1

Chapter 7
AC STEADY STATE ANALYSIS

© Kenneth Kahuma
 2

Learning goals
 By the end of this chapter, the students should be able to:
 Describe the basic characteristics of sinusoidal functions.
 Perform phasor and inverse phasor transformations.
 Draw phasor diagrams.
 Calculate impedance and admittance for basic circuit elements: R,
L, C.
 Determine the equivalent impedance of basic circuit elements
connected in series and parallel.
 Determine the equivalent admittance of basic circuit elements
connected in series and parallel.
 Redraw a circuit in the frequency domain given a circuit with a
sinusoidal source.
 Apply our circuit analysis techniques to frequency domain circuits.
 3

Sinusoids

 Considering the sine wave 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑋𝑀 sin 𝜔𝑡 where

𝑥 𝑡 could represent v(t) or i(t). 𝑋𝑀 is the amplitude,
maximum value, or peak value; 𝜔 is the radian or
angular frequency; and 𝜔𝑡 is the argument of the sine
function. The function repeats itself every 2π radians.
This condition is described mathematically as
 𝑥 𝜔𝑡 + 2𝜋 = 𝑥(𝜔𝑡), or in general for period T, as
 𝑥 𝜔(𝑡 + 𝑇) = 𝑥(𝜔𝑡)
 meaning that the function has the same value at time
t+T as it does at time t.
 4

Sinusoids

Figure 7.1: Plots of a sine wave as a function of both ωt and t.

 5

Sinusoids
 The number of cycles per second, called Hertz, is the
frequency f, where
1
𝑓=
𝑇
 Since ωT=2π(Fig. 7.1a)
2𝜋
𝜔= = 2𝜋𝑓
𝑇
 let us consider the following general expression for a
sinusoidal function:
 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑋𝑀 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)
 𝜃 is called the phase angle
 6

Sinusoids
 Because of the presence
of the phase angle, any
point on the waveform
𝑋𝑀 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) occurs 𝜃
radians earlier in time
than the corresponding
point on the waveform
Figure 7.2: Graphical illustration of 𝑋𝑀 sin 𝜔𝑡. Therefore, we
𝑋𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) leading 𝑋𝑀 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 by 𝜃 say that 𝑋𝑀 sin 𝜔𝑡 lags
radians.
𝑋𝑀 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) by 𝜃
radians.
 7

Sinusoids
 Adding to the argument integer multiples of either 2π
radians or 360° does not change the original function
 The cosine function could be easily used as well,
since the two waveforms differ only by a phase angle;
that is,
𝜋 𝜋
 cos 𝜔𝑡 = sin 𝜔𝑡 + and sin 𝜔𝑡 = cos 𝜔𝑡 −
2 2
 Note:
 − cos 𝜔𝑡 = cos(𝜔𝑡 ± 1800 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑
 −sin 𝜔𝑡 = sin(𝜔𝑡 ± 1800 )
 8

Examples
 Determine the frequency and the phase angle
between the two voltages
𝑣1 𝑡 = 12 sin 1000𝑡 + 600 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣2 𝑡 =
− 6 cos 1000𝑡 + 300 𝑉
Solution
𝜔 1000
𝑓= = = 159.2 𝐻𝑧
2𝜋 2𝜋
 𝑣2 𝑡 = −6 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 300 𝑉 = 6 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 2100 𝑉 =
6 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 3000 = 6 sin 𝜔𝑡 −600
 Therefore, the phase angle between 𝑣1 𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣2 𝑡 =
60 − −60 = 1200 , i.e 𝑣1 𝑡 leads 𝑣2 𝑡 by 1200 .
 9

Exercise
1. Given that 𝑣 𝑡 = 120 cos 314𝑡 + 𝜋/4 𝑉, determine
the frequency of the voltage in Hertz and the phase
angle in degrees.
2. Three branch currents in a network are known to be
𝑖1 𝑡 = 2 sin 377𝑡 + 450 𝐴 , 𝑖2 cos(377𝑡 + 100 𝑡
= 0.5)𝐴 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖3 𝑡 = −0.25 sin 377𝑡 + 600 𝐴 ,
Determine the phase angles by which i1(t) leads i2(t) and
i1(t) leads i3(t).
 10
Sinusoidal and Complex
Forcing Functions

