Production Automation

(ME - 402 Production Automation)

Dr. Shaukat Ali Shah

Dr. S.A.Shah

Dr. S.A.Shah

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DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Industrial Automation - Machines
 Storage Systems
 Handling Systems
 Assembly Lines
 Assembly Cells
 Machines
 Actuators
 Sensors
 Production Lines
 Production Cells
 Machines
 Actuators
 Sensors

Dr. S.A.Shah

Industrial Automation - Computing

 Computers
 Controllers
 Actuators
 Sensors
 Software

Dr. S.A.Shah

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DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 The Production System

Manufacturing
Support System

Production
System

Facilities:
Factory &
Equipment

Dr. S.A.Shah

Technological Categories of the

Production System

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DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Production System Defined

A collection of people, equipment, and procedures

organized to accomplish the manufacturing
operations of a company

Two categories:
 Facilities – the factory and equipment in the facility
and the way the facility is organized (plant layout)
 Manufacturing support systems – the procedures
used by a company to manage production and to
solve technical and logistics problems in ordering
materials, moving work through the factory, and
ensuring that products meet quality standards

Dr. S.A.Shah

The Production System

Dr. S.A.Shah

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DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Facilities – Factory and Equipment

Factory, production machines and tooling, material

handling equipment, inspection equipment, and
computer systems that control the manufacturing
operations

Dr. S.A.Shah

Manufacturing Support Systems

 A set of procedures used by a company to manage
the overall production and to solve the technical and
logistic problems that may arise in:

 Materials ordering
 Work movement in the factory
 Keeping quality standards of the products
 Product design etc.

Dr. S.A.Shah

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DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Manufacturing Support Systems
 Business functions - sales and marketing, order
entry, cost accounting, customer billing
 Product design - research and development, design
engineering, prototype shop
 Manufacturing planning - process planning,
production planning, MRP, capacity planning
 Manufacturing control
shop floor control,
inventory control, quality control

Dr. S.A.Shah

Production System Facilities

Facilities include the factory, production machines and

tooling, material handling equipment, inspection
equipment, and computer systems that control the
manufacturing operations

 Plant layout – the way the equipment is physically

arranged in the factory
 Manufacturing systems – logical groupings of
equipment and workers in the factory
 Production line
 Stand-alone workstation and worker
Dr. S.A.Shah

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DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Manufacturing Systems
Three categories in terms of the human participation in the
processes performed by the manufacturing system:

1. Manual work system - a worker performing one or

more tasks without the aid of powered tools, but
sometimes using hand tools
2. Worker-machine system - a worker operating
powered equipment
3. Automated system - a process performed by a
machine without direct participation of a human

Dr. S.A.Shah

Categories of Manufacturing Systems

(a) Manual work system, (b) worker-machine system,

and (c) fully automated system

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DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Manufacturing Support Systems
Manufacturing support involves a sequence of activities that
consists of four functions:

1. Business functions - sales and marketing, order entry,

cost accounting, customer billing
2. Product design - research and development, design
engineering, prototype shop
3. Manufacturing planning - process planning, production
planning, MRP, capacity planning
4. Manufacturing control - shop floor control, inventory
control, quality control

Dr. S.A.Shah

Sequence of Information-Processing
Activities in a Manufacturing Firm

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DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Fundamentals of Manufacturing
 Production:

 In general, production is making of something new,

either:
 Tangible (Products)
OR
 Intangible ( Services)
 Intangible ideas are also included under the production
heading

Dr. S.A.Shah

3 Modes of Production
 Primary Industry:
 The basic productive activities present in nature that are the
source of wealth (Agricultural, Mining and Fishing etc.)

 Secondary Industry:
 If someone manufacture a product for the creation of wealth
 Production for the market
 Production in this sense mean making things which are tangible
(i.e. Products) [Manufacturing, construction, Public utility (products)
generation]

Dr. S.A.Shah

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DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 3 Modes of Production
 Tertiary Industry:
 The concept of utility was introduced in this type
 Utility, refers to the degree of satisfaction a human want
 With this concept the meaning of production was widened i.e.
(Production is a creation of Utility)

 Manufacturing:
 Is the conversion of a design into a finished product
 Production:
 Is the physical act of making the product
 Factory or Workshop:
 A Place which executes manufacturing
Dr. S.A.Shah

Principles (Flows) of Manufacturing

 Three flows in manufacturing
 For efficient manufacturing activities, Integrations of these three
flows is vital

1. Flow of Materials: (Material Flow)

 Conversion of raw materials into products (Technical Production)
2. Flow of Information: (Information Flow)
 Planning and Control of Production

3. Flow of Cost: (Cost Flow)

 Economical Production

Dr. S.A.Shah

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DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Flows of Manufacturing
1. Flow of Material: (F.O.M)

 Production of Goods is generally utilization of resources of

production (Manpower, Material, Machine, Money, Information)

 Particularly the Raw Material (In the manufacturing of finished

products)

 This input-output system is referred as a production process

(Production Technology) or Technical Production, simply called as
the Flow of Material (F.O.M)

Dr. S.A.Shah

Flows of Manufacturing
1. Flow of Material: (F.O.M)
 Raw materials are normally supplied by the outside supplier
throughout the process

• From External
Raw Material Supplier

Processed &
• At Workshops
Assembles

Stored in • As Inventories
Warehouses

Finished • Delivered to Consumers

Products as Commodities

Dr. S.A.Shah

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DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Flows of Manufacturing
2. Flow of Information: (F.O.I)
 Instead of just producing products
 It is essential to grasp the market needs and Incorporate those
needs in the production process
 This is the Management Function (Management Technology)

 Manufacturing Technology:
Conducts Planning and Control (This is called F.O.M)

Dr. S.A.Shah

Flows of Manufacturing
 Flow of Cost: (F.O.C)
 Through the Production Process: Raw materials are converted into
finished product with value added
 This Value Added Process: Is the (Flow of Value) or (Economical
Production) or (F.O.C)

 The F.O.I is the Driving Force

 The F.O.I generates the F.O.C
 Proceeds according to the instructions issued from the F.O.I based
upon the market needs

Dr. S.A.Shah

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DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 3 Steps Towards Automation
 Main objective of designing a Manufacturing system is to increase the
manufacturing efficiency and labor productivity. Following steps have
increased both:
1. Introduction of Tools
2. Mechanization
3. Automation

Tool  Is an extension of hand which performs effective actions

Mechanization  Is replacement of human physical labor by machines

 Tools
 Have increased the manufacturing efficiency
 They are then attached to the machine tools due to which the
manufacturing efficiency has further increased
Dr. S.A.Shah

Steps Towards Automation

 Automation
 3rd step was the replacement of human mental labor by machines
i.e. (the Setup, operations and control of machine tools, came to be operated
automatically, rather then by skilled workers)
Hence
 Mechanization
 Is the replacement of human physical labor by machines, but the
control of this machine operation is effected by human operator
However
 Automation
 Also replaces this control action by machines
 Means the replacement of both human physical and mental
activities by machines

Dr. S.A.Shah

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DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Steps Towards Automation
 Mechatronics
 Plays an important role in Automation
 Means Unification of Mechanics (machines) with regard to Physical labor
and Electronics (computers) with regard to mental labor

 Automation (Groover)
 Automation is the technology by which a process or procedure is
accomplished without human assistance

 How it is implemented
 By using a program of instructions combined with a control system that
executes the instruction
 Note:
 Power is required to drive the process, program and control system
Dr. S.A.Shah

Elements of an Automated System

 Basic 3 Elements of an Automated System
 Power (To accomplish the process and operate the system)
 Program of Instructions (To direct the process)
 Control System (To actuate the instructions)

Dr. S.A.Shah

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DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Kinds of Automation
 There can be 3 directions in which automation can be brought
 Automated flow type production (In Manufacturing Industries)
 Automatic control of continuous production (In Process Industries)
 Increase in business efficiency (By Computers)

 These tendencies created the following types of Automation

 Mechanical Automation (Manufacturing Industries)
 Process Automation (Process and Chemical Industries)
 Office or Business Automation (For office work)
Mechanical and Process Automation → called Factory Automation

Dr. S.A.Shah

Kinds of Automation
 Factory Automation (FA)
 Mechanical and Process Automation are mainly concerned with
direct production processes that convert Raw material into
Products (Flow of Material)
 This type of Automation is called Factory Automation

 Office Automation (OA)

 Concerned with management i.e. control of productive activities
(Flow of Information)

When FA and OA are Integrated → Corporate/Enterprise Automation emerges

Dr. S.A.Shah

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DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Kinds of Automation
 Low Cost Automation
 Automation with a small amount of capital
 This emphasize on standardized automatic equipment (Actuators,
Sensors etc.)

