples of how Macaulay functions can be combined to describe various piecewise curves
are shown below;
The integration of Macaulay functions is very similar to normal functions with an exception. If
the exponent is positive, then the normal rules of integration apply. If the exponent is negative,
then we just add one to the exponent. The rules are shown at the below.
So for example;
It likely makes sense to the reader that the integral of a point force is a step and the integral of a
step is a ramp. Does it make sense that the integral of a point moment is a force? To explore this
idea, consider the functions sketched at the left. In the first case we have function with a small
patch of load in one direction followed by a small patch of load in the opposite direction we have
no net force, but we do create a small point moment (in the limit). When we integrate this, we get
a small triangle, which when integrated again gives a step.
𝑑 4 𝑣 (𝑥 ) 𝑁
𝑝(𝑥 ) = 𝐸𝐼 4
= 𝐸𝐼𝑣 ′′′′ (𝑥) = 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 [ ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑚
Below is the full Maple input and result, showing the shape
of a deflected cantilever;
> restart;
The following aliases simplify the definition of loads.
> dist_load := (w,a,b) -> w*Heaviside(x-a)- w*Heaviside(x-b): # distributed force
Length, Stiffness, Load at "a", Load at end, Location of "a"
> L := 10: EI := 10^6:
> wa:=5:we:=5:a:=2: b:=6:
> loads := -dist_load(wa,a,b)-(x-a)/(b-a)*dist_load(we-wa,a,b);
> evalf(subs(x=0,m));evalf(subs(x=L,m));evalf(subs(x=L,yy));
The manual, Macaulay and Maple solutions are all the same, as expected.
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Chapter 8: Problems
8.1. Solve the following beam by direct integration. What is the maximum deflection (mm)?
What is the maximum stress (MPa) ?
8.2. Solve the following beam using Macaulay functions. What is the maximum deflection
(mm)? What is the maximum stress (MPa) ?
8.3. § Beam bending. Find the end reactions and maximum deflection in terms of w L and EI.
Use any means you wish.
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Sketch the shape of the shear force and bending moment diagrams.
Assume the load is centered and ¼ of the beam length. No numbers are required, but you should
estimate the shape as correctly as you can.
8.5. § For the cantilever beam sketched below, solve using direct integration to get
expressions for shear and moment as functions of x.
Plot these 2 results.
8.7. § A simply supported beam with a partial load is shown below. EI is 100 kN-m2
a) Write the equation for the load on Macaulay notation.
b) Find the deflection at the center and the slope at B (the right end).
8.8. § Draw the shear, moment , slope and deflection diagrams for this structure. There is a
hinge a 1m from the right end. The hinge can hold shear but releases any moment. Put
numerical values on shear and moment, but only show the shape of slope and deflection.
8.9. § Sketch the shear, bending, slope and deflection patterns for the two cases shown below.
No numerical values are required.
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Introduction
In this chapter we will review the idea of indeterminate beams and examine a way to solve them
by dividing the problem into parts. We have already looked at various ways to solve beam
equations regardless of whether they are determinate or not. The reason for studying this new
method is that it often gives a simpler and quicker way to solve problems, and so adds to you “skill
set”. This method is also useful to study prior to studying the stiffness method, which is a
precursor to the more general finite element method.
Example: The sketch below shows a bulkhead between the deck and inner bottom, supported by
one intermediate deck. The bulk cargo (liquid or granular) will exert a lateral pressure on the
bulkhead.
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We can model the bulkhead frame as a pinned frame over 3 supports, subject to a lateral load;
What does indeterminate mean? Determinate structures have a simple set of supports, such that the
support reactions can be found from considerations of rigid body equilibrium alone. This means
that there are just enough supports for equilibrium to exist. This is normally 3 for 2D structures
and normally 6 for 3D structures. The number of supports is also the number of equilibrium
conditions that need to be satisfied.
The sketch below illustrates the difference between determinate and indeterminate for a 2D beam.
Determinate Indeterminate
The first method is called the Force Method (also called the Flexibility Method). The idea for
the force method is;
step release internal forces* or external reactions until we have one or more determinate
systems
step solve each determinate system, to find all reactions and deflections. Note all
incompatible deflections
step re-solve the determinate structures with only a set of self-balancing internal unit forces*
(at internal releases) or unit reaction forces at removed reactions. This solves the
system for the internal or external forces removed in . Observe the magnitude of
incompatible deflections that occur per unit force.
step a scale the unit forces to cause the opposite of the incompatible deflections noted in
step Add solutions (everything: loads, reactions, deflections…) from and a. Note that
this will result in no incompatible deflections.
*note: forces include both forces and moments
The structure: a beam over multiple supports. This indeterminate structure has one too many
supports.
There are many ways to change the system into solvable determinate systems. Two options are;
Instead of removing a support, we will show how to remove an internal moment to illustrate the
force method. One of the nice aspects of the force method is that there are so many ways to apply
it, and you can choose one that is most appropriate to the problem, or easiest to solve.
Unfortunately, this flexibility is also a drawback. The many options actually make the method
difficult to use as the basis of a general-purpose structural analysis software.
Solution:
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step cut the structure at the middle support (releasing the moment at that point), which creates
two determinate systems (two simply supported beams).
step re-solve the cut structures with self-balancing internal unit forces*
step a scale these forces (moments) by “k” to cause the opposite of the incompatible
deflections noted in
step Add solutions (everything: loads, reactions, deflections…) from and a. Note
that this will result in no incompatible deflections.
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Problem:
1 - Find MA, RA, RB in terms of w, EI, L
2 – Find maximum displacement
Solution:
Part 1 – solve with MA released (denoted ’ ). The reason we do this
is because the structure is statically determinate.
𝑤𝑥
𝑤 (𝑥 ) =
𝐿
Reactions are found from static equilibrium:
1 𝑤𝐿 𝑤𝐿
𝑅𝐴′ = =
3 2 6
2 𝑤𝐿 𝑤𝐿
𝑅𝐵′ = =
3 2 3
1 𝐿 ′
′(
𝜙 𝑥) = 𝜙𝐴′
+ ∫ 𝑀 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼 0
1 𝑤𝐿𝑥 2 𝑤𝑥 4
= 𝜙𝐴′ + ( − )
𝐸𝐼 12 24𝐿
This leaves us with one left unknown to find, 𝜙𝐴′ which is the slope at
A . We use the boundary condition:
′( ) ′
1 𝑤𝐿4 𝑤𝐿4
𝑦 𝐿 = 0 = 𝜙𝐴 𝐿 + ( − )
𝐸𝐼 36 120
which is solved to give;
7 𝑤𝐿3
𝜙𝐴′ = −
360 𝐸𝐼
Substituting back gives;
Slope:
′(
1 −7𝑤𝐿3 𝑤𝐿𝑥 2 𝑤𝑥 4
𝜙 𝑥) = ( + − )
𝐸𝐼 360 12 24𝐿
Deflection:
′(
1 −7𝑤𝐿3 𝑥 𝑤𝐿𝑥 3 𝑤𝑥 5
𝑦 𝑥) = ( + − )
𝐸𝐼 360 36 120𝐿
The gives us the first half of the solution. Now we need to ‘correct’ the solution, by removing the
rotation at A (in Part 2). This is done by applying a moment at A, of just sufficient magnitude to
cause −𝜙𝐴′ . This moment will be the true reaction moment at A. All other responses in Part 2 are
added to the Part 1 responses (deflections, shear, moments, etc). Responses can be added because
the systems are linear (superposition holds).
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Part 2 – solve with just 𝑀𝐴∗ (the * denotes the corrective solution ). 𝑀𝐴∗ will cause a rotation
opposite to 𝜙𝐴′ , which when added to the results of Part 1 will create a ‘fixed’ condition (no
rotation) at A. Initially 𝑀𝐴∗ is unknown.
1 𝐿 ∗
∗(
𝜙 𝑥) = 𝜙𝐴∗
+ ∫ 𝑀 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼 0
𝑀𝐴∗ 𝑥2
= 𝜙𝐴∗ + (𝑥 − )
𝐸𝐼 2𝐿
7 𝑤𝐿4 𝑀𝐴∗ 𝐿2
0= +
360 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 3
−7
𝑀𝐴∗ = 𝑤𝐿2
120
Reactions:
−𝑀𝐴∗ 7
𝑅𝐴∗ = = 𝑤𝐿 (𝑝𝑢𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑠 𝑢𝑝)
𝐿∗ 120
𝑀𝐴 −7
𝑅𝐵∗ = = 𝑤𝐿 (𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑠 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 )
𝐿 120
Shear:
7
𝑄 ∗ (𝑥 ) = 𝑤𝐿
120
Moment:
7
𝑀 ∗ (𝑥 ) = 𝑤𝐿(𝑥 − 𝐿)
120
Slope:
1 7 −7 7
𝜙 ∗ (𝑥 ) = ( 𝑤𝐿3 + 𝑤𝐿2 𝑥 + 𝑤𝐿𝑥 2 )
𝐸𝐼 360 120 240
Deflection:
1 7 7 7
𝑦 ∗ (𝑥 ) = ( 𝑤𝐿3 𝑥 − 𝑤𝐿2 𝑥 2 + 𝑤𝐿𝑥 3 )
𝐸𝐼 360 240 720
Now we sum the two parts together for the complete solution:
1 7 27
𝑅𝐴 = 𝑤𝐿 + 𝑤𝐿 = 𝑤𝐿
6 120 120
1 7 33
𝑅𝐵 = 𝑤𝐿 − 𝑤𝐿 = 𝑤𝐿
3 120 120
−7
𝑀𝐴 = 𝑀𝐴∗ = 𝑤𝐿2
120
1
𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑘 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 = 𝑤𝐿 𝑂𝐾
2
𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑘 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐴
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𝑤𝐿 2
𝑅𝐵 𝐿 − 𝐿 = 𝑀𝐴
2 3
33 40 7
𝑤𝐿2 − 𝑤𝐿2 = − 𝑤𝐿2 𝑂𝐾
120 120 120
This is the answer to the first question. The maximum deflection is found where the slope is zero.
The full expression for the slope is:
𝜙 (𝑥 ) = 𝜙 ′ (𝑥 ) + 𝜙 ∗ (𝑥 )
′(
1 27 2
7 2
𝑤𝑥 4
𝜙 𝑥) = ( 𝑤𝐿𝑥 − 𝑤𝐿 𝑥 − )
𝐸𝐼 240 120 24𝐿
We can create a new normalized variable 𝑧, which ranges between 0 and 1. This gives us slope in a
simpler form:
𝑤𝐿3
𝜙 ′ (𝑥 ) = (27𝑧 2 − 14𝑧 − 10𝑧 4 )
240 𝐸𝐼
where
𝑥
𝑧=
𝐿
To find the location of zero slope we set the term inside the brackets above to zero, which
can be simplified to:
27𝑧 − 14 − 10𝑧 3 = 0
The solution of this equation will be the location of maximum deflection. One way to solve this
(which can be done without derivatives or computers) is to solve the equation for z iteratively. This
can be done on any hand-held calculator. We pick one of the z terms (the first term here), and
express z as a function of z:
14 + 10 𝑧 3 0.62
𝑧= 0.6
27
0.58
0.56
This iterative equation might be expressed as:
0.54
0.52
14 + 10 𝑧𝑖3
𝑧𝑖+1 = 0.5
27 0.48
0.48 0.5 0.52 0.54 0.56 0.58 0.6 0.62
Recall, z ranges from 0 to 1. So any value between 0 and 1 is a possible starting value. We can
guess that the maximum deflection will be at z >.5, so we could start with a guess of 0.6. It doesn't
really matter, except that the better the initial guess, the quicker the solution will converge.