Figure 7.3: A simple RL circuit

 11
Sinusoidal and Complex
Forcing Functions
 KVL equation for the circuit is
𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
 𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑀 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡
 Since the input forcing function is 𝑉𝑀 cos 𝜔𝑡 , we
assume that the forced response component of the
current i(t) is of the form
 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 + ∅)
 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 + ∅) =
𝐴cos∅ cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐴1 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐴2 sin 𝜔𝑡
 Substituting into the DE
 12
Sinusoidal and Complex
Forcing Functions
𝑑
𝐿 𝐴1 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐴2 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑅 𝐴1 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐴2 sin 𝜔𝑡 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑉𝑀 cos 𝜔𝑡
Evaluating and equating the coefficients
 −𝐴1 𝜔𝐿 + 𝐴2 𝑅 = 0
 𝐴1 𝑅 + 𝐴2 𝜔𝐿 = 𝑉𝑀
Solving the above equations simultaneously and
substituting in 𝑖 𝑡 gives
𝑅𝑉𝑀 𝜔𝐿𝑉𝑀
𝑖 𝑡 = cos 𝜔𝑡 + 2 2 2 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑅 2 :𝜔2 𝐿2 𝑅 :𝜔 𝐿
 13
Sinusoidal and Complex
Forcing Functions
Which can be written as
 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 + ∅)
𝑅𝑉𝑀 𝜔𝐿𝑉𝑀
 Where 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∅ = 2 2 2 and 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∅ = − 2 22
𝑅 :𝜔 𝐿 𝑅 :𝜔 𝐿
𝜔𝐿
 Thus tan ∅ = −
𝑅
2
2 2 𝑉𝑀
 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∅ + 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∅ = 𝐴2 =
𝑅 2 :𝜔2 𝐿2
𝑉𝑀
𝐴=
𝑅 2 :𝜔2 𝐿2
 Hence the final expression is
𝑉𝑀 ;1 𝜔𝐿
𝑖 𝑡 = cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝑅 2 :𝜔2 𝐿 2 𝑅
 14
Sinusoidal and Complex
Forcing Functions
 The preceding analysis indicates that ∅ is zero if L=0
and hence i(t) is in phase with v(t). If R=0, ∅ = −900 ,
and the current lags the voltage by 90°. If L and R are
both present, the current lags the voltage by some
angle between 0° and 90°.
 This example illustrates an important point: solving
even a simple one-loop circuit containing one resistor
and one inductor is very complicated compared to the
solution of a singleloop circuit containing only two
resistors. It would be more complicated to solve a
more complicated circuit using this procedure.
 15
Sinusoidal and Complex
Forcing Functions
 Let us determine the current in the RL circuit
examined in Figure 7.3.
 We will apply 𝑉𝑀 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡
 The forced response will be
 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑀 𝑒 𝑗 𝜔𝑡:∅

 Substituting this into the DE, and differentiating, then

dividing by the common factor will give.
 𝑅𝐼𝑀 𝑒 𝑗∅ + 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝐼𝑀 𝑒 𝑗∅ = 𝑉𝑀
 which is an algebraic equation with complex
coefficients.
 16
Sinusoidal and Complex
Forcing Functions
 This equation can be written as
𝑉𝑀
 𝐼𝑀 𝑒 𝑗∅ =
𝑅:𝑗𝜔𝐿
 Converting the right-hand side of the equation to
exponential or polar form produces the equation
𝜔𝐿
𝑉𝑀 𝑗 ;𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
 𝐼𝑀 𝑒 𝑗∅ = 𝑒 𝑅
𝑅 2 :𝜔2 𝐿2
 This shows that
𝑉𝑀 ;1 𝜔𝐿
 𝐼𝑀 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∅= −𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝑅 2 :𝜔2 𝐿2 𝑅
 17
Sinusoidal and Complex
Forcing Functions
 However, since our actual forcing function was
𝑉𝑀 cos 𝜔𝑡 rather than 𝑉𝑀 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 our actual response is the
real part of the complex response:
𝑉𝑀 ;1 𝜔𝐿
 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 + ∅) = cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝑅 2 :𝜔2 𝐿2 𝑅
 Similar to the one obtained previously.
 18

Phasors
 Again, we consider the RL circuit in Figure 7.3. Let us
use phasors to determine the expression for the
current.
𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
 The DE is 𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑀 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡
 The forcing function can be replaced by a complex
forcing function that is written as 𝑽𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 with phasor
𝑽 = 𝑉𝑀 ∠00 . Similarly, the forced response component
of the current i(t) can be replaced by a complex
function 𝑰𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 that is written as with phasor 𝑰 = 𝐼𝑀 ∠∅
 19