 Useful for small businesses

 Used for Mass Production of single product
 Cost effectiveness is great

Dr. S.A.Shah

Kinds of Automation
 High Level Automation / Extended Automation
 Needs vast amount of Capital

 Extended Automation
 Design Automation
 For speedy automatic design and drawing of parts and
products (CADD)
 Laboratory Automation
 For automatic measurements, collection and analysis of Test
Data
 Store/Sales Automation
 For sales management by computers using (POS) point of
sale, techniques
Dr. S.A.Shah

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DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Automation in Production Systems

Two categories of automation in the production system:

1. Automation of manufacturing systems in the
factory
2. Computerization of the manufacturing support
systems
 The two categories overlap because manufacturing
support systems are connected to the factory
manufacturing systems
 Computer-Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)

Dr. S.A.Shah

Computer Integrated Manufacturing

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DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Automated Manufacturing Systems

Examples:
 Automated machine tools
 Transfer lines
 Automated assembly systems
 Industrial robots that perform processing or
assembly operations
 Automated material handling and storage systems to
integrate manufacturing operations
 Automatic inspection systems for quality control

Dr. S.A.Shah

Automated Machine Tools

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DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Transfer Lines

Dr. S.A.Shah

Automated Assembly Systems

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DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Industrial Robots

Dr. S.A.Shah

Automated MHSR Systems

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DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Automated Inspection Systems

Dr. S.A.Shah

Automated Manufacturing Systems

Three basic types:

1. Fixed automation
2. Programmable automation
3. Flexible automation

Dr. S.A.Shah

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DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Fixed Automation (Hard Automation)
 Fixed automation refers to the use of special purpose
equipment to automate a fixed sequence of processing or
assembly operations
 Each of the operation in the sequence is usually simple
 It is relatively difficult to accommodate changes in the
product design.
 This is called hard automation
 Example:
 Automobile industry, steel rolling, paper production

Dr. S.A.Shah

Fixed Automation (Hard Automation)

Dr. S.A.Shah

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DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Fixed Automation
A manufacturing system in which the sequence of
processing (or assembly) operations is fixed by the
equipment configuration

Typical features:
 Suited to high production quantities
 High initial investment for custom-engineered equipment
 High production rates
 Relatively inflexible in accommodating product variety

Dr. S.A.Shah

Fixed Automation
 Low Production cost and high volumes, but,
 With minimal variety and high changes cost (The change
overs)
 Hard Automation (Automation for Mass Production)
 Produces large number of nearly identical parts
 High initial investments (For custom engineered
equipment)
 Product Design must be stable (over its life)

 Examples
 Assembly lines, Transfer Lines
Dr. S.A.Shah

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DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Fixed Automation
 Advantages
 Equipment fine-tuned to application (Dedicated to particular
application)
 Decreased Cycle Time
 Infrequent Setups
 Automated Material Handling
 Fast and efficient movement of parts
 Low W.I.P (Work In Process)

 Disadvantage
 Inflexible (Setup changes are not easy)

Dr. S.A.Shah

Programmable Automation (Soft Automation)

 In programmable automation, the production equipment

is designed with the capability to change the sequence
of operations to accommodate different product
configurations
 The operation sequence is controlled by a program,
which is a set of instructions coded
 New programs can be prepared and entered into the
equipment to produce new products.

Dr. S.A.Shah

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DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Programmable Automation (Soft Automation)

Dr. S.A.Shah

Programmable Automation (Soft Automation)

A manufacturing system designed with the capability to

change the sequence of operations to accommodate
different product configurations

Typical features:
 High investment in general purpose equipment
 Lower production rates than fixed automation
 Flexibility to deal with variations and changes in
product configuration
 Most suitable for batch production
 Physical setup and part program must be changed
between jobs (batches)
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DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Programmable Automation
 Economically producing a wide variety of low volume
products in small Batches

 Examples
 CAD/CAM Systems
 NC/CNC Machines
 Industrial Robots (Arms)

Dr. S.A.Shah

Programmable Automation
 Programmable Automation
 Sequence controlled by a program
 High Investments (In general purpose equipment)
 Lower Production Rates
 Flexibility to deal with variation
 Suitable for Batch Production
 Smaller volumes then Fixed Automation (for many different parts)
 More flexible then Fixed Automation

 Disadvantages
 Setups are required to each new part
 Large batch size (Due to Setups)
 Speed sacrificed for flexibility (Production Rates)
Dr. S.A.Shah

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DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Flexible Automation (Soft Automation)
 Flexible automation is an extension of programmable
automation
 A flexible automation system is capable of producing a
variety of parts with virtually no time lost for changeovers
from one part style to the next
 There is no lost production time while reprogramming the
system and altering the physical set up

Dr. S.A.Shah

Flexible Automation

Dr. S.A.Shah

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DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Flexible Automation
An extension of programmable automation in which the
system is capable of changing over from one job to the
next with no lost time between jobs

Typical features:
 High investment for custom-engineered system
 Continuous production of variable mixes of products
 Medium production rates
 Flexibility to deal with soft product variety

Dr. S.A.Shah

Flexible Automation
 Require less changeover time and allow continuous
operation of equipment and product variety

 Examples
 Manufacturing Cell
 FMS
 Automated Retrieval and Storage
 Automated Guided Vehicles

Dr. S.A.Shah

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DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Flexible Automation
 Extension of Programmable Automation
 No time lost for change over
 High investments (In custom engineered systems)
 Production of Product Mix (Product Varieties)
 Flexibility to deal with design variations
 Low to Medium quantities (Production Quantity)
 Programming and Setup performed OFF-LINE
 More expensive
 Size and Tool change capabilities
 Small batch sizes are justified
 Reduced WIP and Lead Times

Dr. S.A.Shah

Product Variety and Production

Quantity for Three Automation Types

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DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 A Typical Automation Migration Strategy

Aut = Automated workstation

Dr. S.A.Shah

Levels of Automation

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DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Computerized Manufacturing
Support Systems
Objectives of automating the manufacturing support
systems:
 To reduce the manual and clerical effort in product
design, manufacturing planning and control, and the
business functions
 Integrates computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-
aided manufacturing (CAM) in CAD/CAM
 CIM includes CAD/CAM and the business functions of
the firm

Dr. S.A.Shah

Reasons for Automating

1. Increase labor productivity

2. Reduce labor cost
3. Mitigate the effects of labor shortages
4. Reduce or remove routine manual and clerical tasks
5. Improve worker safety
6. Improve product quality
7. Reduce manufacturing lead time
8. Accomplish what cannot be done manually
9. Avoid the high cost of not automating

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DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Manual Labor in Production Systems