Starting with z =0.6, we iterate to z = 0.5975 in 7 iterations.
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𝑦 ( 𝑥 ) = 𝑦 ′ (𝑥 ) + 𝑦 ∗ (𝑥 )
𝑤 𝐿4 27 3 7 2
𝑧5
= ( 𝑧 − 𝑧 − )
𝐸𝐼 720 240 120
𝑤 𝐿4 27 7 0.59755
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ( 0.59753 − 0.59752 − )
𝐸𝐼 720 240 120
𝑤 𝐿4
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = −.00305
𝐸𝐼
This answer can be checked in Roark, which gives the same answer. This completes the problem.
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Chapter 9: Problems
9.1. Solve the below by removing the reaction RB (as shown). This creates ‘cut’ problem that
is a cantilever beam.
a) Sketch 3 alternative approaches to solving this indeterminate problem using the force method.
For each approach, you will need two sketches of the auxiliary systems.
b) Using one of the approaches sketched in a) , solve the system to find the reaction at B (in kN)
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9.3. § Use the Force Method and the solutions in the Appendix 5 to solve for the reaction at B
in the problem below.
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Enniscorthy
Introduction
In this chapter we will introduce the stiffness method (also called the displacement
method) to solve structural problems and introduce the standard stiffness
components for a beam in 2D and 3D. This is qualitatively similar to the Force
method, but with a key difference. In the Force method we removed an internal force
(or moment) and then put it back. In this case we remove a “displacement” and then
put it back. This concept can be odd at first, but you will realize that applying a
movement to a structure is comparable to applying a force to a structure. In one case
you push a certain amount and the structure moves some amount. In the other case
you force the structure to move a certain amount and the force becomes whatever it
needs to be to allow that movement. In both cases there is a force and a movement.
The only difference is which one you specify.
And along the way we will define “stiffness terms” which are essential in both matrix structural
analysis and the finite element method.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Indeterminate Problem
We start by considering the indeterminate beam as shown below. This could be described as a
fixed-pinned beam or a cantilever with a pinned end.
Find MA RA and RB
To solve this problem with the displacement (stiffness) method we create two sub-problems, each
simpler than the whole problem. Rather than removing a support (removing a force or moment),
we remove a movement (i.e we completely fix the structure). This becomes the problem marked *
below. To the * problem, we add a second problem, the ** problem, that fixes any errors that we
created with the * problem. In this case we have a moment MB* that should not exist, while we
have a B* that should not be zero. So, in the ** problem, we impose B**, (and only a B**)
sufficiently large to cause a moment MB** that is equal and opposite to MB*.
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The terms used to find MB**, MA**, RB** and RA** are called stiffness terms because the are an
‘action per unit movement’, such as a force per unit displacement or moment per unit rotation.
They can also be a kind of ‘cross stiffness’ such as a force per unit rotation or a moment per unit
displacement. In the case of the example above, with the equations;
Stiffness Terms
When using the stiffness method, we always need to find a set of forces and moments that occur
when we impose a movement at a support. The movement will correct a situation that involved the
suppression of a movement at a support. In our case here, the structure is a beam, and the supports
are at the ends of the beam. The supports prevent the ends of the beam from moving. There are 3
possible movements at a support for a 2D problem, and 6 for a 3D problem. Because of this we
will define a standard set of ‘degrees of freedom’ for a beam. A ‘degree of freedom’ can have
either a force or displacement, or a rotation or moment. The standard 2D degrees of freedom for a
beam are shown below;
The degrees of freedom follow the Cartesian system, with the right-hand rule. These are essentially
x, y, rotation (called rz). In general, to impose a unit movement in one (and only one) of these
degrees of freedom, we need to also impose a set of forces/moments, The forces/moments must be
in equilibrium. These forces/moments will be ‘stiffnesses’.
The mechanics are linear. This means that the set of forces/moments corresponding to each
movement can be added to those of any other movement. A general solution for any set of
movements of the degrees of freedom can be found by superposition.
For now we will just consider the 2D case and derive the stiffness terms. There are 6 degrees of
freedom. For each degree of freedom, there are potentially 6 forces or moments that develop. This
means that there are a total of 36 stiffness terms. Any single term would be labeled kij, meaning the
force/moment at i due to a displacement/rotation at j. For example;
k 11 k 12 k 13 k 14 k 15 k 16
k k 22 k 23 k 24 k 25 k 26
21
k k 32 k 33 k 34 k 35 k 36
K = 31
k 41 k 42 k 43 k 44 k 45 k 46
k 51 k 52 k 53 k 54 k 55 k 56
k 61 k 62 k 63 k 64 k 65 k 66
We will now derive these 36 terms. Luckily, they are not all unique.
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Axial Terms
The axial terms are found by asking what set of forces is required to create a unit displacement at
d.o.f. #1 (and only #1);
F1L F AE
1 = = 1 1 = k11 =
AE 1 L
F4 − AE
F 4 = −F1 = k 41 =
1 L
F2
= k 21 = 0 and k 31 = k 51 = k 61 = 0
1
A displacement at 4 would require a similar set of forces, so that we can also write;
AE − AE
k 44 = , k 14 = , k 24 = k 34 = k 54 = k 64 = 0
L L
This has given us 12 terms, 1/3 of all the terms we need. Next we will find the terms for the #2 and
#5 direction.
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Shear Terms
The shear terms are found from the set of forces is required to create a unit displacement at d.o.f.
#2 (and only #2);
F2 L3 F 12 EI
2 = = 1 2 = k 22 =
12 EI 2 L3
Note: to derive this easily, think of the beam as two cantilevers, each L/2 long, with a point load at
the end, equal to F2.
F5 − 12 EI
F 5 = −F 2 = k 52 =
2 L3
Following from the double cantilever notion, the end moments (M3, M6) are ;
L 6 EI
M 3 = M 6 = F2 k 32 = k 62 =
2 L2
There are no axial forces, so;
k 12 = k 42 = 0
Rotary Terms
The rotary terms are found from the set of forces/moments required to create a unit rotation at
d.o.f. #3 (and only #3);
For illustration and to find these stiffness terms we will solve the system. We can draw the shear
force, moment, slope and deflection diagrams as below;
Q( x) = F2
M ( x) = −M 3 + F2 x
1 2
( x) = 3 + − M 3 x + F2 x
EI 2
1 x2 x3
( x) = 2 + 3 x + − M3 + F2
EI 2 6
We can use the boundary conditions (3=1, 2=0, (L)=0, (L)=0) to find M3 and F2.
1 2
( L) = 0 = 1 + − M 3 L + F2 L
EI 2
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1 L2 L3
( L) = 0 = 0 + L + − M + F
EI 6
3 2
2
4 EI 6 EI
M3 = , F2 =
L L2
from these we can find;
2 EI − 6 EI
M6 = , F5 =
L L2
AE − AE
L 0 0 0 0
L
12 EI 6 EI − 12 EI 6 EI
0 0
L3 L2 L3 L2
6 EI 4 EI − 6 EI 2 EI
0 L2 L
0
L2 L
K =
− AE 0 0
AE
0 0
L L
− 12 EI − 6 EI 12 EI − 6 EI
0 L3 L2
0
L3 L2
6 EI 2 EI − 6 EI 4 EI
0 0
L2 L L2 L
Note that the matrix is symmetrical. This means that terms such as k 35 (moment at
#3 due to displacement at #5) is equal to k 35 (force at #5 due to rotation at #3). It may
seem quite odd that these two items would be equal. A discussion and simple proof of
why stiffnesses are symmetrical is found in the Appendix in a discussion of Energy
Methods (pg 7 of Appendix 7).
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We have been discussing 2D beams. The standard 3D degrees of freedom for a beam are shown
below;
The K matrix for a 3D beam is a 12x12 (144 terms), with terms similar to the 2D beam above, with
torsional terms, in addition to the axial, shear and rotary terms.
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10.1. Solve the pinned-pinned beam by using the displacement method as sketched below. The
solution for the fixed-fixed beam is the same as above. Then it is necessary to show that
MB*+MB**+MB***=0 and MA*+MA**+MA***=0. Note: MA** = ½ MB**, and MB*** =
½ MA***.
10.2. Describe how you would solve the beam shown below by using the displacement method.
10.3. For the simple beam shown below, derive the shear stiffness terms (i.e k 15 to k65)
10.4. Solve the beam shown below using the stiffness method. Find the reactions at A and B,
and the deflection at B.
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10.6. Explain the difference between the “Force” method, and the “Displacement” method.
10.7. In the stiffness method for a 2D beam, the standard value for the k22 stiffness term is;
𝑬𝑰
𝒌𝟐𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐 𝟑
𝑳
The Louvre
Introduction
In this Chapter we will discuss how to use tabulated solutions for beams to construct solutions for
other cases.
In previous sections we have made use of superposition to help solve problems. In this section we
will discuss how to make use of any known solutions to build a solution to another problem. In
general, because superposition holds, the effect of any one force is independent of other forces.
The response to each force (deflections, stresses etc) can be determined individually and added to
the responses to other forces. The total response is just the sum of the individual responses.
The most common types of problems that can be solved with superposition are those where only
the loads are different.
Example No. 1: Find the value of the deflection at B for this 2m cantilever beam with a 1kN load
at B and a 2kN load at the center.
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The first part of the solution is found on the first page of appendix 4, using the problem labeled
“cantilever end-force”. The deflection at B caused by the 1kN force at B is;
The deflection at B caused by a load at C can be found in two steps, by adding the deflection at C
caused by load at C and the slope at C time the length from C to B:
(Note: You can check this result against the formula in the tables). Now the total deflection is
found by adding the two deflections;
In the second type of problem, we can solve the problem by breaking the problem into simpler
parts and look up those solutions.
Example No. 2: Find the value of the deflection at C for this 3m beam with 2 simple supports.
The problem can be seen as a cantilever attached to a simply supported beam. The beam is thus
subjected to a moment at its end. The support end of the cantilever rotates. The deflection at C is
the combination of two effects – the deflection of the cantilever due to bending plus the deflection
of the cantilever due to base rotation.
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11.1 Find the moment at A using tabulated solutions #14 and #11.