Phasors
 Using the complex forcing function, we find that the
differential equation becomes
𝑑
 𝐿 𝑰𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 + 𝑅𝑰𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 = 𝑽𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡
 The common factor can be eliminated, leaving the
phasors; that is,
 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝑰 + 𝑅𝑰 = 𝑽
𝑉 𝑉𝑀 ;1 𝜔𝐿
 Thus 𝑰 = = 𝐼𝑀 ∠∅ = ∠− 𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝑅:𝑗𝜔𝐿 𝑅 2 :𝜔2 𝐿2 𝑅
𝑉𝑀 ;1 𝜔𝐿
 Therefore, 𝑖 𝑡 = cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝑅 2 :𝜔2 𝐿2 𝑅
 20

Phasors
 We define relations between phasors after the 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡
term has been eliminated as “phasor, or frequency
domain, analysis.”
 The phasors are then simply transformed back to the
time domain to yield the solution of the original set of
differential equations.
 In addition, we note that the solution of sinusoidal
steady-state circuits would be relatively simple if we
could write the phasor equation directly from the circuit
description.
 21

Phasors

Time Domain Frequency Domain

𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜃 𝐴∠ ± 𝜃
𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜃 𝐴∠ ± 𝜃 − 900

Table 8.1: Phasor Representation

 22

Exercise
1. Convert the following voltage functions to phasors
 𝑣1 𝑡 = 12 cos 377𝑡 − 4250 𝑉
 𝑣2 𝑡 = 18 sin 2513𝑡 + 4.20 𝑉
2. Convert the following Phasors to the time domain if
the frequency is 400 Hz.
 𝑉1 = 10∠200
 𝑉2 = 12∠ −600
 23
Phasor Relationships for Circuit
Elements
 Resistor

Figure 7.4: Voltage–current relationships for a resistor.

 24

Resistor
 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑅𝑖(𝑡)
Applying the complex voltage 𝑉𝑀 𝑒 𝑗 𝜔𝑡:𝜃𝑣 results in the
complex current 𝐼𝑀 𝑒 𝑗 𝜔𝑡:𝜃𝑖 and therefore
 𝑉𝑀 𝑒 𝑗 𝜔𝑡:𝜃𝑣 = 𝑅𝐼𝑀 𝑒 𝑗 𝜔𝑡:𝜃𝑖

 𝑉𝑀 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑣 = 𝑅𝐼𝑀 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑖

In phasor form
 𝑽 = 𝑅𝑰
 Where 𝑽 = 𝑉𝑀 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑣 = 𝑉𝑀 ∠𝜃𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑰 = 𝐼𝑀 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑖 = 𝐼𝑀 ∠𝜃𝑖 .
 Where 𝜃𝑣 = 𝜃𝑖 . Thus current and voltage for this circuit
are in phase.
 25

Resistor
 Exercise
The current in a 4Ω resistor is known to be 𝑰 =
12∠600 𝐴.
Express the voltage across the resistor as a time
function if the frequency of the current is 4 kHz.
 26

Inductor

Figure 7.5: Voltage–current relationships for an inductor.

 27

Inductor
𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
 𝑉𝑀 𝑒 𝑗 𝜔𝑡:𝜃𝑣 = 𝐿 𝐼𝑀 𝑒 𝑗 𝜔𝑡:𝜃𝑖
𝑑𝑡
 𝑉𝑀 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑣 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝐼𝑀 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑖
 In phasor notation
 𝑽 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝑰
𝑗900
 Since the imaginary operator 𝑗 = 1𝑒 = 1∠900 =
−1
0
 𝑉𝑀 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑣 = 𝜔𝐿𝐼𝑀 𝑒 𝑗 𝜃 𝑖 :90
 28

Inductor
 Therefore, the voltage and current are 90° out of
phase, and in particular the voltage leads the current
by 90° or the current lags the voltage by 90°. The
phasor diagram and the sinusoidal waveforms for the
inductor circuit are shown in Figs. 8.5c and d,
respectively.
Example
 The voltage 𝑣 𝑡 = 12 cos 377𝑡 + 200 𝑉 is applied to a
20-mH inductor as shown in Fig. 7.7a. Find the
resultant current.
 29

Capacitor

Figure 7.6: Voltage–current relationships for a capacitor.