Is there a place for manual labor in the modern production

system?
 Answer: YES
 Two aspects:
1. Manual labor in factory operations
2. Labor in manufacturing support systems

Dr. S.A.Shah

Manual Labor in
Factory Operations
The long term trend is toward greater use of automated
systems to substitute for manual labor
 When is manual labor justified?
 Some countries have very low labor rates and
automation cannot be justified
 Task is technologically too difficult to automate
 Short product life cycle
 Customized product requires human flexibility
 To cope with ups and downs in demand
 To reduce risk of new product failure

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DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Labor in Manufacturing
Support Systems
 Product designers who bring creativity to the design task
 Manufacturing engineers who
 Design the production equipment and tooling
 And plan the production methods and routings
 Equipment maintenance
 Programming and computer operation
 Engineering project work
 Plant management

Dr. S.A.Shah

Manufacturing:
Technological Definition

Application of physical and chemical processes to alter

the geometry, properties, and/or appearance of a
given starting material to make parts or products

 Manufacturing also includes the joining of multiple

parts to make assembled products
 Accomplished by a combination of machinery, tools,
power, and manual labor.
 Almost always carried out as a sequence of
operations

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DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Manufacturing:
Technological Definition

Dr. S.A.Shah

Manufacturing:
Technological Definition

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DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Manufacturing:
Economic Definition

Transformation of materials into items of greater value by

means of one or more processing and/or assembly
operations
 Manufacturing adds value to the material
 Examples:
 Converting iron ore to steel adds value
 Transforming sand into glass adds value
 Refining petroleum into plastic adds value

Dr. S.A.Shah

Manufacturing:
Economic Definition

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DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Classification of Industries

1. Primary industries – cultivate and exploit natural

resources
 Examples: agriculture, mining
2. Secondary industries – convert output of primary
industries into products
 Examples: manufacturing, power generation,
construction
3. Tertiary industries – service sector
 Examples: banking, education, government, legal
services, retail trade, transportation

Dr. S.A.Shah

Manufacturing Industries

ISIC Code
International Standard Industrial Classification
 Food, beverages, tobacco 31
 Textiles, apparel, leather and fur products 32
 Wood and wood products, cork 33
 Paper, printing, publishing, bookbinding 34
 Chemicals, coal, petroleum, & their products 35
 Ceramics, glass, mineral products 36
 Basic metals, e.g., steel, aluminum 37
 Fabricated products, e.g., cars, machines, etc. 38
 Other products, e.g., jewelry, toys 39

Dr. S.A.Shah

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DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 More Industry Classifications

 Process industries, e.g., chemicals, petroleum, basic

metals, foods and beverages, power generation
 Continuous production
 Batch production
 Discrete product (and part) industries, e.g., cars, aircraft,
appliances, machinery, and their component parts
 Continuous production
 Batch production

Dr. S.A.Shah

Process Industries and

Discrete Manufacturing Industries

(a) Continuous production, process industries, (b) continuous production,

discrete manufacturing, (c) batch production, process industries, (d) batch
production, discrete manufacturing.

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DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Types of Manufacturing
The key factor that determine the type of manufacturing is
the type of products that are made:

 Two basic categories of Manufacturing

1. Continuous Industries
2. Discrete Parts Manufacturing

 Continuous
 Involves the continuous production of a product, often using
chemical as well as Physical or Mechanical means
(Production of Fertilizer or Sugar)

Dr. S.A.Shah

Types of Manufacturing
 Discrete
 Involves the production of individual items and is further
divided into Mass, Batch and Job-Shop Production
 Job-shop (Low Production)
 Quantities in the range of (1 – 100) Units per year
 Batch (Medium Production)
 Quantities ranges between (100 – 10,000) Units per year
 Mass (High Production)
 Quantities range is 10,000 and above

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DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Production Quantity and Product Variety
 Production Quantity
 Refers to the number of units of a given part or product produced annually
by a plant
 Production Quantity can be classified in 3 ranges (Mass, Batch or Job-
Shop)
 Product Variety
 Refers to the different product types or designs that are produced in a
plant i.e.
 Products with different shapes, sizes and styles etc.

 High Product Variety

 When the number of product types made in a Factory is High
 Low Product Variety
 When the number of product types made in a Factory is Low
Dr. S.A.Shah

Relation between Product Variety and

Production Quantity
 Inverse relation exists between the two
 When product variety is high, production quantity tends to be low
(Change over time losses)
Production Quantity

Mass

Batch

Job-Shop

Product Variety

Dr. S.A.Shah

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DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Product Variety
 The differences in the designs or shapes of the products may
be small or great

 For example, Differences in Air Conditioner and Automobile is

much greater then between an Air Conditioner and a Heat
Pump

 The extent of these differences in the shapes and sizes refers

to the terms HARD and SOFT Product Variety

Dr. S.A.Shah

Product Variety
 Hard Product Variety
 If the products differ substantially
 If the proportion of common parts are very low OR there may be no
common parts
 Difference between a CAR and TRUCK (HARD)

 Soft Product Variety

 Small differences between the Products
 Proportion of common parts is high
 Example (Differences between CAR MODELS)

Dr. S.A.Shah

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DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Types of Production
Two types of Production Modes can be adopted
 Production to Order (PTO)
 Production to Stock (PTS)

 PTO
 Production of items is based upon customer’s order

 PTS
 Products are made in advance and then stored as
Inventory, and shipped as orders are received

Dr. S.A.Shah

Types of Production
 PRODUCTION TO STOCK (PTS)
 Production processes
 Kinds of operations
 Kinds and volumes of resources (Raw Materials)
 The above key parameters are known in advance, which results in
easy Production Planning

 PRODUCTION TO ORDER (PTO)

 Exact product specifications are established on the receipt of the
customer’s order thus result in difficulty in the Production Planning

Dr. S.A.Shah

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DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Job Shop Production
 Main characteristic is very Low Volume Production Runs OF different
Products
 Product Variation is High (Hard Product Variety)
 Products have very low level of STANDARDIZATION (common
components/parts are very few or NIL)
 High Flexible production capability (To Produce Different Products)
 High Flexibility means (Flexible Equipment/Machines capable of
performing different tasks) and Highly skilled work force (Labor)
 Specialized and Customized Products
 Customer’s Orders (Special, and repeat orders may never occur)

 POLICY
 Operate a MTO or ETO Policy
Dr. S.A.Shah

Job Shop Production??

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42
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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Batch Production
 Definition
 Production of a product in small batches or lots by a series of operations,
each operation being carried out on the whole batch before any
subsequent operation is started on that batch
 Characteristics
 Main characteristic is medium volume production run of range of Products
 Production system (should be reasonably flexible)
 General purpose equipment (In order to accommodate fluctuations in
demand)
 Large product variety (Hence, has almost the same complexity of the Job-
Shop)

 POLICY
 Usually uses MTS policy
 Can be MTO Dr. S.A.Shah

Batch Production??