11.3 Describe the best way to solve this problem. Are the tables useful?
Venice
Introduction
In this chapter we will describe the moment distribution method for solving indeterminate beams.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Overview
The moment distribution method is a type of displacement
(stiffness) method because it makes use of the stiffness terms we
derived earlier. It is particularly useful for solving problems
involving beams over multiple supports, and frames with moment
connections. It is a ‘relaxation’ method, referring to the iterative
way that errors are ‘relaxed’. The method can be solved manually
on paper with a simple calculator and was once the dominant
method used in professional practice. These days it can easily be
solved with a spreadsheet but is seldom used professionally. It’s
current value is in helping students develop an understanding of
structural behavior. The moment distribution method is all about the
way neighboring elements interact.
Hardy Cross (Wikipedia) The method was developed by Prof. Hardy Cross in the 1920s and
30s. Cross studied at MIT and Harvard, taught at Brown, Illinois
and Yale and consulted extensively.
Description of Method
𝑀𝑖 = 𝑘33𝑖 𝜃𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
Sketch the structure, show the loads and number the joints.
In the case of two or more members connected at a joint,
there is one 'end' for each beam. Any correcting moment
applied to the joint is divided among the ends according to
the moment distribution factor.
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(𝐸𝐼 ⁄𝐿)𝑖
𝛼𝑖 =
∑𝑎𝑙𝑙 (𝐸𝐼 ⁄𝐿)
In this step, we find the fixed end moments for each beam
end. In the example at left, we have 3 beams connected in a
frame. The top two have loads and so have fixed-end
moments. The vertical beam (the column) is unloaded so its
FEM are zero.
Steps 10: Solve for the other reactions and beam responses.
Example 2: Here is a simple case that solves fully in 1 iteration. This will happen when there is
only one joint that needs to rotate to bring the problem into equilibrium.
Example 3: Here is a case that shows a frame with two columns. This is a relatively complex
case, though without sway.
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with the end moments solved, the full set of horizontal and vertical reactions can be found using
force and moment equilibrium.
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With the reactions found, the shear force and bending moment diagrams can be sketched as
follows:
The bending moments above are drawn on the compression side of the beam. Deflections can be
found by double integration of the moment diagram.
12.3. Moment distribution method. For the case shown on the attached page (Figure 1), fill in
the first two cycles of the MD calculations.
12.4. For the statically indeterminate beam shown below, with the loads, properties and end
conditions as given,
a) Solve using the moment distribution method.
b) What is the vertical reaction at the middle support
12.5. For a load applied as shown, solve the problem using the moment distribution method.
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12.7. Solve the frame using the MDM method (suggest you use a spreadsheet).
12.8. Solve the frame using the MDM method (suggest you use a spreadsheet).
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12.9. For the case shown below, set up and fill in the first two cycles of the Moment
Distribution calculations.
12.11. § Set up this moment distribution problem, and just solve the first cycle.
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12.13. § Solve the problem shown below using the moment distribution method.
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a Quadrant
The solution of a sway problem is illustrated in the six steps below. In the first step, the problem
is separated in two parts, one with an imposed unit sway (call this the * problem). The second part
has sway prevented, but includes the applied load F. The imposed motion causes initial fixed end
moments, which relax as the solution progresses, just as happens with applied forces. The force
required to impose the unit sway can be found (F*2x in step 3), just like the other reactions. In the
second problem (the f problem) the sway is prevented, and the problem solved.
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To get the total solution we need to scale the * problem by (we call this the ** problem) and
add it to the f problem.
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is chosen so that the conditions at the "false" sway support are corrected.
If there is no direct force at the false support, (as in this example), we want:
F*2x + Ff2x =0
If there would be a direct force (eg F2x) at the false support, we would want:
F*2x + Ff2x = F2x
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6 𝐸𝐼 Δ 6 ∙ 100 ∙ 1
𝑀= 2
= = 3.84 𝑘𝑁𝑚
𝐿 12.52
This is the solution of Problem #2, scaled to counteract the pin force from problem #1 (call this
#2a):
This is the sum of Problem #1 + #2a, which is the frame with roller solution. The values are
moments at the locations indicated.
1 2 3 4 5
A B C D E F G H
MDM 0.0 183.89 -294.13 110.24 127.84 -127.84 82.27 5.59
BEAM3D 0.0 183.8 -294.4 110.6 127.3 -127.3 83.9 6.47
To confirm these values independently, the same problem could be solved in Ansys. Plots of the
shear force, bending moments and deflections are shown below;
1 2 3
X 4
13.1. Solve the frame using the MDM method (suggest you use a spreadsheet).
Introduction
In this chapter we will discuss a very general method to analyze structures, to give bending
moments and axial forces in general frame structures.
𝐹𝑖
𝑘𝑖𝑗 = ⁄𝛿
𝑗
But is it even possible to apply a movement at "j" and only
"j" ? Remember that 𝐹𝑖 includes reactions as well as
applied forces (there is no difference as far as the structure
is concerned!)
There is a general way to find the global stiffnesses for a rotated bar. The rotation matrix can be
used to find the stiffness terms for a rotated beam. In a rotated beam dof 1 is partly axial and
partly shear, as is dof 2. But as superposition holds, any movement along dof 1 can be expresses
as some axial and some shear, and the resulting axial and shear forces can be resolved back into
the 1 and 2 directions, which stay in the global orientation.
The matrix below and the matrix operation expresses the mix of effects in a concise way.
(suggestion: derive the rotation matrix using vector algebra).
In the case of a 90 degree rotation, the rotation matrix has the effect of doing row-column swaps.
For other angles the effect is more complicated.
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Returning to the example problem, Beam 2 has a local [k] that is similar to beam 1 except that
area is 2A and modulus is 4I. The global [k] looks similar to the local [k], except that the
numbering is shifted.
Beam 3 has a local [k] that is the same as beam 1. The global [ k] also looks similar to the global
[k], of beam 1 because a rotation of +90 produces a similar effect to -90. The only change is that
the numbering is shifted.
The structural stiffness matrix is just the sum of the global versions of the member stiffness
matrices. Where two terms share a dof, the two values are added. This is again reflecting the
simple idea of superposition in linear systems that Hooke first saw.
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Stiffness matrices are symmetrical. This is a curious property, especially when you think about
the off-diagonal terms. Some of the terms refer to forces per unit rotation and others are moments
per unit translation. (see Appendix 7)
With the whole stiffness matrix assembled, we have a single equation that relates all actions
(forces and moments) with all movements (translation and rotations):
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To solve the system of twelve by twelve equations we need to identify the twelve unknowns. It is
(almost) never the case that we would know twelve deflections and want to know twelve forces.
Nor would we know twelve forces and look for the deflections. Typically, we know some forces
(mostly zero) and some deflections (zero at supports):
We should have some combination of unknown loads and deflections that adds up to twelve. If
we don't, we can't solve the system.
Note that the structure does not know what is an applied force and what is a reaction. All the
structure knows is whether it is in equilibrium.
There are various numerical strategies used in linear algebra that are used to solve such systems.
Gaussian elimination is one common method. We can assume that if we have N equations in N
unknowns that we can solve it.
To solve these in Maple (see 3bar_frame.pdf or 3bar_frame.mw), we would just expand the
matrix expression into a set of 12 simultaneous equations;
Maple will solve these equations in either numerical or algebraic form, giving expressions for all
results in terms of the variable. For example, for this problem, Maple will give;
Q1: With the above solution for force and deflections at the nodes (the dofs), how would we
find the stresses in each member?
A1: To find the stresses we have to return to the individual beams. We use the global stiffness
matrix of a single member. For example, for the cross beam in the previous example (beam 2), we
find the member forces as follows;
The forces are not the same as found above. They are only the forces that act on the individual
member.
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Note that there is no axial force (would be F4, F7) in Beam 2. This is because the roller at bottom
of beam 3 releases all horizontal force. The applied load of 10 must all be transmitted to ground
through Beam1. With these forces and moments we can find the shear force and bending moment
diagrams, along with the axial, shear and bending stresses:
Because there was no load along the member, the maximum stresses in the above case occurred at
the ends of the beam.
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A2: Loads that are act between dofs are dealt with in three steps. In step 1, the fixed end forces
and stresses that the loads cause are found. In step 2, the fixed end actions are placed on a full
structural model and solved. All responses, including deflection, stresses, strains, for the full
structure (including the beam where the loads acted) can be found for the whole structure.
The complete solution comes from adding the two solutions (step1 + step2):
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14.1 Frame Structures can be analyzed by "Matrix Structural Analysis" or by solution of sets
of continuous differential equations. Compare and contrast these two approaches.
14.2 The stiffness matrix for a 2D beam is said to have axial, shear and rotary terms. Give
examples of each of the 3 types of stiffness (i.e. 3 examples of the individual kij terms), with a
sketch of the terms.
14.3 Explain the difference between the terms “local stiffness matrix” and "global stiffness
matrix".
14.4 Describe what is meant by the “rotary stiffness terms” in the stiffness matrix of a beam.
Explain which terms in the matrix are rotary terms and how they are derived.
14.5 1For the 4-bar frame shown below, the 2D solution is found by solving 12 equations in
matrix form shown beneath. For the case of the loads and boundary conditions as shown, fill
in the 14 columns (there is 1 column for forces, 1 for displacements and 12 in the stiffness
matrix), with any known values. In the force and displacement vectors, write in a zero (0) for
known zero values and the letter X or variable name for other unknown values. In the stiffness
matrix write a 0 for the zero terms and the letter K for a non-zero stiffness terms. You only
need to fill in the upper half of the stiffness matrix. You don’t need any equations or numbers
(other than 0).
14.7 Assuming that you are using a program that performs matrix structural analysis, explain
concisely how the global stiffness terms for the joint circled in the sketch below are
determined. You don’t have to solve this frame.
14.8 § Consider how this frame would be solved using matrix structural analysis. Give the
equations for k4,4 and k10,10 terms from the global stiffness matrix. The global degree of
freedom numbering is given.
14.9 Describe how you would construct the stiffness matrix for this problem. Of all the load
and deflections, which are known?
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14.10 Construct the stiffness matrix for this problem. Of all the load and deflections, which are
known?
14.11 § A single beam is shown in its global position. The global degrees of freedom are
indicated.
What is k47,47 (one of the member stiffness terms in global coordinates) ?
If you can’t derive it, explain how you would.
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Introduction
In this chapter we will introduce the 2D finite element called the constant stress triangle (cst) and
show how to derive the element stiffness and all output values from energy considerations
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Finite element method
Recall that for a beam, we can relate the end loads by a stiffness equation in matrix form;
F = K x
We can find the K terms for a beam by solving the beam bending equation for various end
movements. To find the displacement of some point along the beam (at x ) we could solve the
system for the displaced shape. We would find that the displacements would be;
For this beam element, we made use of what is called ‘beam theory’, to solve for the loads and
deflections under certain loading conditions. (We ignored shear deformations and other minor
elastic behaviours.)
However, in the case of most finite elements, such as 2D planar elements, plate elements, and
solid elements, we will not start from some general analytical solution of a loaded membrane,
plate or solid. These solutions are too complex and will not give practical results. Instead, we
assume some very simple behaviors, highly idealized, but which satisfy the basic requirements for
equilibrium (i.e. forces balance, energy is conserved). With this approach, the single element does
not really model the behavior or a comparable real solid object of the same shape. This is ok,
because the aggregate behavior of a set of these simple elements will model the behavior quite
well. This is something like modeling a smooth curve as a series of straight lines (even horizontal
steps). This is locally wrong, but overall quite accurate.
