Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Background of Study

The Akata Formation, nestled within the extensive Niger Delta Basin in West

Africa, stands as a geological treasure trove of profound geological and economic

significance. This section furnishes the essential backdrop for the research,

expounding upon the formation's geological attributes, and illuminating its

profound relevance within the realm of hydrocarbon exploration.

1.1.1 Geological Setting of the Niger Delta Basin

The Niger Delta Basin, also known as the Niger Delta province, is located in the

Niger Delta and the Gulf of Guinea along the western coast of Nigeria. This

extensional rift basin is complex and holds significant economic value due to its

highly productive petroleum system. It ranks among the largest subaerial basins in

Africa, covering an extensive area. The basin's sediment fill is voluminous and

reaches considerable depths, consisting of various geological formations that

provide insights into its formation and regional tectonics. The Niger Delta Basin is

part of an extensional basin network within the broader tectonic structure known as

the Benue Trough, with the Cameroon Volcanic Line and a passive continental

margin bordering it.The formation of the Niger Delta Basin can be attributed to the
unsuccessful separation of the South American plate and the African plate, which

occurred during the initial stages of the South Atlantic opening. This rifting process

commenced in the late Jurassic period and concluded in the middle of the

Cretaceous period. Throughout this rifting period, a multitude of faults developed,

with many of them taking on the form of thrust faults. Concurrently, sediment

deposition occurred in the late Cretaceous, initially in the form of syn-rift sands

followed by shales. This sedimentary pattern indicates a regression of the shoreline

during this timeframe. Simultaneously, the basin experienced extensional forces,

leading to the formation of high-angle normal faults and the rotation of fault

blocks. Transitioning into the Paleocene era, a notable shoreline transgression took

place.

During the Paleocene period, the Akata Formation was deposited, followed by the

Agbada Formation in the Eocene. This deposition process caused the underlying

shale of the Akata Formation to form shale diapirs due to compression.

Subsequently, in the Oligocene, the Benin Formation began to accumulate, and this

deposition process is still ongoing today. The entire basin can be categorized into

distinct zones based on its tectonic structure. These zones consist of an extensional

zone, located on the continental shelf and resulting from crustal thickening, a

transition zone, and a contraction zone situated in the deep-sea region of the basin.
Fig 1.1 Geologic map of the Niger Delta Basin and the Benue trough, and the oil fields in the

region.
1.2 Exploration Significance:

1.2.1 Hydrocarbon Reservoirs: Understanding the lithological characteristics

and distribution of the Akata Formation is essential for identifying potential

hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Niger Delta Basin. Exploration efforts often target

areas where the Akata Formation acts as both a source and a seal for hydrocarbons

(Tuttle et al., 2015).

1.2.2 Source Rock Evaluation: Explorationists rely on the Akata Formation as a

primary source rock. Its organic-rich shale layers have generated substantial

hydrocarbon reserves over geological time, making it a focal point for assessment

and evaluation in hydrocarbon exploration (Ejedawe, 1985).

1.2.3 Structural Analysis: The subsidence and diapirism associated with the

Akata Formation can create complex structural features in the basin.

Understanding these structures is crucial for explorationists when identifying

potential trapping mechanisms for hydrocarbons (Reyment, 1965).

1.2.4 Economic and Environmental Significance

The Akata Formation within the Niger Delta Basin holds dual significance, playing

a crucial role in both the economic development of the region and its

environmental considerations. This formation's geological characteristics have far-

reaching implications for various sectors, making it a subject of substantial interest.

The Akata Formation is a treasure trove of hydrocarbon resources, including oil

and natural gas. Its clay-rich sediments have acted as both a source rock and a seal,

generating and trapping vast quantities of hydrocarbons beneath the Niger Delta

(Tuttle et al., 2015). This has made the Niger Delta one of the world's major oil-

producing regions, contributing significantly to Nigeria's economy.

1.2.5 Environmental Significance

1.2.6 Ecosystem Impact: The exploration and extraction of hydrocarbons from

the Niger Delta, including the Akata Formation, have raised environmental

concerns. Spills and pollution associated with oil and gas activities can harm local

ecosystems, aquatic life, and vegetation. These impacts have been a source of

environmental degradation and community distress (Vidal, 2010).

1.2.7 Wetland Preservation: The Niger Delta is home to rich and diverse

wetlands that are ecologically sensitive. Environmental preservation efforts,

including those related to the Akata Formation, are essential for safeguarding these

wetlands and the unique biodiversity they host (Ayanalde, 2015).