Dr. S.A.Shah

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Mass Production
 Major Characteristic is Large Volume Production Runs OF relatively few
Products
 Products are highly standardized (level of STANDARDIZATION is High)
 Demand is stable for the product
 Stable Product Designs (Changes are very rare and little)
 Production Facilities consists of:
 Highly specialized and dedicated machines, plus associated Tooling
 Machines are expensive (However, cost is allocated over very long
Production Runs)
 Customer Delivery Time (Low)
 Product Life Cycle (Long and Predictable)
 Customer Interaction (Low)

 POLICY
 Uses MTS Policy Dr. S.A.Shah

Mass Production

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Mass Production
 Mass production has two categories:
 Quantity Production
 Flow Line Production

 Quantity Production
 Involves mass production of single part on single piece of equipment
 Uses standard machines with special tools
 Example: (Stamping Machines with Dies)

 Flow Line Production

 Involves multiple machines arranged in sequence
 Parts physically moves through that sequence to complete the product
 Work stations here are (Production machines with specialized Tools)
Dr. S.A.Shah

Types of Discrete Production

(a) Job shop, Q = 1, (b) batch production, sequential, (c) batch production,
simultaneous, (d) quantity mass production, (e) flow line mass production
Dr. S.A.Shah

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Classification of Production Systems

Dr. S.A.Shah

Process Types - Products

Dr. S.A.Shah

46
DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Automobile Production Processes

Dr. S.A.Shah

Toyota Mirai production line

Dr. S.A.Shah

47
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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Toyota Corolla production line

Dr. S.A.Shah

Manufacturing Policies
1. Make to stock (MTS)
2. Assemble to order (ATO)
3. Make to order (MTO)
4. Engineer to order (ETO)

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Manufacturing Policies
 Make to stock (MTS)
 Manufacture of Products is based on well-known and predictable
demand pattern
 Production Volume of each unit is High
 Customer Delivery Time (SHORT) [Finished Goods Inventory]
 Advantage
 Short Delivery Time
 Product Life Cycles (Predictable and Long)
 Disadvantage
 Inventory Costs are High
 Customer’s Interaction is Distant i.e. customer’s Input (only to
sales department)

Dr. S.A.Shah

Manufacturing Policies
 Assemble to order (ATO)
 Sub-assemblies of the product are made and stocked
 After the receipt of order, they are assembled
 Delivery Time (Medium)
 Delivery Time (is based on the availability of the Major sub-
assemblies)
 Assembly only takes place on the receipt of the customer order
 Customer’s Input is limited (Sales Department)

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Manufacturing Policies
 Make to order (MTO)
 Manufacture of the product begins upon the receipt of order
 Many of the base components are available along with engineering
designs
 The product is not actually completely specified
 Configuration of the product may change from the initial
specifications during the processing period
 Customer’s Interaction is Extensive (Involves sales and
Engineering)
 Delivery Time ranges from Medium to Large (Depends on
capacities of the system)

Dr. S.A.Shah

Manufacturing Policies
 Engineer to order (ETO)
 Extension of MTO
 Engineering design of the product is based on the
customer’s requirement and specifications
 Customer’s Interaction (is even more extensive then
MTO)

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Manufacturing Policies

S.NO ASPECT MTS ATO MTO

Customer/Manufacturer Engineering and Sales

1 Low / Distant At Sales Level
Interaction Level

2 Delivery Time Short Medium Long

3 Product Volume High Medium Low

4 Product Range Low Medium / High High

5 Basis of Production Forecast Forecast / Backlog Backlog (Order)

Availability of Capacity for

Available Finished
6 Delivery Time(Based ON) components and Manufacturing OR
Goods Inventory
Major Sub-Assemblies Engineering

Dr. S.A.Shah

Manufacturing Strategy & Lead Time

Delivery Lead Time

Engineer to order
Design Purchase Manufacture Assemble Ship

Delivery Lead Time

Make to order
Inventory Manufacture Assemble Ship

Delivery Lead Time

Assemble to order
Manufacture Inventory Assemble Ship

Delivery Lead Time

Make to stock
Manufacture Assemble Inventory Ship

Dr. S.A.Shah

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Manufacturing Operations

 There are certain basic activities that must be carried out

in a factory to convert raw materials into finished products
 For discrete products:
1. Processing and assembly operations
2. Material handling
3. Inspection and testing
4. Coordination and control

Dr. S.A.Shah

Dr. S.A.Shah

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Processing Operations

 Shaping operations
1. Solidification processes
2. Particulate processing
3. Deformation processes
4. Material removal processes
5. Additive manufacturing (a.k.a. rapid prototyping)
 Property-enhancing operations (heat treatments)
 Surface processing operations
 Cleaning and surface treatments
 Coating and thin-film deposition

Dr. S.A.Shah

Assembly Operations

 Joining processes
 Welding
 Brazing and soldering
 Adhesive bonding
 Mechanical assembly
 Threaded fasteners (e.g., bolts and nuts, screws)
 Rivets
 Interference fits (e.g., press fitting, shrink fits)
 Other

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Other Factory Operations

 Material handling and storage

 Inspection and testing
 Coordination and control

Dr. S.A.Shah

Material Handling and Storage

 Material transport
 Vehicles, e.g., forklift trucks, AGVs, monorails
 Conveyors
 Hoists and cranes
 Storage systems
 Automatic identification and data capture (AIDC)
 Bar codes
 RFID
 Other AIDC

Dr. S.A.Shah

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Time Spent by a Part in a Typical
Metal Machining Batch Factory

Dr. S.A.Shah

Inspection and Testing

Inspection – examination of the product and its

components to determine whether they conform to
design specifications
 Inspection for variables – measuring
 Inspection for attributes – gaging

Testing – observing the product (or part, material,

subassembly) during actual operation or under
conditions that might occur during operation

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Coordination and Control

 Regulation of the individual processing and assembly

operations
 Process control
 Quality control

 Management of plant level activities

 Production planning and control
 Quality control

Dr. S.A.Shah

Production Facilities and Layout

 Facilities organised in the most efficient way to serve the
particular mission of the plant and depends on:
 Types of products manufactured
 Production quantity
 Product variety

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Production Quantity (Q)
 Number of units of a given part or product produced
annually by the plant
 Three quantity ranges:
1. Low production – 1 to 100 units
2. Medium production – 100 to 10,000 units
3. High production – 10,000 to millions of units

Dr. S.A.Shah

Product Variety (P)

Refers to the number of different product or part

designs or types produced in the plant
 Inverse relationship between production quantity and
product variety in factory operations
 Product variety is more complicated than a number
 Hard product variety – products differ greatly
 Few common components in an assembly
 Soft product variety – small differences between
products
 Many common components in an assembly

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Product Variety vs
Production Quantity
P

Dr. S.A.Shah

Low Production Quantity

Job shop – makes low quantities of specialized and

customized products
 Includes production of components for these products
 Products are typically complex (e.g., specialized
machinery, prototypes, space capsules)
 Equipment is general purpose
 Plant layouts:
 Fixed position
 Process layout

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Fixed-Position Layout

Dr. S.A.Shah

Fixed-Position Layout

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Process Layout

Dr. S.A.Shah

Medium Production Quantities

1. Batch production – A batch of a given product is

produced, and then the facility is changed over to
produce another product
 Changeover takes time – setup time
 Typical layout – process layout
 Hard product variety
2. Cellular manufacturing – A mixture of products is made
without significant changeover time between products
 Typical layout – cellular layout
 Soft product variety

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Cellular Layout

Dr. S.A.Shah

High Production

1. Quantity production – Equipment is dedicated to the

manufacture of one product
 Standard machines tooled for high production (e.g.,
stamping presses, molding machines)
 Typical layout – process layout
2. Flow line production – Multiple workstations arranged in
sequence
 Product requires multiple processing or assembly
steps
 Product layout is most common

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Product Layout

Dr. S.A.Shah

Relationships between Plant Layout

and Type of Production Facility

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Product/Production Relationships
P
 Total number of product units = Qf = Q j
 Qj = annual quantity of variety ‘j’ j 1

 P = variety of products from ‘1’ to ‘j’

Product variety
 Hard product variety = differences between
products
 Soft product variety = differences between models
of products
 Product and part complexity
 Product complexity np = number of parts in product
 Part complexity no = number of operations per part
Dr. S.A.Shah