To illustrate the way that finite elements are formulated, we will derive the full description of an
element called the constant stress triangle (cst). This is a standard 2D element that is available in
most finite element models.
Consider a 2D element which is only able to take in-plane stress. The three corners of the triangle
can only move in the plane.
We want to determine the element stiffness matrix Ke, and we want it to be valid for any triangle;
So, while we have six degrees of freedom, as we did in the beam case, we don't have any handy
analytical solutions. To create a general solution that will apply to all triangles we will make some
very simple assumptions which will allow us to model 2D stress problems (such as a web in
shear, or stresses in plane around a cutout in a web. .
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Consider the movement of a general triangle. Each corner moves differently, and every point
inside moves.
The movement in x is defined as u and the movement is y is defined a v. Both u and v are
functions of x and y ;
∆𝑥 = 𝑢
∆𝑦 = 𝑣
𝑢 = 𝑓𝑢 (𝑥, 𝑦)
𝑣 = 𝑓𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦)
Assuming that the material in the triangle is isotropic (no preferred direction), then we would
expect the two displacement functions 𝑓𝑢 (𝑥, 𝑦) and 𝑓𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦) to look similar.
The functions for u and v can only depend on the 6 nodal displacements (that all the info that we
have to define movement), so we can have no more than 6 unknown coefficients for both
functions.
A trial function;
a) lets try: 𝑢 = 𝑐1 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑦 + 𝑐3 (𝑥 + 𝑦)
is this ok? No! Why? Because it means that at (0,0) (the origin) there is no movement. It would
be as if all elements are pinned to the origin.
𝑣 = 𝑐4 + 𝑐5 𝑥 + 𝑐6 𝑦
Occam's razor, in Latin: "lex parsimoniae " (the law of simple), is a principle that says: from
among alternative explanations, the one that works, but makes the fewest new assumptions is
usually correct. The concept is central to rational thought. William Occam was a 14th century
English Friar and writer.
This provides a very simple but viable general description of the displacement field. We can re-
write the displacement function in matrix form;
𝑐1
𝑐2
𝑢 1 𝑥 𝑦 0 0 0 𝑐3
𝛿 (𝑥, 𝑦) = { } = [ ] 𝑐
𝑣 0 0 0 1 𝑥 𝑦 4
𝑐5
{ 𝑐6 }
𝛿 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑯 𝑪
1 𝑥2 𝑦2 0 0 0
𝛿2 = 𝛿 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) = [ ]𝑪
0 0 0 1 𝑥2 𝑦2
1 𝑥3 𝑦3 0 0 0
𝛿3 = 𝛿 (𝑥3 , 𝑦3 ) = [ ]𝑪
0 0 0 1 𝑥3 𝑦3
or
𝜹= 𝑨𝑪
A is called the connectivity matrix. It contains the geometric information, the coordinates of the
nodes of the triangle. The terms in the C vector can be found;
𝑪 = 𝑨−𝟏 𝜹
𝑥2 𝑦3 − 𝑥3 𝑦2 0
1 𝑦2 − 𝑦3
𝑨−𝟏 =
2 𝐴123
…
[ ]
1 𝑥1 𝑦1
2 𝐴123 = 𝑑𝑒𝑡 [1 𝑥2 𝑦2 ]
1 𝑥3 𝑦3
where:
1 𝑥1 𝑦1
2 𝐴123 = 𝑑𝑒𝑡 [1 𝑥2 𝑦2 ] = 𝑥 2 𝑦3 − 𝑦2 𝑥3 + 𝑥3 𝑦1 − 𝑥1 𝑦3 + 𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑥2 𝑦1
1 𝑥3 𝑦3
where 𝛿(𝑥, 𝑦) is the displacement of any point in the triangle, 𝑨−𝟏 contains information on the
geometry of the triangle and 𝜹 contains the displacements of the corner nodes of the triangle. This
lets us find the displacement anywhere by just tracking the displacements of the nodes.
Remember that the finite element method lets us model a continuum by modeling a discrete
system of connected nodes.
We need to find the stress and strain in the element so that we can determine the stiffness of the
element.
The (2D) strains at any point in the element have 3 components;
𝜀𝑥
𝜀 (𝑥, 𝑦) = { 𝜀𝑦 }
𝛾𝑥𝑦
E6002 – Ship Structures I 173
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where the strains are found from the partial derivatives of the displacement field:
𝜕𝑢
𝜀𝑥 =
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑣
𝜀𝑦 =
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝛾𝑥𝑦 = +
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
recall that;
𝑢 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑥 + 𝑐3 𝑦
𝑣 = 𝑐4 + 𝑐5 𝑥 + 𝑐6 𝑦
so that we have;
𝜕𝑢
𝜀𝑥 = = 𝑐2
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑣
𝜀𝑦 = = 𝑐6
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝛾𝑥𝑦 = + = 𝑐3 + 𝑐5
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜺 = 𝑮 𝑨−𝟏 𝜹
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© C.G.Daley 2011-19
This is the strain fully described in terms of nodal coordinates and nodal displacements. We can
collect terms;
𝑩 = 𝑮 𝑨−𝟏
G is a 3x6 matrix. A-1 is a 6x6, so B is a 3x6 matrix that relates the 3 strains to the 6 nodal
displacements.
𝜀𝑥 𝜎𝑥
1 1 −𝜈 0
𝜀
{ 𝑦 } = [−𝜈 1 0 ] { 𝜎𝑦 }
𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝐸 0 0 2(1 + 𝜈) 𝜏𝑥𝑦
or in terms of stress;
𝜎𝑥 1 𝜈 0 𝜀𝑥
𝐸 𝜈 1 0
{ 𝜎𝑦 } = [ ] 𝜀𝑦
𝜏𝑥𝑦 1−𝜈 2 1 − 𝜈 2 {𝛾 }
0 0 𝑥𝑦
2
In simpler form we write the stresses as;
𝝈=𝑫𝜺
where D is called the elasticity matrix. Now we can use 𝜺 = 𝑩 𝜹 to let us write;
𝝈=𝑫𝑩𝜹
or
𝝈= 𝑺𝜹
Idea: To obtain the element stiffness we will use the principle of virtual work. The principle of
virtual work states that for a body in equilibrium, the virtual work done by real forces fi acting
through any viable pattern of virtual displacements * will be zero. In our case we wish to equate
the ‘external’ work done by the real nodal forces with the ‘internal’ work done to distort the
element.
The external work done for a set of 6 virtual displacements will be;
𝑾𝒆𝒙𝒕 = 𝜹∗𝑻 𝒇
or
f1
f2
f
𝑾𝒆𝒙𝒕 = [𝛿1∗ 𝛿2∗ 𝛿3∗ 𝛿4∗ 𝛿5∗ 𝛿6∗ ] 3
f4
f5
{f6 }
Note that, for example, f3 only does work when 3* moves. And the work is the full amount of, f3
3*, as f3 is fully active during the whole of 3* . Remember that f3 does not cause 3*. We just
imagine that 3* occurs even as the nodal forces stay acting.
The internal work done is equal to the integral of the stress times the strain over the volume;
𝑾𝒊𝒏𝒕 = ∫ 𝜀 𝜎 𝑑𝑣𝑜𝑙
𝑉𝑜𝑙
which in the case of the virtual work done one element becomes;
E6002 – Ship Structures I 176
© C.G.Daley 2011-19
which when making use of the strain coefficient matrix and the elasticity matrix can be written as;
𝑾𝒊𝒏𝒕 = ∫ [𝑩 𝜹∗ ]𝑇 𝐃 𝐁 𝛅 𝑑𝑣𝑜𝑙
𝑉𝑜𝑙
In this equation 𝜹∗ refers to virtual displacements, while 𝜹 refers to real (existing) displacements.
So if we say;
𝐖𝐞𝐱𝐭 = 𝑾𝒊𝒏𝒕
we can obtain;
𝒇 = (𝑩𝑻 𝐃 𝐁 ∫ 𝑑𝑣𝑜𝑙 ) 𝛅
𝑉𝑜𝑙
and;
𝒇 = (𝑩𝑻 𝐃 𝐁(𝐴123 𝑡)) 𝛅
where t is the element thickness and 𝐴123 is the element area. The term in the brackets is the
element stiffness;
𝑲𝒆 = (𝑩𝑻 𝐃 𝐁(𝐴123 𝑡))
1 .1 .1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 .1 .1
1 .5 .2 0 0 0
𝑨=
0 0 0 1 .5 .2
1 .1 .3 0 0 0
[0 0 0 1 .1 . 3]
1.62 0 −.25 0 −.375 0
−1.25 0 2.5 0 −1.25 0
𝑨−𝟏 = −5 0 0 0 5 0
0 1.62 0 −.25 0 −.375
0 −1.25 0 2.5 0 −1.25
[ 0 −5 0 0 0 5 ]
𝐴123 = .08
0 1 0 0 0 0
𝑮 = [0 0 0 0 0 1]
0 0 1 0 1 0
−1.25 0 2.5 0 −1.25 0
𝑩 = 𝑮 𝑨−𝟏 = [ 0 −5 0 0 0 5 ]
−5 −1.25 0 2.5 5 −1.25
220000 65900 0
𝑫 = [ 65900 220000 0 ]
0 0 100000
−1.25 0 −5
0 −5 −1.25
𝑩𝑻 = 2.5 0 0
0 0 2.5
−1.25 0 2
[ 0 5 −1.25 ]
This is the stiffness matrix for a specific CST element. (note: all rows add to zero – Why?)
E6002 – Ship Structures I 178
© C.G.Daley 2011-19
15.1 The displacement functions of the constant stress triangular element are:
u(x,y) = C1 + C2 x + C3 y
v(x,y) = C4 + C5 x + C6 y
where u represents the x-translation of any point (x,y) and v represents the y-translation of the
point. What would the C terms be for an element that is part of an unconstrained steel plate
subject to a 20 deg C increase in temperature, assuming all strains were initially zero?
15.2 A beam has only one coordinate (x). However, most beam models would allow a point on
the beam to rotate as well as translate. So, construct 3 simple displacement functions;
u(x),
v(x),
(x),
of a ‘beam element’, using the same logic as was used to create the displacement functions of the
constant stress triangular element.
15.3 The displacement functions of the constant stress triangular element are:
u(x,y) = C1 + C2 x + C3 y
v(x,y) = C4 + C5 x + C6 y
Can you show that the strain is independent of the orientation of the coordinate axes? (re-express
u and v of corners in rotated coordinates and see if they result in same strains as you would expect
for rotated coordinates). (Note: This is a study question, probably too long for an exam, but …)
15.4 § Sketch a triangular finite element (constant stress triangle) with two degrees of freedom at
each corner. Write down a possible stiffness matrix for this element (assume k_11 = 1 kN/m).
No calculations are needed.
15.5 § Explain why the units of the terms in a stiffness matrix can have a range of different units.