1.3 Statement of Problem

The complexity of the Akata Formation's seismic characteristics presents

challenges for effective hydrocarbon exploration and reservoir management. The

intricate geological features of the formation, marked by alternating shale and

sandstone layers, introduce a level of intricacy that can complicate standard

exploration methodologies. This complexity can lead to issues such as inaccurate

reservoir identification, ambiguities in Oil-Water Contact (OWC) determination,

challenges in brightspot identification, inefficiencies and costs, and potential

impacts on industry competitiveness.

Given these challenges, there is a clear need for dedicated research efforts to

comprehensively investigate the seismic characteristics and attributes of the Akata

Formation. This research should particularly focus on AVO, OWC, and brightspot

analysis, aiming to bridge the knowledge gap and enhance the precision of

decision-making in hydrocarbon exploration and reservoir management within the

Niger Delta Basin.

1.4 Research Questions

1.What are the seismic characteristics and attributes of the Akata Formation in the

Niger Delta Basin?

2. How can AVO analysis be applied to predict hydrocarbon reservoirs within the
Akata Formation?

3. What methods can be employed to determine the Oil-Water Contact (OWC) in

the Akata Formation?

4. What are the key indicators and methodologies for identifying brightspots within

the Akata Formation?

1.5 Objective of the Study

The objectives of this study are the guiding beacons that illuminate our path toward

a deeper understanding of the Akata Formation's seismic characteristics and their

implications for hydrocarbon exploration.

1. To investigate and analyze the seismic characteristics and attributes of the Akata

Formation in the Niger Delta Basin.

3. To develop methods for determining the Oil-Water Contact (OWC) within the

Akata Formation.

4. To identify and analyze brightspots as potential indicators of hydrocarbon

accumulations in the Akata Formation.

1.6 Significance of the Study

The significance of this study extends far beyond the boundaries of academic

research, reaching into the realms of practical application and industry

advancement. At its core, this research seeks to unravel the complex tapestry of the

Akata Formation's seismic attributes, and in doing so, it holds the promise of

transformative impacts on the fields of geophysics and petroleum exploration. First

and foremost, this study contributes to the reservoir of geological knowledge. The

Akata Formation, with its enigmatic alternating shale and sandstone layers, has

long been a geological puzzle. By meticulously scrutinizing its seismic

characteristics, this research endeavors to shed light on the intricate subsurface

structures and geological processes that have shaped the formation over millennia.

In essence, it adds a new layer of understanding to our geological archives,

enriching our collective knowledge of Earth's dynamic processes.

Yet, the implications of this study extend well beyond the academic sphere. The

practical applications of the research findings are profound, promising to

revolutionize the way hydrocarbon exploration is conducted in the Niger Delta

Basin and beyond. By applying advanced Amplitude Versus Offset (AVO) analysis

techniques, the study seeks to provide explorers with a refined toolkit for

predicting the presence of hydrocarbon reservoirs. This not only enhances the

precision of exploration strategies but also mitigates risks associated with drilling

in unfavorable locations, ultimately leading to more efficient and cost-effective

exploration endeavors. Furthermore, the development of methodologies for

determining the Oil-Water Contact (OWC) within the Akata Formation carries
immense practical weight. Accurate OWC determination is a linchpin of effective

reservoir management. It allows reservoir engineers to optimize production

strategies, ensuring that hydrocarbon resources are extracted with maximum

efficiency. The economic ramifications of this cannot be understated, as even

marginal improvements in recovery rates can translate into substantial financial

gains in the petroleum industry.

Additionally, the study's focus on the identification and analysis of brightspots

within the Akata Formation opens up exciting possibilities. These brightspots,

potential indicators of concealed hydrocarbon accumulations, have the potential to

redefine exploration strategies. A more nuanced understanding of their

characteristics can significantly increase the success rates of exploratory drilling

campaigns, reducing uncertainties and resource wastage.

1.7 Scope of study

This study is only limited to the study Seismic characteristics/attributes of akata

formation, implications for hydrocarbon exploration AVO, OWC, and Brights pot.
 Chapter 2

2.0 Literature Review

Hydrocarbon exploration is an inherently complex and technologically-driven

endeavor, demanding precise geological insights to identify potential reservoirs. In

this context, the seismic characterization of subsurface formations plays a pivotal

role. The Akata Formation, situated in various offshore basins worldwide, has

drawn considerable attention due to its hydrocarbon-bearing potential (Doust &

Omatsola, 1990; Murat et al., 2013). This formation presents an intriguing

geological setting for exploration, marked by its distinct seismic characteristics and

attributes. Seismic attributes such as Amplitude-Versus-Offset (AVO), Oil-Water

Contact (OWC), and Bright Spots have emerged as critical tools for deciphering

subsurface conditions and identifying potential hydrocarbon reservoirs within

formations like the Akata. These attributes are derived from seismic data, offering

valuable insights into the subsurface, and have become integral to the toolkit of

petroleum geophysicists and exploration geologists (Sheriff & Geldart, 1995).