 30

Capacitor
𝑑𝑣(𝑡)
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐶
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
 𝐼𝑀 𝑒 𝑗 𝜔𝑡:𝜃𝑖 = 𝐶 𝑉𝑀 𝑒 𝑗 𝜔𝑡:𝜃𝑣
𝑑𝑡
 Which reduces to
 𝐼𝑀 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑖 = 𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑉𝑀 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑣
 In phasor notation this becomes
 𝐼 = 𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑉
𝑗𝜃𝑖 𝑗 𝜃𝑣 :900
 And 𝐼𝑀 𝑒 = 𝜔𝐶𝑉𝑀 𝑒
 Note that the voltage and current are 90° out of phase.
In particular, the current leads the voltage by 90°
 31

Exercise
1. The voltage 𝑣 𝑡 = 100 cos 314𝑡 + 150 𝑉 is
applied to a 100 μF capacitor as shown in Fig. 7.6a.
Find the current.
2. The current in a 150- μF capacitor is 𝐼 =
3.6∠ −1450 𝐴 . If the frequency of the current is 60
Hz, determine the voltage across the capacitor.
 32

Impedance and Admittance

 Impedance is defined as the ratio of the phasor
voltage V to the phasor current I:
𝑽
𝒁=
𝑰

Figure 7.7: General impedance relationship.

 33

Impedance and Admittance

𝑉𝑀 ∠𝜃𝑣 𝑉𝑀
𝑍= = ∠𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 = 𝑍∠𝜃𝑧
𝐼𝑀 ∠𝜃𝑖 𝐼𝑀
 Since Z is the ratio of V to I, the units of Z are ohms.
Thus, impedance in an ac circuit is analogous to
resistance in a dc circuit.
 In rectangular form, impedance is expressed as
 𝑍 𝜔 = 𝑅 𝜔 + 𝑗𝑋(𝜔)
 Where 𝑅 𝜔 is the real, or resistive, component and
𝑋 𝜔 is the imaginary, or reactive, component. In
general, we simply refer to R as the resistance and 𝑋 as
the reactance.
 The above equations indicate that 𝑍 𝜃𝑧 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋
 34

Impedance and Admittance

;1 𝑋
 Thus 𝑍 = 𝑅2 + 𝑋2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃𝑧 = tan
𝑅
 Where 𝑅 = 𝑍𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑧 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑋 = 𝑍𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑧 .
 For the individual passive elements the impedance is
as shown in Table 8.2.
 35

Impedance and Admittance

Passive Impedance
Element
R 𝑍=𝑅
L 𝑍 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿 = 𝑗𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿∠900 , 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿
C 1 1 1
0
𝑍= = 𝑗𝑋𝐶 = − ∠90 , 𝑋𝐶 = −
𝑗𝜔𝐶 𝜔𝐶 𝜔𝐶

Table 8.2: Passive Element Impedance

 36

Impedance and Admittance

 KCL and KVL are both valid in the frequency domain.
 Impedances can be combined using the same rules
that we established for resistor combinations.
1 1 1 1
 𝑍𝑠 = 𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + ⋯ 𝑍𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = + + ⋯
𝑍𝑝 𝑍1 𝑍2 𝑍𝑛
 37

Impedance and Admittance

 Determine the equivalent
impedance of the network
shown in Fig. 7.8 if the
frequency is f=60 Hz.
Then compute the current
i(t) if the voltage source is
𝑣 𝑡 = 50 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 300 𝑉
 Finally, calculate the
equivalent impedance if
the frequency is f=400 Figure 7.8: Series ac circuit.

Hz.
 38

Impedance and Admittance

 Find the current i(t) in the network if
𝑣 𝑡 = 120 sin 377𝑡 + 600 𝑉
 39

Impedance and Admittance

 Another quantity that is very useful in the analysis of ac
circuits is the two-terminal input admittance, which is
the reciprocal of impedance; that is,
1 𝑰
𝒀= =
𝒁 𝑽
 The units of Y are siemens, and this quantity is
analogous to conductance in resistive dc circuits. Since
Z is a complex number, Y is also a complex number.
 𝒀 = 𝑌𝑀 𝜽𝒚
 which is written in rectangular form as
 𝑌 = 𝐺 + 𝑗𝐵
 40

Impedance and Admittance

 From the expression
𝑅 𝑋
𝐺= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵= − 2 2
𝑅 2 :𝑋 2 𝑅 :𝑋
 and in a similar manner, we can show that
𝐺 ;𝐵
𝑅= 2 2 , 𝑋=
𝐺 :𝐵 𝐺 2 :𝐵2
 The admittance of the individual passive elements are
1 1 1
 𝑌𝑅 = = 𝐺 , 𝑌𝐿 = = − ∠900 , 𝑌𝐶 = 𝑗𝜔𝐶 =
𝑅 𝑗𝜔𝐿 𝜔𝐿
𝜔𝐶∠900
 41

Impedance and Admittance

 The rules for combining admittances are the same as
those for combining conductances;
1 1 1 1
 𝑌𝑝 = 𝑌1 + 𝑌2 + ⋯ 𝑌𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = + +⋯
𝑌𝑠 𝑌1 𝑌2 𝑌𝑛
 42