15.6 § For the constant stress triangle, do the stiffness terms have all the same units? Why or why
not?
E6002 – Ship Structures I 179
© C.G.Daley 2011-19
Italian Stone
Introduction
In this Chapter we will examine vertical shear in a ship and describe the idea of shear flow.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Ships are made of steel plate. This means that ships are thin
walled shells. Even for the local components such as
individual frames the width of a plate is much greater than
its thickness;
𝐿≫𝑡
𝑑𝑀 = 𝑄 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑀
𝑄=
𝑑𝑥
Define:
Define:
The units of shear flow are N/m, which is a line load. This
is quite similar to a line load on a beam, except that instead
of pressing normal to the surface, the load acts tangentially,
or along the surface.
Summary:
Shear flow acts along the cross section of a plate. There can
be no significant shear across a thin plate, because there is
no shear on the inner and outer surfaces. The shear flow is
found by determining the value of 'm' (a path integral)
along with Q (the total shear force) and I (the moment of
inertia);
E6002 – Ship Structures I 183
© C.G.Daley 2011-19
g and h are the distances from the deck and bottom to the
neutral axis;
= 5.24 m
g = 12 − 5.24 = 6.76 m
𝐵 2 1
𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ≅ 𝑡𝐷 ∙ ∙ 𝐻 + 𝑡𝑆 ∙ 𝐻3
2 3
1
= .01 ∙ 10 ∙ 12 + ∙ .012 ∙ 123
3
= 21.31 𝑚4 (ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑝)
𝐵 𝐵
@ 𝑠1 = 𝑚 = 𝑦 𝑡𝐵 = 0.786 𝑚3
2 2
E6002 – Ship Structures I 184
© C.G.Daley 2011-19
Next we find m on the side shell. The initial value for the
side is the same as the final value for the bottom. The shear
flow continues around the corner. We integrate along s2
(note: y = h - s2 ) ;
𝑠2
𝑚(𝑠2 ) = 𝑚(𝑠1 = 𝐵⁄2) + ∫ 𝑦 𝑡𝑆 𝑑𝑠
0
𝑠2
= 0.786 + ∫ (ℎ − 𝑠2 )𝑡𝑆 𝑑𝑠
0
𝑡𝑆 𝑠22
= 0.786 + ℎ 𝑡𝑆 𝑠2 −
2
𝑑𝑚
= ℎ 𝑡𝑆 − 𝑡𝑆 𝑠2 = 0
𝑑𝑠2
𝑠2 = ℎ
This shows that the maximum shear flow is occurring at the
neutral axis;
2
𝑡𝑆 ℎ2
𝑚(𝑠2 = ℎ) = 0.786 + ℎ 𝑡𝑆 −
2
. 012 5.242
= 0.786 + = 0.951 𝑚3
2
𝑄𝑚 20 ∙ 0.951
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 75.5 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐼𝑡 21 ∙ 0.012
Branching Shear:
16.1 An open section is shown below. This is the cross section of a long folded steel plate. The
cross section is subject to a shear force of 2 MN. Solve the shear flow, plot it and then also show
the shear stress values.
If this is a section of a long cantilever (fixed at one end and free at the other) explain what types
of deformations you would expect to see?
16.2 § A cross section of a box girder is shown below. A vertical shear force of 200kN is applied.
a) Solve the shear flow, plot it and then also show the shear stress values.
16.3 § An open section is shown below. This is the cross section of transverse frame in a ship.
The vertical shear force is 200kN.
Solve the shear flow, plot it and then also show the shear stress values.
The web is fillet welded to the shell plate, as sketched, with a throat thickness of w. What is the
shear stress in the weld?
E6002 – Ship Structures I 187
© C.G.Daley 2011-19
16.5 § Solve the shear flow and shear stress problem shown below.
16.6 § Sketch the shear flow patterns for the three cases shown below (no numbers needed)
E6002 – Ship Structures I 188
© C.G.Daley 2011-19
Croatian Coast
Introduction
In this Chapter we will discuss indeterminate shear flow, calculate shear slip in a cut section and
do an example of shear flow in a ship
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
There will likely be two spots in the cell where m=0. The
shear flow will look something like the sketch to the left.
For any case where the loops are not adjacent, the steps in
the solution process are;
The cuts and the slip at the cuts are in the longitudinal
direction;
The total slip is found by integrating the slip over the whole
loop from one side of a cut to the other. If the loop is
symmetrical, the fore and aft slip will cancel out and result
in no slip. In an unsymmetrical section there is a net slip.
𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 = ∮ 𝛾 𝑑𝑠
𝜏 1 𝑞
𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 = ∮ 𝑑𝑠 = ∮ 𝑑𝑠
𝐺 𝐺 𝑡
1 𝑞∗ 1 𝑞𝑐
∮ 𝑑𝑠 + ∮ 𝑑𝑠 = 0
𝐺 𝑡 𝐺 𝑡
E6002 – Ship Structures I 191
© C.G.Daley 2011-19
𝑞∗
− ∮ 𝑡 𝑑𝑠
𝑞𝐶 =
1
∮ 𝑡 𝑑𝑠
𝑞 𝑐 is constant around the loop and zero elsewhere. 𝑞 ∗ is a
determiate solution, found in the usual way. The total
solution is;
𝑞 = 𝑞∗ + 𝑞𝑐
E6002 – Ship Structures I 192
© C.G.Daley 2011-19
Find the shear stresses in the section below. The total shear
is 10MN (5 MN on the half section).
The shear flow and stress in the half section can be found
from;
𝑄𝑚
𝑞=
𝐼
𝑞 = .2634 𝑚
𝑄𝑚 5
𝜏= = ∙ 𝑚 = 8.78 ∙ 𝑚
𝐼𝑡 19 ∙ 0.03
where
𝑠
𝑚 = ∫ 𝑦 𝑡 𝑑𝑠
0
So to find , we just need to find m. To find m we need to
integrate along the 5 branches of the problem.
𝑠1
∗
𝑚 = 0 + ∫ 𝑦 𝑡 𝑑𝑠
0
y = 10 - 5.48 = 4.52,
y t = 0.1357
m* = .1357 s1
= 0.814 (@ s1 = 6)
= 1.357 (@ s1 = 10)
For s2 (side shell above wing tank);
𝑠2
𝑚∗ = 1.357 + ∫ 𝑦 𝑡 𝑑𝑠
0
y = 4.52 - s2 ,
m* = 1.357 + .03 (4.52 s2 - s22 / 2 )
= 1.357 + .1357 s2 - .015 s22
= 1.658 (@ s2 = 4) ( at wing tank plate)
𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝∗ + 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝𝐶 = 0
E6002 – Ship Structures I 194
© C.G.Daley 2011-19
1 𝑞∗ 1 𝑞𝑐
∮ 𝑑𝑠 + ∮ 𝑑𝑠 = 0
𝐺 𝑡 𝐺 𝑡
𝑞∗
− ∮ 𝑡 𝑑𝑠
𝑞𝐶 =
1
∮ 𝑡 𝑑𝑠
− ∮ 𝑞 ∗ 𝑑𝑠
𝑞𝐶 =
S
Q
𝑞𝐶 = − ∮ 𝑚∗ 𝑑𝑠
IS
= −.01929 ∮ 𝑚∗ 𝑑𝑠
4
∮ 𝑚∗ 𝑑𝑠 = ∫0 (. 814 + .1357 s) 𝑑𝑠
4 s2
+ ∫0 (1.357 + .03 (4.52 s − 2 )) 𝑑𝑠
4√2
− ∫0 (. 1357 s − .0106 s2 ) 𝑑𝑠
= 4.34 + 6.188 - 1.53
= 9.00
qC = -0.1736 [MN/m]
E6002 – Ship Structures I 195
© C.G.Daley 2011-19
q = q* ± qC = 0.2364 m* ± qC
17.1 Solve the shear flow in the following section of a tanker. Ignore the radius of the bilge.
17.4 Solve the shear flow in the following frame section. What are the shear forces transferred
through the welds in details A and B (in kN/m)?
E6002 – Ship Structures I 199
© C.G.Daley 2011-19
17.5 § Sketch the shear flow pattern for the section shown below (no numbers needed)
E6002 – Ship Structures I 200
© C.G.Daley 2011-19
𝑞∗ 𝑞 𝑐1 𝑞 𝑐2
∮ 𝑑𝑠 + ∮ 𝑑𝑠 + ∮ 𝑑𝑠 = 0
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 1 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 1 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 1
𝑞∗ 𝑞 𝑐1 𝑞 𝑐2
∮ 𝑑𝑠 + ∮ 𝑑𝑠 + ∮ 𝑑𝑠 = 0
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 2 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 2 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 2
18.1 Solve the shear flow in the following section of a tanker. Ignore the radius of the bilge.
Torsion Review
𝑀𝑥
𝑑𝜃 = 𝑑𝑥
𝐺𝐽
or
𝑑𝜃
𝑀𝑥 = 𝐺 𝐽
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝜃
note similarity to the deq. for bending: 𝑀𝑦 = 𝐸 𝐼 𝑑𝑥
For solid sections like the circular shaft shown at left, the
shear stress is;
𝑀𝑥 𝑟
τ=
𝐽
𝜋 𝑟4
𝐽=
2
To examine the difference between open and closed sections we first make some simplifying
assumptions;
• sections are prismatic
• no in-plane deformation (cross sections only rotate)
• small out of plane deformations (warping)
E6002 – Ship Structures I 207
© C.G.Daley 2011-19
𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑥: 𝑢𝑝 = ⏞
𝑤𝑛 (𝑦, 𝑧) 𝜃′ 𝜃 ′ = 𝑑𝜃⁄𝑑𝑥
𝑦: 𝑣𝑝 = −𝜃 𝑧𝑝
} 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑧: 𝑤𝑝 = 𝜃 𝑦𝑝
𝑑𝜃
𝑀𝑥 = 𝐺 𝐽
𝑑𝑥
1 2𝜋𝑟 3 2𝜋 𝑟 𝑡 3
𝐽 = ∫ 𝑡 𝑑𝑠 = = 2.09 𝑟 𝑡 3
3 0 3
E6002 – Ship Structures I 208
© C.G.Daley 2011-19
𝑀𝑥 𝑟 𝑀𝑦 𝑐
𝜏= (𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝜎 = )
𝐽𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝐼𝑛𝑎
𝑀𝑥 𝑟 2 𝑞 𝜋 𝑟 3
𝐽𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 = = = 2 𝜋 𝑡 𝑟3
𝜏 𝜏
2
𝐽𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 = 𝜋 𝑟 𝑡3
3
2 2
𝐽𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 = 𝜋 𝑟 𝑡 3 = 𝜋 ∙ 1 ∙ 0.013 = 2𝑥10−6 𝑚4
3 3
𝐽𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
𝐽𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 = = 29,600
𝐽𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛
The difference is so dramatic that it is easily illustrated by seeing what happens when a cardboard
tube (eg paper coffee cup) is cut open longitudinally.