This literature review aims to explore the seismic characteristics and attributes of

the Akata Formation within the context of hydrocarbon exploration. It delves into

the theoretical foundations, conceptual frameworks, and empirical findings that

underpin our understanding of AVO, OWC, and Bright Spots in this geological
setting. By synthesizing existing knowledge and research, this review seeks to shed

light on the relevance and implications of these seismic attributes for optimizing

hydrocarbon exploration efforts within the Akata Formation.

2.1 Theoretical Framework

This introduction sets the stage for the theoretical framework that will guide our

exploration of seismic attributes within the Akata Formation. It underscores the

theoretical underpinnings of AVO, OWC, and Bright Spots analysis, as well as

their application within this unique geological context. In subsequent sections, we

will explore these concepts in greater detail, illuminating their practical

significance for hydrocarbon exploration.

2.1.1 Seismic attributes in hydrocarbon exploration

Seismic attributes serve as fundamental tools in hydrocarbon exploration, offering a

theoretical foundation grounded in geophysics and seismic data analysis. The

application of these attributes to formations like the Akata Formation stems from

their ability to transform seismic wave reflections and refractions into valuable

geological information (Yilmaz, 2001). Seismic attribute analysis involves

extracting or deriving a quantity from seismic data that can be analysed in order to

enhance information that might be more subtle in a traditional seismic image,

leading to a better geological or geophysical interpretation of the data. Examples of

attributes that can be analysed include mean amplitude, which can lead to the

delineation of bright spots, flat spots, polarity reversals and dim spots, coherency,

and amplitude versus offset. Attributes that can show the presence of hydrocarbons

are called direct hydrocarbon indicators (DHIs). Direct hydrocarbon indicators

(DHIs) are seismic measurements that indicate the presence of hydrocarbon

accumulation in the subsurface. Types of DHI are bright spots, flat spots, ‘dim

spots’, polarity reversals, AVO, frequency changes, etc.

Based on the this study we will be explaining the following seismic attributes

1. Amplitude-Versus-Offset (AVO) : AVO, which stands for Amplitude-Versus-

Offset, is a crucial seismic attribute used extensively in hydrocarbon exploration

and geophysics. It involves studying how the amplitude of reflected seismic waves

changes concerning variations in the offset, which refers to the distance between

the seismic source and the receiver. This technique is employed to glean valuable

insights into subsurface rock properties, particularly the presence of hydrocarbons.

The foundation of AVO analysis lies in the fact that different rock layers exhibit

distinctive seismic responses when subjected to seismic waves. When seismic

waves encounter an interface between two rock layers, such as a hydrocarbon

reservoir and surrounding geological formations, part of the incident wave energy

gets reflected back to the surface while the remainder continues to propagate
downwards.

This dependency of reflected seismic wave amplitude on the offset angle at which

it's recorded has been widely recognized since the early 20th century when Karl

Zoeppritz formulated the Zoeppritz equations (Zoeppritz, 1919). These equations

describe the relationship between the reflection coefficient and the angle of

incidence. AVO analysis primarily focuses on how variations in the offset angle

affect the amplitude of these reflected waves.

Fig 2.1. Diagram showing how the layout of sources and receivers affects the angle
of incidence.
The basic concept behind the AVO technique is the analysis of the reflection
process. we take advantage of the fact that the measured amplitude is related to the
strength of the
reflection (reflection coefficient), and that the reflection coefficient depends on
three
parameters:
1. Change in P-wave velocity across the interface
2. Change in S-wave velocity across the interface
3. Change in density across the interface
Vp1, Vs1 , ρ1 - P-wave velocity, S-wave velocity, and density for layer 1.
Vp2, Vs2, ρ2 - P-wave velocity, S-wave velocity, and density for layer 2.
At normal incidence the reflection coefficients depend only on and

1.1.2 Formation and Lithological Composition of the Akata Formation

The Akata Formation, part of the sedimentary fill in the Niger Delta Basin,

primarily consists of fine-grained, clay-rich sediments. It was deposited during the

Paleocene epoch, making it approximately 66 to 56 million years old (Vakarelov et

al., 2017). This formation is situated above the older syn-rift sediments of the late

Cretaceous period and is overlain by the younger Agbada Formation, which was

deposited during the Eocene epoch.The lithological composition of the Akata

Formation is predominantly characterized by claystones and shales. These

sediments were deposited in a relatively low-energy, offshore marine environment.