Factory Operations Model

Simplified:
 Total number of product units Qf = PQ
 Total number of parts produced npf = PQnp
 Total number of operations nof = PQnpno

where
P = Product variety
Q = Product quantity
np = Number of parts in product
no = Number of operations in product

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Effect of Number of Parts
and Number of Operations

Dr. S.A.Shah

Limitations and Capabilities of a

Manufacturing Plant

Manufacturing capability - the technical and physical

limitations of a manufacturing firm and each of its plants
 Three dimensions of manufacturing capability:
1. Technological processing capability - the available set
of manufacturing processes
2. Physical size and weight of product
3. Production capacity (plant capacity) - production
quantity that can be made in a given time

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Worked Problem
The ABC Company is planning a new product line and will build a
new plant to manufacture the parts for a new product line. The
product line will include 50 different models. Annual production of
each model is expected to be 1000 units. Each product will be
assembled of 400 components. All processing of parts will be
accomplished in one factory. There are an average of 6 processing
steps required to produce each component, and each processing
step takes 1.0 minute (includes an allowance for setup time and part
handling). All processing operations are performed at workstations,
each of which includes a production machine and a human worker. If
each workstation requires a floor space of 250 m2, and the factory
operates one shift (2000 hr/yr), determine (a) how many production
operations, (b) how much floor space, and (c) how many workers will
be required in the plant.

Dr. S.A.Shah

Solution

This problem neglects the effect of assembly time:

(a) nof = PQnpno = 50(1000)(400)(6) = 120,000,000 operations in the
factory per year.
(c) Total operation time = (120 x 106 ops)(1min./(60 min./hr)) = 2,000,000
hr/yr.
At 2000 hours/yr per worker, w = = 1000 workers.
(b) Number of workstations n = w = 1000.

Total floor space = (1000 stations)(250 m2/station) = 250,000 m2

Dr. S.A.Shah

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Problem 2.4
 The XYZ Company is planning to introduce a new product line and will build
a new factory to produce the parts and assembly the final products for the
product line. The new product line will include 100 different models. Annual
production of each model is expected to be 1000 units. Each product will be
assembled of 600 components. All processing of parts and assembly of
products will be accomplished in one factory. There are an average of 10
processing steps required to produce each component, and each processing
step takes 30 sec. (includes an allowance for setup time and part handling).
Each final unit of product takes 3.0 hours to assemble. All processing
operations are performed at work cells that each includes a production
machine and a human worker. Products are assembled on single
workstations consisting of two workers each. If each work cell and each
workstation require 200 ft2, and the factory operates one shift (2000 hr/yr),
determine: (a) how many production operations, (b) how much floorspace,
and (c) how many workers will be required in the plant.
 If the company were to operate three shifts (6000 hr/yr) instead of one shift,
determine the answers to (a), (b), and (c).

Dr. S.A.Shah

Solution
 Solution:
 (a) Qf = PQ = 100(1000) = 100,000 products/yr
 Number of final assembly operations = 100,000 assy.opns/yr
 Number of processing operations nof = PQnpno = 100(1000)(600)(10) =
600,000,000 proc.opns/yr
 (c) Total processing operation time = (600 x 106 ops)(0.5 min./(60 min./hr)) =
5,000,000 hr/yr.
 Total assembly operation time = (100 x 103 asby ops)(3 hr/product) = 300,000
hr/yr
 Total processing and assembly time = 5,300,000 hr/yr
5,300,000hr / yr
 At 2000 hours/yr per worker, w = 2000hr / wor ker = 2650 workers.
 (b) With 1 worker per workstation for processing operations, n = w = 2500 =
2500 workstations.
 With 2 workers per stations for assembly, n = w/2 = 150/2 = 75 workstations.
 Total floor space A = (2575 stations)(200 ft2/station) = 515,000 ft2
Dr. S.A.Shah

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Solution
 (a) Same total number of processing and assembly operations but
spread over three shifts.
 Number of final assembly operations = 100,000 assy.opns/yr
 Number of processing operations nof = PQnpno = 100(1000)(600)(10) =
600,000,000 proc.opns/yr
 (c) Same total number of workers required but spread over three
shifts.
 Total workers w = 2650 workers. Number of workers/shift = w/3 =
883.33  884 workers/shift.
 (b) Number of workers for processing operations = 2500/3 = 833
worker per shift (884 on one shift)
 Number of workers for assembly = 150/3 = 50 workers per shift.
 Number of workstations n = 833 + 50/2 = 858 (859 on one of the
shifts).
 Using the higher number, Total floor space A = (859 stations)(200
ft2/station) = 171,800 ft2

Dr. S.A.Shah

Production Performance Metrics

 Cycle time Tc
 Production rate Rp
 Availability A
 Production capacity PC
 Utilization U
 Manufacturing lead time MLT
 Work-in-progress WIP

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Operation Cycle Time

Typical cycle time for a production operation:

Tc = To + Th + Tth

where
Tc = cycle time
To = processing time for the operation
Th = handling time (e.g., loading and unloading the
production machine), and
Tth = tool handling time (e.g., time to change tools)

Dr. S.A.Shah

Types of Discrete Production

(a) Job shop, Q = 1, (b) batch production, sequential, (c) batch production,
simultaneous, (d) quantity mass production, (e) flow line mass production

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Production Rate

Batch production:
batch time Tb = Tsu + QTc
Average production time per work unit Tp = Tb/Q
Production rate Rp = 1/Tp
Job shop production:
For Q = 1, Tp = Tb = Tsu + Tc
For quantity high production:
Rp = Rc = 60/Tp since Tsu/Q  0
For flow line production
Tc = Tr + Max To and Rc = 60/Tc
Dr. S.A.Shah

Availability

Availability = proportion uptime of the equipment

MTBF  MTTR
Availability: A
MTBF
Where
MTBF = mean time between failures, and
MTTR = mean time to repair

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Availability

Key: MTBF = mean time between failures, MTTR = mean time to repair.

Dr. S.A.Shah

Production Capacity
Defined as the maximum rate of output that a production
facility (or production line, or group of machines) is able
to produce under a given set of operating conditions
 When referring to a plant or factory, the term plant
capacity is used
 Assumed operating conditions refer to:
 Number of shifts per day
 Number of hours per shift
 Employment levels

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Plant Capacity

Simplest case is quantity production in which there are:

 n production machines in the plant and they all
produce the same part or product
 Each machine produces as the same rate Rp
PC = n Hpc Rp
Where
PC = plant capacity for a defined period (e.g. a week)
Hpc = number of hours in the period being used to
measure plant capacity, hr/period

Dr. S.A.Shah

How to Adjust Plant Capacity

 Over the short term:
 Increase or decrease number of workers w
 Increase or decrease shifts per week
 Increase or decrease hours per shift (e.g., overtime)
 Over the intermediate and long terms:
 Increase number of machines n
 Increase production rate Rp by methods improvements
and/or processing technology

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Utilization
Defined as the proportion of time that a productive resource
(e.g., a production machine) is used relative to the time
available under the definition of plant capacity

Dr. S.A.Shah

Manufacturing Lead Time

Defined as the total time required to process a given part

or product through the plant, including any time for
delays, material handling, queues before machines, etc.
MLT = no (Tsu + QTc + Tno)
where
MLT = manufacturing lead time
no = number of operations
Tsu = setup time
Q = batch quantity
Tc = cycle time per part, and
Tno = non-operation time
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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Work-In-Process

Defined as the quantity of parts or products currently

located in the factory that either are being processed
or are between processing operations

WIP = Rpph (MLT)

Where
WIP = work-in-process, pc
Rpph = hourly plant production rate, pc/hr
MLT = manufacturing lead time, hr

Dr. S.A.Shah

Manufacturing Costs

 Two major categories of manufacturing costs:

1. Fixed costs - remain constant for any output level
2. Variable costs - vary in proportion to production
output level
 Adding fixed and variable costs
TC = FC + VC(Q)
where
TC = total costs
FC = fixed costs (e.g., building, equipment, taxes)
VC = variable costs (e.g., labor, materials, utilities)
Q = output level
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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Fixed and Variable Costs

Dr. S.A.Shah

Manufacturing Costs

 Alternative classification of manufacturing costs:

1. Direct labor - wages and benefits paid to workers
2. Materials - costs of raw materials
3. Overhead - all of the other expenses associated with
running the manufacturing firm
 Factory overhead
 Corporate overhead

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Typical Manufacturing Costs (J Black)

Dr. S.A.Shah

Overhead Rates

Factory overhead rate:

FOHC
FOHR =
DLC
Corporate overhead rate:

COHC
COHR =
DLC

Where
DLC = direct labor costs

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Cost of Equipment Usage

Hourly cost of worker-machine system:

Co = CL(1 + FOHRL) + Cm(1 + FOHRm)

Where
Co = hourly rate, $/hr
CL = labor rate, $/hr
FOHRL = labor factory overhead rate
Cm = machine rate, $/hr
FOHRm = machine factory overhead rate

Dr. S.A.Shah

Cost of a Manufactured Part

Defined as the sum of the production cost, material cost, and
tooling cost
Cost for each unit operation = CoiTpi + Cti
Where
Coi = cost rate to perform unit operation i
Tpi = production time for operation i
Cti = tooling cost for operation i
Total unit cost is the sum of the unit costs plus material cost
Cpc = Cm + (CoiTpi + Cti)
Where
Cpc = cost per piece
Cm = cost of starting material
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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Manufacturing Lead Time

Raw Work in Finished

Materials Progress Goods
Machine
Group

Transport Stores Inspect

•Operating Times
•Non-operating Times

Dr. S.A.Shah

Manufacturing Lead Time

30% 70%
Cutting Positioning, Loading

e.g.
Set-up Time

5% 95%
On Machine Moving and Waiting

Time
1.5% of total time - adds value

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Manufacturing Lead Time

n1 n2 n3

Time

Operation Time
Non-operation Time

To = Operation Time per Machine

Tno = Non-operation Time per Machine
nm = Number of Machines

MLT = nm ( To + Tno )

Dr. S.A.Shah

Manufacturing Lead Time

n1 n2 n3

Pallet of six parts

Q = Number of parts

MLT = nm ( QTo + Tno )

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Manufacturing Lead Time

n1 n2 n3

Pallet of six parts

Tsu = Set-up Time

MLT = nm ( QTo + Tno + Tsu )

Dr. S.A.Shah

Manufacturing Lead Time

Order #1

Order #2

Process Plan (Routing)

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Manufacturing Lead Time

In practice

Q, Tsu, To, Tno and nm will vary considerably

for different order quantities, process routing to find average or aggregate
values before carrying out analysis. e.g.:

nq

 Qi
i 1
Q 
nQ

Dr. S.A.Shah

Operation Times

Operation time has three elements:

Tm = Actual Machining Time

Th = Work piece Handling Time
Tth = Tool Handling Time

To = Tm + Th + Tth

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Rate of Production

• Total Batch Time per Machine

Tsu + QTo

• Average Production Time per Part

Tp = Tsu + QTo
Q

• Rate of Production

Rp = 1/Tp

Dr. S.A.Shah

Lead Times
nq

MLT (Tsui QToi Tnoi)

i1
MLT(Tsu QTo Tno)nm
Job Shop (Q -> 1)
MLT(Tsu To Tno )nm

Mass Production (Tsu + Tno -> 0)

MLT  n m QT o
MLT  n m ( TransferTime  Longest (T o ))

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Production Capacity

Production Capacity, Pc

Pc = WSwHRp

W = number of work centres

Sw = Number of shifts per week
H = Hours per shift
Rp = Rate of production (units per hour)

If process plan requires Nm machines:

Pc = WSwHRp / Nm

Dr. S.A.Shah

Demand Rate

Weekly Demand Rate

Dw = WSwHRp / Nm

WSwH = DwNm/ Rp

Three ways of adjusting capacity

W (number of work centres)

Sw (number of shifts per week)
H (number of hours per shift i.e. overtime)

Dr. S.A.Shah

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Work In Progress

WIP : Amount of product currently located

in the factory that is either being processed
or is in between processing operations

Generally:

WIP = PC U (MLT) / Sw H

Dr. S.A.Shah

WIP Ratio

WIP Ratio = WIP / Number of Machines Processing

PC U (MLT)
Sw H
WIP Ratio =
QTo
WU
Tsu + QTo

Ideal ratio: 1:1

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 Worked Problem
The average part produced in a certain batch manufacturing plant must
be processed sequentially through six machines on average. Twenty
(20) new batches of parts are launched each week. Average
operation time = 6 min., average setup time = 5 hours, average batch
size = 25 parts, and average non-operation time per batch = 10
hr/machine. There are 18 machines in the plant working in parallel.
Each of the machines can be set up for any type of job processed in
the plant. The plant operates an average of 70 production hours per
week. Scrap rate is negligible. Determine (a) manufacturing lead time
for an average part, (b) plant capacity, (c) plant utilization. (d) How
would you expect the nonoperation time to be affected by the plant
utilization?

Dr. S.A.Shah

Solution
(a) MLT = 6(5 + 25(0.1) + 10) = 105 hr
(b) Tp = (5 + 25 x 0.1)/25 = 0.30 hr/pc, Rp = 3.333 pc/hr.
PC = 70(18)(3.333)/6 = 700 pc/week
(c) Parts launched per week = 20 x 25 = 500 pc/week.
Utilization U = 500/700 = 0.7143 = 71.43%
(d) As utilization increases towards 100%, we would expect
the nonoperation time to increase. When the workload in
the shop grows, the shop becomes busier, but it usually
takes longer to get the jobs out. As utilization decreases,
we would expect the nonoperation time to decrease.

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Utilisation
 Utilisation, U = Output/Capacity

Q
 Utilization: U =
PC
where
Q = quantity actually produced
PC = plant capacity

Dr. S.A.Shah

Availability

MTBF  MTTR
 Availability: A =
MTBF

where MTBF = mean time between failures, and

MTTR = mean time to repair

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 Costs of Manufacturing Operations

Fixed costs - remain constant for any output level

Variable costs - vary in proportion to production output
level
Adding fixed and variable costs
TC = FC + VC(Q)
where
TC = total costs
FC = fixed costs (e.g., building, equipment, taxes)
VC = variable costs (e.g., labor, materials, utilities)
Q = output level

Dr. S.A.Shah

Storage Buffers in Production Lines

Storage Buffer
 A small storage system between two processes whose production rates are
significantly different
 Storage buffer is a location in a production line where work units are
temporarily stored
Reasons
1. Different Production Rates
 To accumulate work units between two stages when the production rates
are different
2. Large Task Time Variation
 To smooth production between stations with large task time variations
3. Sections down for Service/Repairs
 To permit continued operations of certain sections of the line when other
stations are temporarily down for service or repairs
Storage Buffer generally improvesDr. S.A.Shah
the performance of the line operation

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 Storage Buffers
 Storage Buffer can be manually operated or Automated
 It may be located between each pair of adjacent Stations or between
Line stages (containing multiple stations)