19.1 A hollow closed section is made of plate of uniform thickness ‘t’ . A torsional moment of
80 MN-m is applied. To have the maximum shear stress equal to 135 MPa, what value should t
be?
E6002 – Ship Structures I 211
© C.G.Daley 2011-19
Introduction
In this Chapter we will discuss the idea of the shear center of a frame and describe the idea of
shear lag and the notion of effective width.
E6002 – Ship Structures I 212
© C.G.Daley 2011-19
If the end of the column had an end cap, the load would
naturally find its way to the centroid.
1
𝐼𝑦 = (100 ∙ 2003 − 90 ∙ 1803 )
12
E6002 – Ship Structures I 213
© C.G.Daley 2011-19
= 22,927,000 𝑚𝑚4
𝑄
𝑞1 = 𝑚 = 0.4144 𝑠1
𝐼𝑦 1
So at B;
𝑁
𝑞𝐵 = 0.4144 ∙ 95 = 39.36
𝑚
In the web;
𝑄 𝑠2
𝑞2 = 39.36 + ∫ 𝑦 𝑡 𝑑𝑠
𝐼𝑦 0
𝑠2
= 39.36 + .0004362 ∙ 10 ∫ (95 − 𝑠2 )𝑑𝑠
0
𝑠22
= 39.36 + .0004362 ∙ 10 (95 𝑠2 − )
2
The force on the web is;
190
𝐹𝑤 = ∫ 𝑞2 𝑑𝑠
0
1902 1903
= 39.36 ∙ 190 + .004362 (95 − )
2 6
= 9978 (≅ 10,000 ) 𝑂𝐾
The lower flange is symmetrical with the upper and will
have a shear flow of the same magnitude but opposite in
direction.
E6002 – Ship Structures I 214
© C.G.Daley 2011-19
𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, ≪ 𝑎
1 3
𝑏 2
𝐼= 𝑡𝑏 +2𝑎𝑡 ( )
12 2
𝑄 𝑠1
𝑞1 = ∫ 𝑦 𝑡 𝑑𝑠
𝐼 0
𝑄
= 𝑦 𝑡 𝑠1
𝐼
𝑄 𝑏 𝑎2 𝑡
=
4𝐼
Now we can find ‘e’ by setting the sum of the torsional
moments to zero. The flange forces create one couple and
the applied load, opposed by the reaction in the web,
creates another couple. The two couples will sum to zero
when the load is applied at the shear center.
𝑄 𝑒 = 𝐹𝑓 𝑏 (𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠)
E6002 – Ship Structures I 215
© C.G.Daley 2011-19
𝑄 𝑏 𝑎2 𝑡 𝑏 𝑏2 𝑎2 𝑡
𝑒= =
4𝐼 𝑄 4𝐼
𝑏2 𝑎2 𝑡 1
𝑒=
4 1 3 𝑏 2
12 𝑡 𝑏 + 2 𝑎 𝑡 (2)
𝑎
𝑒=
𝑏
2 (6𝑎 + 1)
𝑎 = 95, 𝑏 = 190
95
𝑒= = 35.6 𝑚𝑚
190
2 (6 ∙ 95 + 1)
𝑀𝑦
𝜎=
𝐼
Shear lag and diminished effective width are most important in cases of ;
• wide flanges (large b)
• short frames (small L/b)
• proximity to free ends
• proximity to concentrated loads
Finite element programs, when shell or brick elements are used to model the frames, will
naturally show the shear lag effects.
There have been experiments on hull girder models that have shown not only a variation in deck
stresses, but actual stress reversals. This means that even when the average deck stress is
compressive, there may be a part of the deck (at center) where the stresses are tensile, with the
deck edges in exaggerated compression. (PNA p 250)
Classification society rules have various approaches to account for effective width. We will
consider deck plate buckling in the next ship structures course (6003). In that case we will
consider another type of effective width of plating, but one that describes a buckled plate’s
reserve capacity.
20.1 The following figure shows 4 x-sections. Identify the location of the shear center in each
case (i.e. which letter?). You should sketch the shear flow to help identify the location.
20.2 When the vertical force F is applied to this section, how will the cantilever beam deform?
Explain
Wexford Ireland
Introduction
In this chapter we will discuss the mechanics of plate bending
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Plates are the essential structural components in ships. Almost all the structural weight in ships is
from the shell plating, the bulkheads, decks and webs of large frames.
This section will examine the lateral deformation of a single plate panel subject to a uniform
pressure. We will limit our problem as follows;
• rectangular plate
• constant thickness (t<<a, b)
• simple edge conditions (fixed, pinned, free)
• linear elastic material behavior
• steel material (isotropic, homogeneous)
• pressure normal to surface
• no membrane stresses (no in-plane stress)
E6002 – Ship Structures I 220
© C.G.Daley 2011-19
𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑤
𝑑𝑤
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝜃 =
𝑑𝑥
1 𝑑𝜃 𝑑 2 𝑤
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝜌𝑥 = = =
𝑟𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑𝜃𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝜃𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Δ= ∙ = ∙
2 2 2 2
E6002 – Ship Structures I 221
© C.G.Daley 2011-19
therefore
1 𝑑𝜃𝑥 𝑑𝜃𝑦
= (= )
𝑟𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑𝑤 𝑑2𝑤
= ( )=
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑤
𝑣 = −𝑧
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑣 𝑑2 𝑤
𝜀𝑦 = = −𝑧 2
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑑 𝑑𝑤 𝑑 𝑑𝑤
𝛾= (−𝑧 )+ (−𝑧 )
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑑2𝑤
= −2 𝑧
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
or
1
𝛾 = −2 𝑧
𝑟𝑥𝑦
E6002 – Ship Structures I 224
© C.G.Daley 2011-19
𝑑2𝑤 1
𝜀𝑥 = − 𝑧 2 = −𝑧
𝑑𝑥 𝑟𝑥
𝑑2𝑤 1
𝜀𝑦 = − 𝑧 2
= −𝑧
𝑑𝑦 𝑟𝑦
𝐸 𝐸 𝑑2𝑤
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝛾 = −𝑧
(1 + 𝜈) 𝑥𝑦 (1 + 𝜈) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑡
2
𝑀𝑦 = ∫ 𝜎𝑥 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝑡
−
2
𝑡
2
𝑀𝑥𝑦 = ∫ 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝑡
−
2
By using the expressions for 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 and 𝜏𝑥𝑦 we can write;
𝑑2𝑤 𝑑2𝑤
𝑀𝑥 = −𝐷 ( + 𝜈 )
𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2𝑤 𝑑2𝑤
𝑀𝑦 = −𝐷 ( 2 + 𝜈 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 2
𝑑2𝑤
𝑀𝑥𝑦 = 𝑀𝑦𝑥 = −𝐷(1 − 𝜈)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
where
E6002 – Ship Structures I 225
© C.G.Daley 2011-19
𝐸 𝑡3
𝐷=
12 (1 − 𝜈 2 )
𝑡
𝐸 𝑑2𝑤 𝑑2𝑤 𝑧2 2
= ( + 𝜈 ) − |
(1 − 𝜈 2 ) 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 2 3 𝑡
−
2
𝐸 𝑡3 𝑑2𝑤 𝑑2𝑤
= − ( +𝜈 )
12 (1 − 𝜈 2 ) 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 2
Σ 𝐹𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡 = 0
𝑝 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑄𝑧𝑥 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑄𝑧𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑄𝑧𝑥 𝑑𝑄𝑧𝑦
𝑝+ + =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑑 𝑑2𝑤
𝑄𝑧𝑦 = (−𝐷(1 − 𝜈) )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑑 𝑑2𝑤 𝑑2𝑤
+ (−𝐷 ( 2 + 𝜈 ))
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑 𝑑2𝑤 𝑑2𝑤
𝑄𝑧𝑦 = (−𝐷 +𝐷𝜈 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑑 𝑑2 𝑤 𝑑2𝑤
+ ( −𝐷 − 𝐷 𝜈 )
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑3𝑤 𝑑3𝑤
𝑄𝑧𝑦 = −𝐷 − 𝐷
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 3
Similarly;
𝑑3𝑤 𝑑3𝑤
𝑄𝑧𝑥 = −𝐷 − 𝐷
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 3
Now, using
𝑑𝑄𝑧𝑥 𝑑𝑄𝑧𝑦
𝑝+ + =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
we can write;
𝑑 𝑑3𝑤 𝑑3𝑤
𝑝+ (−𝐷 −𝐷 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 3
𝑑 𝑑3𝑤 𝑑3 𝑤
+ (−𝐷 − 𝐷 )=0
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 3
E6002 – Ship Structures I 227
© C.G.Daley 2011-19
𝑝
= 𝛥4 𝑤
𝐷
Example #1:
A long plate, simply supported with a pressure in the shape
of a half sine wave.
𝑝 𝑑4𝑤
=
𝐷 𝑑𝑦 4
𝜋𝑦 𝑑4 𝜋𝑦
𝑝𝑜 sin ( )=𝐷 4
(𝐶 sin ( ))
𝑏 𝑑𝑦 𝑏
which becomes;
𝜋𝑦 𝜋 4 𝜋𝑦
𝑝𝑜 sin ( ) = 𝐷 𝐶 ( ) (sin ( ))
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
𝑝𝑜 𝑏 4
𝐶= ( )
𝐷 𝜋
𝑝𝑜 𝑏 4 𝜋𝑦
𝑤(𝑦) = ( ) sin ( )
𝐷 𝜋 𝑏
with
𝑝𝑜 𝑏 4
𝑤𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ( )
𝐷 𝜋
𝐸 𝑑2𝑤 𝑑2 𝑤
𝜎𝑦 = −𝑧 ( + 𝜈 )
(1 − 𝜈 2 ) 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 2
𝐸 𝑑2𝑤
𝜎𝑦 (𝑧, 𝑦) = −𝑧 ( )
(1 − 𝜈 2 ) 𝑑𝑦 2
The stress at the top of the plate , @ z = t/2 ;
E6002 – Ship Structures I 229
© C.G.Daley 2011-19
𝑡 𝐸 𝑑2𝑤
𝜎𝑦,𝑡𝑜𝑝 (𝑦) = − ( )
2 (1 − 𝜈 2 ) 𝑑𝑦 2
𝑡 𝐸 𝑝𝑜 𝑏 4 𝜋 2 𝜋𝑦
= 2
( ) ( ) sin ( )
2 (1 − 𝜈 ) 𝐷 𝜋 𝑏 𝑏
2
6 𝑏 𝜋𝑦
= 2 ( ) 𝑝𝑜 sin ( )
𝜋 𝑡 𝑏
𝜎𝑦,𝑡𝑜𝑝 (0) = 0
𝑏 6 𝑏 2
𝜎𝑦,𝑡𝑜𝑝 ( ) = 2 ( ) 𝑝𝑜
2 𝜋 𝑡
𝑏 𝜈6 𝑏 2
𝜎𝑥,𝑡𝑜𝑝 ( ) = 2 ( ) 𝑝𝑜
2 𝜋 𝑡
𝑝(𝑥, 𝑦)
= 𝛥4 𝑤(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝐷
where
16 𝑝𝑜 𝑚 = 1,3,5 …
𝑎𝑚𝑛 =
𝜋2 𝑚 𝑛 𝑛 = 1,3,5 …
𝑎𝑚𝑛 = 0 𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
E6002 – Ship Structures I 230
© C.G.Daley 2011-19
21.1 Why is a ‘long’ plate with a uniform load easier to solve than a rectangular plate with a
uniform load?