The formation's clay-rich nature reflects the fine-grained nature of the sediments,

which were derived from the erosion and weathering of pre-existing rocks in the

Niger Delta region (Short et al., 2011).

Fig 2.2 Stratigraphy of the Niger Delta Formation's

2.1.3 Hydrocarbon Potential and Exploration Significance

The Akata Formation is a prolific hydrocarbon source rock in the Niger Delta.

Organic-rich shale layers within the formation have undergone thermal maturation,

leading to the generation of hydrocarbons. These hydrocarbons, primarily oil and

natural gas, migrate from the Akata Formation to reservoir rocks within the basin
(Tuttle et al., 2015). This makes the Akata Formation a critical component of the

petroleum system in the Niger Delta.The upper Akata Formation is cited to be a

primary source rock and a potential target in deep water offshore and possibly

beneath currently producing intervals onshore.

In petroleum geology, source rock refers to rocks from which hydrocarbons have

been generated or are capable of being generated. They form one of the necessary

elements of a working hydrocarbon system. They are organic rich sediments that

may have been deposited in a variety of environments including deep water

marine, lacustraine and deltaic.

2.1.4 Depobelts of the Niger Delta Basin

Sedimentation in the depobelts is a function of sediment supply and of

accommodation space created by basement subsidence and growth faulting.

Growth faults are the dominant structural features in the Niger delta which are

triggered by a deformation of deltaic sediments generated by rapid sedimentation

load and gravitational instability of the Agbada sediment pile accumulating on the

mobile undercompacted Akata shales. Toe thrusting at the delta front, lateral flow

and extrusion of the Akata pro- delta shales during growth faulting and related

extension also account for the diapiric structures on the continental slope of the

Niger delta in front of the prograding depocenter with paralic sediments (Doust

and Omatsola, 1990; Reijers, 1996). Three major depositional cycles have been

identified within Tertiary Niger Delta deposits (Short and Stauble, 1967; Doust and

Omatsola, 1990). The second of these three cycles, starting in late Paleocene to
Eocene time, reflects the progradation of a “true” delta, with an arcuate, wave and

tide dominated coastline. These sediments range in age from Eocene in the north to

Quaternary in the south (Doust and Omatsola, 1990). Deposits of the last

depositional cycle have been divided into a series of five depobelts (Doust and

Omatsola, 1990) as shown in Figure 2.4. At a certain stage however, further

subsidence and sedimentation could no longer be accommodated and the focus of

deposition shifted basin ward to form a new depobelt. Similarly, syn-sedimentary

and most post sedimentary faulting ceased with the abandoned depobelt. A

depobelt therefore, forms the structurally and depositionally most active portion of

the delta at each stage of its development.

 Chapter 3

Research Methodology

3.1 Seismic Reflection Method:

The seismic reflection technique measures the time taken for a seismic wave to

travel from a source (at a known location at or near the surface) down into the

ground where it is reflected back to the surface and then detected at a receiver,

which is also at or near the surface at a known position as shown in Figure 2.5.

This time is known as the two way travel time (TWT). The seismic method gives

important details on the geometry of structures and physical properties of the

materials present in the subsurface. The seismic method is divided into three

processes:

Data acquisition

Data processing

Data Interpretation Data acquisition: Reflection seismology is directed primarily at

finding the depths of reflecting surfaces and the seismic velocities of subsurface

rock layers. The Principle involves, a seismic signal e.g. an explosion is produced

at a known place and time and the echoes reflected from the boundaries between

rock layers with different seismic velocities and densities are recorded and
analyzed
3.2 Well Data

Six wells were made available in the data set 4 of the wells are vertical (KB-1, KB-

2, KB-4 and KB-5) while 2 are deviated (KB-3 and KB-6). The wells are presented

in their various well logs.

3.3 WORKFLOW

3.3.1 Data Loading

Data Loading/ Troubleshooting Data QA/QC Well data evaluation(Pick tops and

correlate across wells) Well-to-seismic tie Fault mapping Horizon mapping Time

map generation Time-depth conversion Depth map generation Seismic attributes

analysis Prospect Identification Volumetric estimation 33 To begin this study, the

available data set was loaded into the petrel software. This was done by first

importing the seismic data which was in SGY format, then the wells were loaded

one after the other. The well data were in LAS File. Directional data for the

deviated wells (ASC File) were loaded thereafter. Check shot data for the various

wells were loaded then loaded. The check shots format was in Text document.