B.S B.S
m/c m/c m/c m/c
In Put Out Put

m/c m/c m/c m/c m/c m/c m/c

B.S

Stage 1 Stage 2

B.S
Line Stages Out Put

Dr. S.A.Shah

Storage Buffers in Production Lines

A location in the sequence of workstations where parts can
be collected and temporarily stored before proceeding to
subsequent downstream stations
 Reasons for using storage buffers:
 To reduce effect of station breakdowns
 To provide a bank of parts to supply the line
 To provide a place to put the output of the line
 To allow curing time or other required delay
 To smooth cycle time variations
 To store parts between stages with different production
rates

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 Interference (Blocking/Starving)
 In a production line with no internal parts storage, the
workstations are interdependent i.e.
 When one station breaks down, all other stations on the line are
effected
 This phenomenon definitely effects the productivity of the line
 The phenomenon is called Interference
 Interference may be in the form of Blocking or Starving

Dr. S.A.Shah

Interference (Blocking/Starving)
 Blocking
 When station “i” can not release its part to station “i+1”
 Starving
 When station “i” can not obtain a part from station “i-1”
 In either case statin “i” is IDLE during this period even if it is not
malfunctioning and would be able to produce, if it had a part to
operate on

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Storage Buffers

Dr. S.A.Shah

Storage Buffers

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 Storage Buffers

Dr. S.A.Shah

Storage Buffers

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 Blocking, Starving, Buffers
Assume that these are random processing times.

Buffer? Buffer? Buffer?

Activity A Activity B Activity C Activity D

4 per minute 8 per minute 3 per minute 5 per minute

Process Flow

Where is the most important place to have a buffer?

Dr. S.A.Shah

Manual Assembly Line Defined

A production line consisting of a sequence of workstations
where assembly tasks are performed by human workers
as the product moves along the line

 Organized to produce a single product or a limited range

of products
 Each product consists of multiple components joined
together by various assembly work elements
 Total work content - the sum of all work elements
required to assemble one product unit on the line

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 Manual Assembly Line
Configuration of a manual assembly line with n manually operated workstations

 The production rate of an assembly line is determined by its slowest

station
 Assembly workstation: A designated location along the work flow
path at which one or more work elements are performed by one or
more workers

Dr. S.A.Shah

Typical Products
Made on Assembly Lines

Automobiles Personal computers

Cooking ranges Power tools
Dishwashers Refrigerators
Dryers Telephones
Furniture Toasters
Lamps Trucks
Luggage Video DVD players
Microwave ovens Washing machines

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 Manual Assembly Line

 Products are assembled as they move along the line

 At each station a portion of the total work content is
performed on each unit

 Base parts are launched onto the beginning of the line at

regular intervals (cycle time)
 Workers add components to progressively build the
product

Dr. S.A.Shah

Assembly Workstation

A designated location along the work flow path at which

one or more work elements are performed by one or
more workers
Typical operations performed at manual assembly stations
Adhesive application Electrical connections Snap fitting
Sealant application Component insertion Soldering
Arc welding Press fitting Stitching/stapling
Spot welding Riveting Threaded fasteners

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 Line Pacing
 A manual assembly line operates at a certain cycle time -
On average, each worker must complete his/her assigned
task within this cycle time

 Pacing provides a discipline for the assembly line workers

that more or less guarantees a certain production rate

 Several levels of pacing:

1. Rigid pacing
2. Pacing with margin
3. No pacing
Dr. S.A.Shah

Coping with Product Variety

 Single-model assembly line (SMAL)
 Every work unit is the same

 Batch-model assembly line (BMAL)

 Hard product variety
 Products must be made in batches

 Mixed-model assembly line (MMAL)

 Soft product variety
 Models can be assembled simultaneously without batching

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 Coping with Product Variety

Dr. S.A.Shah

Some Definitions

 Work flow
Each work unit should move steadily along the line

 Line pacing
Workers must complete their tasks within a certain
cycle time, which will be the pace of the whole line

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 Manning Level

Two assembly operators

working on an engine
assembly line

Final inspection of a car

Dr. S.A.Shah

Manning Level

 There may be more than one worker per station.

 Utility workers: are not assigned to specific workstations.

 They are responsible for

1. helping workers who fall behind,
2. relieving for workers for personal breaks,
3. maintenance and repair

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Manning level
w
Average manning level: M
n
Practically, average manning level: n
wu   wi
i 1
M
n
where
M = average manning level of the line,
wu= number of utility workers assigned to the system,
n = number of workstations,
wi = number of workers assigned specifically to station i for
i=1,…,n Dr. S.A.Shah

Work Transport System

Manual method Mechanized Methods

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 Work Transport Systems-Manual Methods
 Manual methods
 Work units are moved between stations by the workers (by hand)
without powered conveyor

Problems:
 Starving of stations
 The assembly operator has completed the assigned task on
the current work unit, but the next unit has not yet arrived at the
station

 Blocking of stations
 The operator has completed the assigned task on the current
work unit but cannot pass the unit to the downstream station
because that worker is not yet ready to receive it

Dr. S.A.Shah

Work Transport Systems-Manual Methods

 To reduce starving
 use buffers

 To prevent blocking
 provide space between upstream and downstream stations

 But both solutions can result in higher WIP

 which is economically undesirable

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 Assembly Line Balancing
The purpose of the assembly line balancing technique is:

1. To equalize the work load among the assemblers

2. To identify the bottleneck operation
3. To establish the speed of the assembly line
4. To determine the number of workstations
5. To determine the labor cost of assembly and pack out
6. To establish the percentage workload of each operator
7. To assist in plant layout
8. To reduce production cost

The assembly line balancing technique builds on:

The assembly chart
Time standards
Takt time (minutes/piece) (Plant rate, R value, Pieces/minutes)
Dr. S.A.Shah

Analysis of Single Model Lines

 The assembly line must be designed to achieve a production rate
sufficient to satisfy the demand.

 Demand rate → production rate→ cycle time

 Annual demand Da must be reduced to an hourly production rate

Rp
Da
Rp 
Ow S w H sh
where
Da = annual demand
Rp = hourly production rate
Sw = number of shifts/week
Hsh = number of hours/shift
Ow = number of operation weeks Dr. S.A.Shah

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 Analysis of Single Model Lines
 We convert production rate, Rp, to cycle time, Tc
 Some production time will be lost due to
 equipment failures
 power outages
 material unavailability
 quality problems
 labor problems
 Line efficiency (uptime proportion): only a certain proportion of the
shift time will be available.

Cycle time Ideal cycle time

60E 60
Tc  Rc 
Rp Tc
Production rate, Rp, is converted to the cycle time, Tc, accounting for line
efficiency, E.
Rc = Ideal cycle rate for the line (cycle/hr)
Dr. S.A.Shah

Analysis of Single Model Lines

Rc < Rp [Ideal cycle rate must be less than required production rate]

Rp Tc Tp = average production cycle time

Line efficiency, Ec  
Rc Tp =Tp = 60/ Rp

WL WL = workload in a given time period

No of worker, w
AT AT = available time in the period

Workload to be Rp = production rate

accomplished WL  R pTwc
Twc = work content time

Available time AT  60 E *60 minute

Work content time (Twc): The total time of all work elements that
Dr. S.A.Shah
must be performed to produce one unit of the work unit.

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 Analysis of Single Model Lines

The theoretical minimum number of stations that will be required to on

the line to produce one unit of the work unit, w*:

Twc
w* = Minimum Integer 
Tc
where
Twc = work content time, min;
Tc = cycle time, min/station

If we assume one worker per station then this gives the minimum
number of workers

Dr. S.A.Shah

Theoretical Minimum Not Possible..