21.2 when you apply a simple load to a simple pinned-pinned beam, it beans but doesn’t twist.
When you apply a simple load to a pinned-pinned rectangular plate, you must (usually) consider
bending and twist. Why?
E6002 – Ship Structures I 231
© C.G.Daley 2011-19
General References
1. Evans, J.H., (Editor) 1975, Ship Structural Design Concepts, Cornell Maritime
Press (a second volume of this book was added in 1983; it is subtitled `Second
cycle’)
2. Hughes, O.F., Ship Structural Design, Wiley-Interscience, Published by the
Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, New York (2010).
3. Lewis, E.V., (Editor) 1975, Principles of Naval Architecture, Vol. I Chapt 4.,
SNAME
4. Rawson, K.J., and Tupper, E.C., 1983 Basic Ship Theory, Volume 1. Publ. by
Longman, 3rd Ed.
5. Okumotu, Y., et. al. 2009 Design of Ship Hull Structures, pub. Springer-Verlag.
6. Willams MS and Todd JD 2000 Structures-Theory and Analysis, Macmillan
E6002 – Ship Structures I A-1
© C.G.Daley 2011-19
Material ρ E Et G 𝛔𝐲 𝛔𝐮 𝝊 𝜶 𝜺𝒖
kg/m3 MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa - 10-6/°C -
ASTM A36 Steel 7800 200,000 1,000 75,000 248 400 0.26 12 .21
ASTM A131 7850 200,000 1,000 75,000 220 400 0.29 12 .24
Ship Grade A
Ship Steel 7850 200,000 1,500 75,000 355 490 .29 12 .21
Grade EH36
6061-T6 2700 70,000 400 26,000 240 290 .33 23.2 .10
Aluminum
ρ: Density
E: Young’s Modulus
Et: Post-yield Modulus (for bi-linear modelling of elasto-plastic behaviour)
G: Shear Modulus
σy : Yield Strength
σu : Ultimate Strength
𝜈: Poisson’s Ratio
𝛼: Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
εu: Ultimate Strain at fracture (e.g. 0.10 = 10% elongation)
All properties are approximate and depend on test conditions. Classification Societies define testing procedures and
minimum properties for ship construction.
M o m e n t Distribu tio n M e th o d
table o f v alu e s Example #3
param . v alu e u n its 1 problem all E I, no sway
L1 10 m 10m 20m
L2 20 m
L3 20 m w=8 kN/m
L4 12.5 m 32
12 21 23
3 35
EI1 1 rel
1 2 24
EI2 1 rel
EI3 1 rel
12.5 m
EI4 1 rel 20m 53
w 8 kN / m 5
all E I
42
4
e12 e 21 e 23 e 24 e 42 e 32 e 35 e 53
1 .0 0 .5 0 .250 0 .250 0 .0 0 .38 46 0 .6 1 54 0 .0
FE M -6 6 .7 6 6 .7 -26 6 .7 0 .0 0 .0 26 6 .7 0 .0 0 .0
net 6 6 .7 20 0 .0 0 .0 -26 6 .7 0 .0
dist 6 6 .7 1 0 0 .0 50 .0 50 .0 0 .0 -1 0 2.6 -1 6 4.1 0 .0
CO 50 .0 33.3 -51 .3 0 .0 25.0 25.0 0 .0 -8 2.1
eEM 50 .0 20 0 .0 -26 7 .9 50 .0 25.0 1 8 9.1 -1 6 4.1 -8 2.1
net -50 .0 1 7 .9 -25.0 -25.0 8 2.1
dist -50 .0 9.0 4.5 4.5 0 .0 -9.6 -1 5.4 0 .0
CO 4.5 -25.0 -4.8 0 .0 2.2 2.2 0 .0 -7 .7
eEM 4.5 1 8 4.0 -26 8 .3 54.5 27 .2 1 8 1 .7 -1 7 9.5 -8 9.7
net -4.5 29.8 -27 .2 -2.2 8 9.7
dist -4.5 1 4.9 7 .5 7 .5 0 .0 -0 .9 -1 .4 0 .0
CO
e
ne
dist eE tM 7 .5
-7
-7 .5
.5 -2.2
1 961 .3.6
2.7 -0
-26
0 .7 .4
1 .2 601.0
.9 03.7
31
-31 .0.0 18 3.7
4.6
-3.7 0
8 .0
-1-2.30 .9 -0
-90
90 .7
.4.4
nCO eE tM 0 .7
-0 1 -3.7
94.2 -0
-261 .101.7
.3 6012.6
.7
.0 31.0
.3
.3 -1
1 -0
8 .4
03.5
.3 08.0
-1-0 3.2 0-1.0
-91 .1.6
dist
CO
e
neeE tM
dist E -01 .1.1.7
-1
-1
.7 1-04.4
2.2
96
0 .2
0
.3.1
.4 -0
-2600
.1
.1.1.3
.1
6003.7
.0
.1
-31
0
31
-31.0
.6 .3
.9
.9 -0
0
1 -0
8
-0
.3
.6
3.9.1
.6
.2
08.0
-1-0 .2
3.4
.3
91
0
-0
-91
91
0 .0
.6
.0.1
.7.7
CO
ne e tM 0
-0 .1.1 1 -0
95.8
0 .0.6
.7 -0
-26 .3 603.8
.0 0
31
-31.0.9 180 .0
3.8 -108.03.7 -0
-91 .2
.9
dist
CO
n eE tM
dist
-0
0
-0
-0 .2.2
.2
.1 10096
0.0.3
.1.1.1 -26 .2
0 .0 0 .1 .2
604.0
.0 32.0.1.9
00.0
-32.0 180
00 .0
.0
.1
3.8
-0.0.1 -10 8
-0.0
3.7
.1
91
0 .0
-91
91
.9
.9
.9
CO
ne eE tM 0
0 .0 -0
1 96 .1.0 0 .0
-26 0 .1 0 .0
6 4.0 0 .0
32.0 180 3.8 -1 0
8 .0
3.8 0
-91 .0.9
dist
CO
ne
dist eE tM 0 .0
0 .0
.0 00.0
1 96
0 .0 .0 0 .0
-26 0 .1 604.0
.0 -32.0
0 .0
32.0
-32.0 180
0
.0
0 3.8
.0
.0 -1 0
8 .0
3.8 91
0 .0
-91
91
.9
.9
.9
CO
ne eE tM 0
0 .0 0
1 96 .0 .0 0 .0
-26 0 .1 604.0
.0 0 .0
32.0 180 .0
3.8 0 .0
-1 8 3.8 0 .0
-91 .9
dist
CO
ne eE M 0 .0.0 0
1 96
.0
0 .0
.0.0 0 .0
-26 0 .1 604.0
.0 -32.0
0 .0
32.0 18
0 .0
0 3.8
.0 -1 0
8 .0
3.8
91
0 .0
-91
.9
.9
dist
CO
ne eE ttM
dist
0
0
0 .0
0
.0
.0
.0
0
0
0 .0
1 96
0 .0.0
.0 0
0 .0
-26 .0 0 .1 0 .0
604.0
.0
-32.0
0
0 .0
32.0
-32.0
.0 180
0 .0
.0
0 3.8
0 .0
.0 -1 0
8 .0
0 3.8
.0
91
0
0 .0
-91
91
.9
.9
.9
.0
CO
eEM 0 .0 1 96 .0 -26 0 .1 6 4.0 32.0 1 8 3.8 -1 8 3.8 -91 .9
This appendix will outline the material behavior models that are necessary to the analysis of
structures.
Hooke's Law
Hooke's law is a very simple idea. It just states that there is a linear relationship between force 𝐹
and deflection ∆𝐿 in an elastic body;
𝐹 = 𝑘 ∆𝐿
For a uni-axial state of stress we can also write Hooke's law in terms of stress (𝜎: normalized
force) and strain (𝜀: non-dimensional deflection);
𝜎=𝐸𝜖
where E is Young's Modulus.
E6002 – Ship Structures I A-12
© C.G.Daley 2011-19
This law may seem to be too simple to deserve the term 'law'. However, this idea was not easily
found. The world, especially in the time of Hooke and before, was so full of variability,
inaccuracy and non-linearity that this idea was not obvious. Many things were made from natural
materials (stone and wood) and the idea of linear behavior was radical. Hooke first communicated
the discovery in code as “ceiiinosssttuv”, an anagram to allow him to later prove he had
discovered the ‘law’. Hooke was a contemporary, and rival, of Newton. He developed a coil
spring for use in a pocket watch. In 1678 he published a discussion of the behavior of his spring,
saying: "ut tensio, sic vis" meaning "as the extension, so the force". Hooke worked in many fields
including architecture, astronomy, human memory, microscopy (see below) and palaeontology,
but it is only in mechanics that his name is associated with a fundamental law.
How important is Hooke's contribution? For structural analysis it is the fundamental idea, as
important to structural analysis as is Newton's 2nd law (𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎) to the field of dynamics.
E6002 – Ship Structures I A-13
© C.G.Daley 2011-19
Hooke's law is important because linearity of behavior permits the use of superposition. And only
with the idea of superposition can we divide problems up into parts, solve the parts and add them
back together to get a total solution. The whole field of structural analysis depends on Hooke's
law.
Hooke's law can be expanded to describe 2D and 3D behavior. Consider a 2D sample of elastic
material. When a force is applied in one direction (x) the material stretches in that direction and
contracts in the lateral direction(y). So for a stress in the x direction we get strains in x and y. This
is Hooke's law in 2D for the case of uni-axial stress;
𝜎𝑥
𝜀𝑥 =
𝐸
𝜎𝑥
𝜀𝑦 = −𝜈
𝐸
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© C.G.Daley 2011-19
𝜀𝑥 𝜎𝑥
1 1 −𝜈 0
[ 𝜀𝑦 ] = [−𝜈 1 0 ] [ 𝜎𝑦 ]
𝛾𝑥𝑦 𝐸 0 0 2 1 + 𝜈 𝜏𝑥𝑦
( )
or equivalently;
𝜎𝑥 1 𝜈 0 𝜀𝑥
𝐸 𝜈 1 0
[ 𝜎𝑦 ] = 2
[ 𝜀
1 − 𝜈] [ 𝑦 ]
𝜏𝑥𝑦 1−𝜈 𝛾𝑥𝑦
0 0
2
The above equations are used to describe isotropic materials (materials that are similar in all
directions, such as steel), which have the same value of E and n in all directions.
Note: Anisotropic materials, such as wood and fiberglass have different values of E for each axis.
Hooke's laws for anisotropic materials have many more terms.
Hooke's law can be expressed in 3D as well, but 2D is sufficient for the problems that we will
examine.