3.3.2 DATA QA/QC

After data loading, data quality check was carried out. The assessment of the data

was to know the quality of the data and to have knowledge of the availability of

some data such as the well logs. This step gives the interpreter an idea of how to go

about the interpretation.

3.3.3 Well Data evaluation Lithology Identification and Correlation

Reservoirs were identified and correlated across the six wells using the Gamma ray

logs and Resistivity logs as seen in Figure 3.3. The lithologies penetrated by the

wells were identified using the Gamma ray log. A shale base line was established.

Deflection of the Gamma ray log signature to the right of the shale base line was

interpreted as shale (non-reservoir lithology) and deflection of the Gamma ray log

signature to the left side of the shale base line was interpreted as sand (reservoir

lithology). For the resistivity log, deflections to the left were interpreted as low

resistivity (high conductivity) and deflections to the right were identified as high
resistivity (low conductivity). Hydrocarbon bearing reservoirs are characterized by

high resistivity. After identifying the reservoirs, petrophysical parameters such as

net reservoir thickness, gross reservoir thickness, porosity, water saturation and

hydrocarbon saturations were calculated. A composite line was drawn across the

base map which assisted in the order in which the wells were arranged.

3.3.4 Identification of Depositional Environments

The stacking patterns of the lithology signature from the logs play a vital role in

predicting the environment in which sediments were deposited. In this study, due

to the unavailability of core data, the interpretation of the environment of

deposition was based on the shape of the gamma ray log only. The principal shapes

observed were the bell, the funnel and the cylinder. The gamma ray log was used

because of its ability to give greater variety of shapes, greater definition and has

more „character‟ than other logs. Some of the environments investigated for in this

study include: 1. Deltaic-Fluvial Environments. The Fluvial environments are

mostly associated with a bell-shaped gamma ray log signature which indicates a

fining upwards pattern of sediments deposition. The Deltaic environments are

associated with a serrated funnel-shaped gamma ray log signature which indicates

a coarsening upwards pattern of sediments deposition. Shallow marine

environments. The shallow marine environment is mostly associated with a bell-

shaped gamma ray log signature which indicates a transgressive marine shelf and a
funnel shaped gamma ray log signature which indicates a prograding marine shelf.

Deep Marine Environments. The deep marine environments includes the slope

channel, the inner fan channel, the middle fan channel, the supra-fan channel and

the basin plain.

3.3.5 Petrophysics

In this study, petrophysics will be carried out to have a better understanding of the

reservoir, interconnection of the pore spaces and how they affect the migration and

accumulation of hydrocarbons. The rock properties that were studied include

lithology, porosity, water saturation, density and permeability. Well logs are often

used to perform these measurements.

3.3.6 Well-to-Seismic Tie

Well-to-seismic tie is the process of tying your well to your seismic data with

accurate synchronization of seismic horizons to well tops as seen in Figure 3.8. To

perform the well-to- 40 seismic tie, a synthetic seismogram was generated and

matched to a real seismic trace thereafter features from the well were then

correlated to the seismic data. The procedures for this process are:

1. Editing and calibrating the sonic and density logs. This process is simply referred

to as the sonic log calibration.

2. Construction of the synthetic seismogram from the calibrated well-logs by

choosing the appropriate reflection series (usually p-waves) and constructing this

series in two-way-time.

3. Performing the match. In doing this, the best match location is determined.

4. After the well-to-seismic tie is done, the quality of the tie can be adjusted by

· Experiment on the wavelet e.g. zero-phase, minimum-phase, ricker, etc

· Bulk shift

· Squeeze

· Stretch

3.3.7 Sonic Log Calibration

The sonic log calibration is the process of bringing the sonic log into agreement

with the seismic times. Practical and theoretical analysis of the factors that

influence the accuracy of well ties shows that timing is paramount (White 1997).

Timing errors in the synthetic seismogram are very unfavorable in estimating

correctly the higher frequency components of the seismic wavelet. Well-log

calibration establishes the timing of the synthetic seismogram. Sonic log

calibration started with picking checkshot times. Thereafter knee points were

chosen. Knee points have to be chosen at major jumps in the sonic log so as to
avoid introducing artificial or abnormal reflection coefficients. Note that

calibration points often show sudden bends at unconformities. Changes in

character of the logs and knee points allow direct control of the calibration. Drift

curve was applied to the sonic log.