Impedance and Admittance

 Calculate the equivalent admittance𝑌𝑝 for the network
in Fig. 7.9 and use it to determine the current I if
𝑉𝑠 = 60 450 𝑉.
1 1
𝑌𝑅 = = 𝑆
𝑍𝑅 2
1 𝑗
𝑌𝐿 = =− 𝑆
𝑍𝐿 4
1 1
Thus 𝑌𝑝 = − 𝑗 𝑆
2 4
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐼 = 𝑌𝑝 𝑉𝑠
1 1
= −𝑗 60∠400
Figure 7.9: Example parallel circuit 2 4
= 33.5 18.430 𝐴
 43

Phasor Diagrams
 Impedance and admittance are functions of frequency,
and therefore their values change as the frequency
changes.
 These changes in Z and Y have a resultant effect on
the current–voltage relationships in a network. This
impact of changes in frequency on circuit parameters
can be easily seen via a phasor diagram
 44

Phasor Diagrams-Example

Figure 7.11: Example parallel circuit

 45

Phasor diagrams-example
 At the upper node in the circuit KCL is
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
 𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝐿 + 𝐼𝐶 = + +
𝑅 𝑗𝜔𝐿 1/𝑗𝜔𝐿

0 𝑉𝑀 ∠00 𝑉𝑀 ∠;900
 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑀 ∠0 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐼𝑆 = + + 𝑉𝑀 𝜔𝐶∠900
𝑅 𝜔𝐿
 Note that 𝐼𝑆 is in phase with V when IC = IL or, in other
1
words, when 𝜔𝐿 = . Hence, the node voltage V is in
𝜔𝐶
1
phase with the current source when 𝜔 =
𝐿𝐶
 This can also be seen from the KCL equation
1 1
𝐼= + 𝑗 𝜔𝐶 − 𝑉
𝑅 𝜔𝐿
 46

Phasor diagrams-Example

Figure 7.12: Phasor

diagrams for the
circuit in Fig. 7.11.
 47
Basic Analysis Using Kirchhoff’s
Laws
 We wish to calculate all the voltages and currents in
the circuit shown in Fig. 7.14a.

Figure 7.14 (a) Example ac circuit, (b) phasor diagram for the currents
(plots are not drawn to scale).
 48
Basic Analysis Using Kirchhoff’s
Laws
 Solution
(𝑗6)(8;𝑗4)
 𝑍𝑒𝑞 = 4 + = 8.24 + 𝑗4.94 = 9.61∠30.940 𝛺
𝑗6:8;𝑗4
𝑉𝑆 24 600
 𝐼1 = = = 2.5∠29.060 𝐴
𝑍𝑒𝑞 9.61 30.94 0

 𝑉1 can be determined using KVL:

 𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑆 − 4𝐼1 = 16.26∠78.430 𝐴 (This can also be
determined by voltage division)
𝑉1
 𝐼2 = = 2.71∠ −11.580 𝐴
𝑗6
 49
Basic Analysis Using Kirchhoff’s
Laws
𝑉1
 𝐼3 = = 1.82∠1050 𝐴
8;𝑗4
 (𝐼2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼3 can also be determined by current division.)
 𝑉2 = 𝐼3 −𝑗4 = 7.28∠150 𝑉
 The phasor diagram for the currents 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼3 and is
shown in Fig. 7.14b and is an illustration of KCL.
 50

Analysis Techniques-Nodal

Figure 7.15 Circuits for node analysis

 51

Analysis Techniques-Nodal
 The KCL equation for the supernode that includes the
voltage source is.
𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉2
 + + = 2∠00
1:𝑗 1 1;𝑗
 and the associated KVL constraint equation is
 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 = 6∠00
 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 − 6. Substituting this into the first
equation and solving gives
5 3
 𝑉2 = − 𝑗 𝑉
2 2
5 3
 Therefore 𝐼0 = − 𝑗 𝐴
2 2
 52

Analysis Techniques-Loop
 53

Analysis Techniques-Loop
 The three loop equations are
 𝐼1 = −2 00
 𝐼1 1 + 𝑗 + 𝐼2 2 + 𝐼3 1 − 𝑗 = 6∠00
 𝐼2 1 − 𝑗 + 𝐼3 2 − 𝑗 = 0
 Solving the above equations gives
5 3
 𝐼3 = − + 𝑗 𝐴
2 2
5 3
 And finally 𝐼0 = −𝐼3 = −𝑗 𝐴
2 2
 54
Analysis Techniques-
Superposition
 55

Exercise
 Use Thevenin’s and Norton’s analysis techniques to
obtain a similar result.