Consider a small element of material with normal and shear stresses on vertical and horizontal
planes. We refer to these stresses as engineering stresses, 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 . Now consider what the
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stresses would be on any other plane, so one that is rotated by the angle 𝜃𝑐 from the vertical (from
the plane for 𝜎𝑥 stress). Mohr showed that the stresses on all planes, when plotted, will form a
circle in 𝜏 vs. 𝜎 coordinates.
The stresses on the vertical plane, 𝜎𝑥 and 𝜏𝑥𝑦 , are plotted on the Mohr's circle (point A). The
stresses on the horizontal plane, 𝜎𝑦 and −𝜏𝑥𝑦 , are plotted at point B. These two planes are
physically 90 degrees from each other, but are 180 degrees apart on the Mohr’s circle.
state of stress in 2D
The line joining A, B is a baseline. To find the stresses on a cut plane at angle from the vertical
plane (the plane of A), we must move 2 from the 'A' direction around the Mohr’s circle. This
lands us at point C, where the stresses are , 𝜎𝑐 and 𝜏𝑐 .
The general equations to find the stresses on a plane at angle 𝜃 from the plane of 𝜎𝑥 are;
1 1
𝜎𝑛 = (𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 ) + (𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 )𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
2 2
1
𝜏𝑛 = − (𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 )𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
2
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principal stresses
You can see from the drawing of Mohr's circle, that the largest value of 𝜎 occurs where 𝜏 is zero.
The largest and smallest values of 𝜎 are called 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 . They are sufficient to define the circle,
and are called the principal stresses.
We do not need to solve for 1 and 2 graphically. We can use the following equations:
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 2
σ1 = √
+ [𝜎𝑥 − 2
] + 𝜏𝑥𝑦
2 2
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 2
σ2 = √
− [𝜎𝑥 − 2
] + 𝜏𝑥𝑦
2 2
or
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σ1 = σ + r
σ2 = σ − r
At low strains steel is a linear elastic material. However, when steel is strained to large levels, the
linear behaviour ends. Typical ship steels will follow a stress-strain curve as shown at the left.
After yielding the stress plateaus while the strains increase significantly. At larger strains the
stress begins to rise again, in a phenomenon called 'strain hardening'. At even larger strains the
material starts to 'neck' and eventually ruptures. Typical yield stresses are in the range 225 to 400
MPa. Typical ultimate stresses are in the 350 to 550 MPa range.
The initial slope is the Young's modulus which is about 200,000 MPa (200 GPa). So the strain at
yield is about 1200 to 2000 x10-6 strain (-strain). Rupture occurs at around 25% strain (300,000
-strain).
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In ships structures, made almost entirely of plate steel, most stress states are essentially biaxial. In
this case we need to have a criteria for any 2D state of stress.
The 2D von Mises criteria is plotted at left. The curve is normally represented in terms of
principal stresses and forms an oval. The oval crosses the axes ay the uniaxial yield stress 𝜎𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 .
The equation for the yield condition is;
To show whether a general 2D stress is at yield, the concept of an equivalent stress is used (the
von-mises equivalent stress). The equivalent stress is a uniaxial stress that represents the same %
of yield as the biaxial stress. In this way any 2 states of stress can be compared. The equivalent
stress is;
Appendix 7 Problems
1. A column is made of steel pipe with OD of 8", and ID of 7". It is 8 feet tall. The column
supports a weight of 300kips (300,000 lb). How much does the column shorten under load?
(E for steel is 29,000,000 psi) (Ans: 0.843”)
2. A 2D state of stress (𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 ) is (200, -20, 45) MPa. What are the strains (𝜀𝑥 , 𝜀𝑦 , 𝛾𝑥𝑦 )?(Ans:
1030,-400,585 e)
3. For a 2D state of stress (σx , σy , τxy ) of (180, -25, 40) MPa, plot the Mohr's circle. What are
the principal stresses (σ1 , σ2 ) ? (Ans: 187.5,-32.5 MPa)
4. For a 2D state of stress (σx , σy , τxy ) of (100, -100, 60) MPa, what is the von-mises equivalent
stresses σeqv ? (Ans: 202 MPa)
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5. For a 2D state of stress (σx , σy , τxy ) of (150, 100, 30) MPa, what is the von-mises equivalent
stresses σeqv ? (Ans: 142 MPa)
6. For a small cube of material with (σx , = 100, σy = 100) what is the maximum shear on any
plane? (Ans: 50 MPa)
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Colosseum
This appendix will discuss application of energy methods in structural analysis.
Energy Methods
Structural analysis is concerned with forces, deflections, stresses and strains. All these involve
energy. An analysis of energy can be a way to simplify structural analysis. Energy is a scalar, and
must be conserved, somehow. In some cases the mechanical work done by a force is converted
to heat by friction:
In some cases the mechanical work done by a force is converted to elastic potential energy in a
spring. Potential energy (in a spring or in a gravitational field) can later be recovered:
The above is correct for situations where axial stresses dominate, as in column compression or
simple beam bending. This does not take shear strain energy into account.
Example: derive formula for Cantilever beam deflection using energy methods.
External Work (EW) done by the applied load P is balanced by the elastic potential energy (EPE)
stored in the beam;
𝐸𝑊 = 𝐸𝑃𝐸
1⁄ 𝑃∆= 1 ∫ 𝜎 2 𝑑𝑣𝑜𝑙
2 2𝐸
𝑉𝑜𝑙
In this case we assume that the stress is the result of bending and we find the stress from;
𝑀𝑦
𝜎=
𝐼
and
𝑀 = 𝑃𝑥
which lets us write;
𝑃2 𝑥 2 𝑦 2
2
𝜎 =
𝐼2
𝑃
∆= ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑣𝑜𝑙
𝐸𝐼 2
𝑉𝑜𝑙
∫ 𝑤 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 = 𝐼
ℎ
The Betti-Maxwell theorem states that for any linear elastic body (also called a Hookean body),
that the movement at a d.o.f. A, caused by the application of a force/moment F at a d.o.f. B, is
exactly the same as the movement at a d.o.f. B, caused by the application of a force/moment F at a
d.o.f. A. In the sketch below, ∆𝑖𝑗 refers to the movement at 𝑖 due to the application of a force at j.
So we can write the Betti-Maxwell theorm as;
𝐹 ∆12 = 𝐹 ∆21
Proof:
As a linear system, superposition will hold. The structure will assume the same final position
regardless of the order of application of the forces. This means that the same stored elastic energy
will exist in either case. These are ‘conservative’ systems, meaning that all work done by the loads
is converted to elastic potential energy (and is ‘conserved’ to be recovered later). We will apply F
to the structure in two places, and compare the work done when we change the order in which we
apply the forces.
When F is applied at both 1 and 2, the total deflection at 1 and 2 will be;
∆1 = ∆11 + ∆12
∆2 = ∆21 + ∆22
If we imagine applying F at 1 first, and then at 2, the work done will be;
𝐹 ∆11 𝐹 ∆22
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒 = + + 𝐹 ∆12
2 2
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If we imagine applying F at 2 first, and then at 1, the work done will be;
𝐹 ∆22 𝐹 ∆11
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒 = + + 𝐹 ∆21
2 2
𝐹 ∆12 = 𝐹 ∆21
Hence Betti-Maxwell is proven.
Example 1 of Betti-Maxwell
Solution:
The beam deflection tables (see Appendix) can be used to find 12
and 21 .
To find 21 we first find the deflection at x1 . The beam to the right
of x1 has no shear or bending. Consequently it is perfectly straight. It
slopes downward at the same angle as the slop at x1 , which is 11 .
The addition deflection past is just equal to the slope angle times the
distance. The total deflection at x2 found as follows:
𝐹 𝑥13 𝐹 𝑥12
𝛥11 = 𝜃11 =
3 𝐸𝐼 2 𝐸𝐼
𝐹 𝑥12
= (3 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )
6 𝐸𝐼
Example 2 of Betti-Maxwell
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For a simply supported beam, the rotation at the right hand end
caused by a unit vertical force F in the center should be the same as
the vertical deflection at the center caused by a unit moment at the
right hand end :
Solution:
The beam deflection tables (see Appendix) can be used to find 12
and 21 .
The rotation 21 is as follows:
𝐹 𝐿2
𝜃21 =
16 𝐸𝐼
𝐿2
=
16 𝐸𝐼
𝑀𝑥
𝛥12 = (𝐿2 − 𝑥 2 )
6 𝐸𝐼 𝐿
𝐿
𝐿2
= 2 (𝐿2 − )
6 𝐸𝐼 𝐿 4
𝐿2 1
= (1 − )
12 𝐸𝐼 4
𝐿2
=
16 𝐸𝐼
By using an approach similar to Betti-Maxwell, we can show that stiffness terms must be
symmetrical. We will compare two ways to get to the same end result. Assume a system with just two
degrees of freedom. In this case they happen to be two translational degrees of freedom, but the same
logic holds if rotary degrees of freedom are involved. A stiffness term is the force that occurs when a
unit movement is imposed. If we consider two degrees of freedom and imagine the structure with both
degrees of freedom moved one unit, we can compare two optional ways to arrive at the final situation.
As these are linear elastic structures, the final stored energy only depends on the final deformations.
As illustrated below, whether 1 moves before 2 or 2 moves before 1, the same amount of work will be
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done (and stored). In each case one of the off-diagonal stiffness terms (k21 or k12) in involved in the
energy sum, and by equation the two options we see that k12 must equal k21.
Appendix 8 Problems
1. For the fixed-pinned beam sketched below, find the location of the force F so that is a
maximum. Hint: you can use the symmetry of Betti-Maxwell.
2. Illustrate the Betti-Maxwell theorem using the beam load cases shown below. Use the beam
tables in Appendix 5.
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1.10
2.5
3.9
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3.10
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3.11
(a) T = 25m, CB=.678, = 400,000 tonnes (selected to be close and also make weights easy to work out)
(b) est a = .45, b = 1.275
Therefor the weight distribution is;
c)
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4.2
a) 0.3454m
b) 7700 N-m
c) 0.008333 m4
4.13
a)
4.14
a) 45N
b) At B-B: Q=1.5N, M=7.5 N-cm
c) At A-A: Q=0, M=15 N-cm
d)
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6.4 0.112m
7.10
7.11
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7.12
7.13
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8.3
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8.4
8.5
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8.7
8.8
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8.9
12.11
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12.12
12.13
– ignore free cantilever at left.
- FEM are FL/8 from table
- Distribution factors are 1/3 and 2.3 at middle support
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14.8
dof 4 is the x movement at node ‘b’. k4,4 is the sum of the axial terms from beam a-b and
b-c plus the shear term from beam b-d. k10,10 is the shear term from beam b-d.
14.11
15.4
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15.5 When translation and rotations are both involved, units can be different: Moment per
translation is different that force per translation.
15.6 For the case of a CST, there are only translations, so all stiffness terms have the units of
Force per translation (eg N/m)
16.2
16.3
Each weld has to carry half the shear flow at the base of the web. The minimum thickness at the
weld is w. So, the shear stress is;
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16.4
16.5
16.6
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17.5