3.3.8 Synthetic Generation

At the start of every seismic interpretation, there must be an attempt to tie seismic

reflectors to geologic units through synthetic seismograms. The first goal in

seismic data interpretation is to ensure that the well seismic and the surface seismic

at the well trajectory look as similar as possible. After this is done, events in the

well log and on the surface seismic can be linked thereby subsequently correlating

structures and evaluating properties between wells.

3.3.9 Fault Mapping

A fault is a discontinuity in a volume of rock across which there has been

significant displacement resulting from the movements of rock-mass. Large faults

in the Earth‟s crust are as a result of plate tectonic forces. In this study, it was

essential to map out fault networks on the seismic data. Faults were mapped along

the in-lines before been traced out on the cross-lines. The faults were mapped at a

line spacing of 25m along the in-lines. Faults were identified on the seismic
sections by observing the following seismic behaviors which serve as an indication

of faults:

1. Abrupt terminal of reflection events.

2. Abrupt change in dip along continuous reflections.

3. Obvious displacement along fault plane lines on the seismic section.

4. Breaks in reflection events.

5. Pattern change of reflection events across a fault.

6. Structural deformation in beds above the zone of faulting.

3.4 Horizon Mapping

The horizon mapping was done after the faults were mapped. Before mapping

horizons, seismicto-well tie must be carried out using the generated synthetic well

log. This ensures accuracy in the picking of horizons.

3.4.1 Time Map Generation

After the mapping of the various horizons, the time map for each horizon was

generated. The time map is characterized by contour lines which show points of

equal elevation. Points of equal elevation are also characterized by the same

colour.
3.4.2 Time-Depth Conversion

The time-depth conversion was carried out using Microsoft Excel 2013. The

Checkshot data was used. A Velocity model was plotted with depth (ft) against time

(ms-1). Thereafter, a trendline was generated. Afterwards, a 2nd order polynomial

equation for the trendline was generated which was used in the time map to depth

map conversion. The relationship between time and depth.

3.4.3 Depth Map Generation

The depth map was generated using the 2nd order polynomial which was generated

in the time depth conversion. The depth map was used in prospects identification

and evaluation. The depth map is characterized by contour lines which show points

of equal elevations.

3.4.4 Isopach Map Generation

Isopach maps were generated to show the thickness between each of the horizons

that were interpreted. The Isopach maps were characterized by contour lines

joining areas of equal elevation and colours which show points of equal elevations.

3.4.5 Seismic Attributes Analysis

Seismic attributes is any measure of seismic data that helps in visualization of

features of interpretation of interest (Marfurt, 2005). Attributes such as amplitude,

phase, frequency, polarity and velocity are useful for hydrocarbon indication.

Attributes such as acoustic impedance, reflectivity and transmissitivity are useful

for boundary conditions, hardness and nature of surface. Anomalies due to

variations in seismic attributes appear in seismic sections as velocity sags, bright

spots and flat spots. Seismic attributes are useful in geological interpretations for

defining lithological contrast, bed spacing and thickness, bedding continuity,

depositional environment, gross porosity, fluid content, abnormal pressure,

temperature and polarity of seismic. Sheriff (1980), Chambers and Yarus (2002).

The seismic attributes analyzed in this study includes RMS Amplitude, sum of

amplitudes, sum of energy and average instantaneous phase.

3.4.6 Prospect Identification

Identification of hydrocarbon can be done by locating areas of reducing contour

values and deciding its configuration, whether a four way closure, fault assisted or

fault dependent. Identification of prospects can be supported using seismic

attributes.

3.4.7 Volumetric Estimations

The volumetric estimation requires the volume of the reservoir to be calculated

using the maps and the petrophysical parameters of the particular reservoir.
Volumetric estimated was carried out to find the Oil originally in place (OOIP),

original gas in place (OGIP) and Stock tank oil initially in place (STOIIP).

STOIIP = GRV * NTG * Porosity * (1-Sw)/FVF

Chapter 4

Results and discussion

In this chapter, the reservoirs observed in the various wells, their depositional

environments, geological and geophysical properties are presented and discussed.

The geological and geophysical properties of the field are presented including the

various maps and models. All the maps are presented, tested and prospects are

identified and reservoir volumes are estimated in this chapter.

4.1 Well Correlation and Evaluation

4.1.1 Well Correlation

A lithostratigraphic correlation was carried out across all the wells which was done
by mapping out the top and base of each reservoir unit. 8 reservoirs units were

correlated which includes Sand A, Sand B, Sand C, Sand D, Sand E, Sand F, Sand

G and Sand H. The direction of correlation was determined by drawing a

composite line from west to east linking close wells together as seen. The

correlation is flattened on the base of the continental Benin Formation. The

correlated stratigraphy shows almost uniform layer thicknesses across the field for

most of the levels. However, sand F indicates marked variation in thicknesses with

the thickness part centred around KB-5 (well 5). The thickest part of sand F is

interpreted as channel or the deeper part of a channel. Such a layering scheme

shown in this correlation depicts a coastal to shoreface depositional environment. A

discontinuity of sand G was observed in well KB-5 which is suspected to be due to

erosion of layer.
4.1.2 Depositional Environments

The depositional environments for all the sands were investigated and the results

are presented below. A summary of the results obtained.

Sand A: Sand A has an average thickness of about 400ft across all wells. The

gamma ray signature in figure shows a funnel shape succession. The funnel shape

indicates coarsening upwards of sediments and is most likely associated with a

channel-fill. Sand A represents a period of high energy deposition.

Sand B: Sand B has an average thickness about 200ft across all wells. The gamma

ray log indicates a blocky non-serrated profile. This profile indicates an

aggradational stacking pattern, and probably deposited in a channel.

Sand C: Sand C has an average thickness of about 290ft across all wells. The

gamma ray log indicates a blocky, slightly serrated profile indicating an

aggradational stacking pattern. This stacking pattern is most likely associated with

a coastal environment such as a channel-fill.

Sand D: Sand D has an average thickness of about 260ft across all wells. The

gamma ray log indicates a blocky slightly serrated profile. This profile indicates an
aggradational stacking pattern which is associated with a channel-fill. The top of

sand D indicates a flooding surface.

Sand E: Sand E has an average thickness of about 300ft across all wells. The

gamma ray log indicates a funnel-shaped succession. The funnel shape indicates a

coarsening upwards of sediments with increasing energy of deposition and can be

classified as a prograding marine shelf environment.

Sand F: Sand F has an average thickness of about 1000ft across all wells. The

gamma ray log indicates a blocky, highly serrated profile. This indicates an

aggradational stacking pattern. This stacking pattern is most likely associated with

a channel-fill.

Sand G: Sand G has an average thickness of about 400ft across all wells. There is

a discontinuity of Sand G in well TMB-05. This can be due to faulting. The gamma

ray response shows a funnel-shaped succession which is very serrated. The funnel-

shaped response indicates coarsening upwards of shallow sediments with

increasing energy of deposition and can be termed as a prograding marine shelf

environment.

Sand H: Sand H has an average thickness of about 190ft across all wells. The

gamma ray log indicates a funnel- shaped succession which is highly serrated. The

funnel-shaped response indicates coarsening upwards of shallow sediments with

increasing energy of deposition and can be inferred to as a prograding delta border.
Summary of the sands correlated showing their gamma ray log from well TMB-01,

their stacking pattern and their depositional environments.

4.1.3 Fault Interpretation

The faults were mapped on every 16 seismic section. Faults were noticeable mostly

on the in-line because they were acquired in a direction that is perpendicular to the

regional fault trend. Figure 4.3(a) shows the un-interpreted seismic section while

Figures 4.3(b), 4.3(c), 4.3(d) and 4.3(e) show the interpreted faults. 10 faults

denoted as F1, F2, F3, F4, F5, F6, F7, F8, F9 and F10 were interpreted from the

seismic data (Table 4). Faults F1 and F4 are major faults extending across the

whole field known as major regional growth faults, and they are interpreted to be

the major faults that bounds the coastal swamp depo-belts from the offshore and

central swamp depo-belts (Doust and Omatsola, 1990). Synthetic and antithetic

faults were also interpreted from the seismic section.

4.1.4 Horizon Interpretation

Six Horizons were interpreted across the field which includes sand A, sand B,

sand E, sand F, sand G and sand H as shown in Figure 4.4. Time maps, depths

maps and seismic attributes maps such as RMS amplitude, sum of amplitudes, sum

of energies and average instantaneous phase were generated for each of these

horizons.
4.2 Time Maps

4.2.1 Sand A Structural Time Map

The structural time map for sand A as shown in Figure 4.5(a) is characterized with

a contour interval of 5ft. The colors show difference in elevation of the horizon.

Four faults (F1, F3, F4 and F6) cut through this horizon.

4.2.2 Sand B Structural Time Map

The structural time map for sand B as shown in Figure 4.5(b) is characterized with

a contour interval of 5ft. The colors show difference in elevation of the horizon.

Four faults (F1, F3, F4 and F6) cut through this horizon.

4.2.3 Sand E Structural Time Map

The structural time map for sand E as shown in Figure 4.5(c) is characterized with

a contour interval of 10ft. The colors show difference in elevation of the horizon.

Four faults (F1, F3, F4 and F6) cut through this horizon.

4.2.4 Sand F Structural Time Map

The structural time map for sand F as shown in Figure 4.5(d) is characterized with

a contour interval of 10ft. The colors show difference in elevation of the horizon.

Four faults (F1, F3, F4 and F6) cut through this horizon.

4.2.5 Sand G Structural Time Map

The structural time map for sand G as shown in Figure 4.5(e) is characterized with

a contour interval of 10ft. The colors show difference in elevation of the horizon.

Four faults (F1, F3, F4 and F6) cut through this horizon.

4.2.6 Sand H Structural Time Map

The structural time map for sand H as shown in Figure 4.5(f) is characterized with
a contour interval of 10ft. The colors show difference in elevation of the horizon.

Four faults (F1, F3, F4 and F6) cut through this horizon.
4.2.7 Time-Depth Conversion

Time-depth plot of checkshot data is shown in Figure 4.6. The second order

polynomial “y=0.0005 + 2.6331 + 154.07” was generated from the time-depth plot.

It was used for the time-depth conversion, where y=depth from the well data and

x=time information from the checkshot data.

4.2.8 Structural Depth Maps

4.2.9 Sand A Structural Depth Map

The structural depth map for sand A as shown in Figure 4.7(a) is characterized

with a contour interval of 20ft. The colors show difference in elevation of the

horizon. Four faults (F1, F3, F4 and F6) cut through this horizon. A drilled and

tested area is identified on the map alongside two undrilled and prospect areas. The
tested area is seen to be a fault assisted closure being assisted by fault F3. The

undrilled and prospect areas are both 4-way closures. Figure 4.7(b) shows the sand

A structural depth map in 3D view.

 Chapter 5

Conclusion and Recommendations

5.1 Conclusion

3D seismic interpretation was carried out on the KB Field using well logs and

Seismic data volume. The six wells used in this study were correlated and eight

sand bodies (Sand A, B, C, D, E, F, G and H) were interpreted using their gamma

ray logs and resistivity logs. The sand bodies B, C, D and F show a blocky gamma

ray log motif thus displaying an aggradational stacking pattern indicating a

channel-fill. Funnel-shaped successions noticed in Sands A, E, G and H are due to

coarsening or cleaning upwards of shallow sediments with increasing energy of

deposition which has been interpreted as a prograding marine shelf environment.

Ten faults were interpreted from the seismic inlines denoted F1, F2, F3, F4, F5, F6,

F7, F8, F9 and F10. All interpreted faults are normal faults – growth faults (F1 and

F4), synthetic faults (F2, F6, F7 and F9) and antithetic faults (F3, F5, F8 and F10).

Within the study area, there are neither thrust nor strike-slip faults. North dipping

antithetic fault F3 is a very important fault as it is responsible for trapping

hydrocarbons in wells KB-1, KB-3, KB4 and KB-6. Structural highs such as

rollover anticlines were interpreted to be part of the geology of the study area. Five

selected horizons were mapped out which include; H1, H2, H3, H4 and H5. These

horizons were used for the location of the hydrocarbon zones in the field. From the

structural maps, it was observed that the hydrocarbon accumulations are associated

with anticlines, fault assisted closures and fault dependent closures. The tested

areas from all sands were supported by the seismic attributes maps that were

analyzed. Only prospects in sand A, sand G and sand H were supported by the

seismic attributes maps. The petrophysical values which include the porosity, Net

to Gross, Water saturation, hydrocarbon saturation have values that are almost ideal
for the Niger Delta reservoir sands with average porosity value of 0.24, water

saturation of 0.52 and average Net to gross value of 0.6. The lower the water

saturation, the higher the hydrocarbon saturation in the reservoir sand. 113 From

the volumetric estimations, sand G is seen to have the largest hydrocarbon zone

while Sand F is seen to have the smallest hydrocarbon zone.

5.2 Recommendations

I recommend that the prospects should be tested to improve the viability of the

field especially the prospects that supported by seismic attributes. I as

recommended that this study should be extended to reservoir modelling to

ascertain the 3D distribution of stratigraphic units and for improved resource

assessment

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