 Repositioning losses: Some time will be lost at each

station every cycle for repositioning the worker or the work
unit; thus, the workers will not have the entire Tc each cycle

 Line balancing problem (imperfect balancing): It is not

possible to divide the work content time evenly among
workers, and some workers will have an amount of work
that is less than Tc

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Repositioning Losses

 Repositioning losses occur on a production line because

some time is required each cycle to reposition the
worker, the work unit, or both

 On a continous transport line, time is required for the worker to

walk from the unit just completed to the the upstream unit
entering the station

 In conveyor systems, time is required to remove work units from

the conveyor and position it at the station for worker to perform
his task.

Dr. S.A.Shah

Repositioning Losses

 Repositioning time = time available each cycle for

the worker to position = Tr

 Service time = time available each cycle for the

worker to work on the product = Ts

 Service time, Ts = Max{Tsi} ≤Tc – Tr

where Tsi= service time for station i, i=1,2,..,n

Ts Tc  Tr
 Repositioning efficiency Er = 
Tc Tc
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 Components of Cycle Time Tc

 Components of cycle time at several workstations on a manual

assembly line
 At the bottleneck station, there is no idle time

Dr. S.A.Shah

Line Balancing Problem

 Given:
 Total work content consists of many distinct work
elements
 The sequence in which the elements can be performed
is restricted
 The line must operate at a specified cycle time
 Problem:
 To assign the individual work elements to workstations
so that all workers have an equal amount of work to
perform

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 Assumptions About Work Element Times

1. Element times are constant values

 But in fact they are variable

2. Work element times are additive

 The time to perform two/more work elements in sequence is

the sum of the individual element times

 Additivity assumption can be violated (due to motion

economies)

Dr. S.A.Shah

Work Element Times

 Total work content time Twc

ne
Twc =
Tek
k 1

where Tek = work element time for element k

 Work elements are assigned to station i that add up to the

service time for that station
Tsi = Tek
ki
 The station service times must add up to the total work content
time
n
Twc = Tsi
i 1 Dr. S.A.Shah

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Constraints of Line Balancing Problem

 Different work elements require different times.

 When elements are grouped into logical tasks and assigned to

workers, the station service times, Tsi, are likely not to be equal.

 Simply because of the variation among work element times, some

workers will be assigned more work.

 Thus, variations among work elements make it difficult to obtain equal

service times for all stations.

Dr. S.A.Shah

Precedence Constraints

 Restrictions on the order in which work elements can be

performed

Precedence
diagram

Dr. S.A.Shah

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 Line Balancing Summary

 Objective of line balancing is to distribute the total work load on the

assembly line as evenly as possible among the workers, so that all
workers have an equal amount of work

 When the workstation times are unequal, the slowest station

determines the overall production rate of the line

 Work elements are assigned to the stations, such that assembly cost
is minimized:
 Labor Cost
 Idle Time Cost
 Idle Time Minimization (Focus)
 Production Constraints (Limits)

Dr. S.A.Shah

Concepts in Line Balancing

 Separation of the Total work content into minimal rational

work element

 Precedence constraints, which must be satisfied by these

constraints

Based on these concepts performance measures for the line

balancing solutions are defined

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 Terminology used in Line Balancing

 Minimal Rational Work Element:

 Smallest feasible division of work
 Smallest element into which a job can be usefully divided
 Can not be subdivided further
 Examples:
 Drilling a hole
 Fastening 2 components with Nut/Bolt

 Total Work Content:

 Sum of all the work to be done on the line

 Work Content Time (Twc): ne

 Sum of the work element times Twc = Tek
k 1
Dr. S.A.Shah

Terminology used in Line Balancing

 Workstation Process Time (Tsi):

 Sum of the work elements done at station i Tsi = 
ki
Tek

 Cycle Time (Tc):

 Largest workstation time
 Time interval between parts coming off the line
 Time to produce one product
 Ts should always be less then Tc

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 Terminology used in Line Balancing

 Precedence Requirements:
 Assembly operations must be performed in some proper sequence
 Some operations might not be done before some operations
 Examples:
 Creating a threaded hole
 The hole must be drilled before it can be taped

 Precedence Constraints:
 The restrictions of the sequence in which the job must be
accomplished

Dr. S.A.Shah

Terminology used in Line Balancing

 Precedence Diagram
 A network showing order of tasks and restrictions on their
performance
 Graphical representation of the sequence of work elements as
defined by the precedence constraints
 Shows the sequence in which the work elements must be
performed
 Nodes: Represents the work element
 Arrows: Indicates the order in which the elements must
be performed

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 Example of Line Balancing Problem

Dr. S.A.Shah

Example of Line Balancing Problem

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 Example: A problem for line balancing

A small electrical appliance is to be produced on a single model assembly

line. The work content of assembling the product has been reduced to the
work elements listed in table below along with other information. The line
is to be balanced for an annual demand of 100,000 units per year. The
line will be operated 50 weeks/yr, 5 shifts/wk, and 7.5 hrs/shift. Manning
level will be one worker per station. Previous experience suggests that the
uptime efficiency for the line will be 96%, and repositioning time lost per
cycle will be 0.08 min. Determine (a) total work content time Twc, (b)
required hourly production rate Rp to achieve the annual demand, (c)
Cycle time, and (e) service time Ts to which the line must be balanced.

Dr. S.A.Shah

Example: A problem for line balancing

 Given: The previous precedence diagram and the standard times.

Annual demand=100,000 units/year. The line will operate 50 wk/yr,
5 shifts/wk, 7.5 hr/shift. Uptime efficiency=96%. Repositioning time
lost=0.08 min.

 Determine
(a) total work content time,
(b) required hourly production rate to achieve the annual demand,
(c) cycle time,
(d) theoretical minimum number of workers required on the line,
(e) service time to which the line must be balanced.
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 Example: Solution

(a) The total work content time is the sum of the work
element times given in the table ne

Twc=4.0 min Twc   Tek

k 1
(b) The hourly production rate
100,000 Da
Rp   53.33 units/hr Rp 
50(5)(7.5) 50S w H sh
(c) The corresponding cycle time with an uptime
efficiency of 96%
60(0.96) 60E
Tc   1.08 min Tc 
53.33 Rp

(d) The minimum number of workers:

T
w* = (Minimum Integer  4.0 /1.08=3.7)=4 workers w*  wc
(e) The available service time Tc
Ts=1.08-0.08=1.00 min Ts  Tc  Tr
Dr. S.A.Shah

Measures of Balance Efficiency

 It is almost imposible to obtain a perfect line balance

 Line balance efficiency, Eb:

Twc
Eb = Perfect line: Eb = 1
wTs

 Balance delay, d:
wTs  Twc
d= Perfect line: d = 0
wTs

 Note that Eb + d = 1 (they are complement of each other)

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 Overall Efficiency

 Factors that reduce the productivity of a manual

line

 Line efficiency (Availability), E,

 Repositioning efficiency (repositioning), Er,

 Balance efficiency (balancing), Eb,

60 E Twc Ts Tc  Tr
Tc  Eb  Er  
Rp wTs Tc Tc

 Overall Labor efficiency on the assembly line = E  E r  E b

Dr. S.A.Shah

Line Balancing Algorithms

 Largest Candidate Rule

 Assignment of work elements to stations based on
amount of time each work element requires
 Kilbridge and Wester Method
 Assignment of work elements to stations based on
position in the precedence diagram
 Elements at front of diagram are assigned first
 Ranked Positional Weights
 Combines the two preceding approaches by calculating
an RPW for each element
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 Largest Candidate Rule

1. List all work elements in descending order based on their Tek values;
then,

2. Start at the top of the list and selecting the first element that satisfies
precedence requirements and does not cause the total sum of Tek to
exceed the allowable Ts value

3. When an element is assigned, start back at the top of the list and repeat
selection process

4. When no more elements can be assigned to the current station, proceed

to next station

5. Repeat steps 1 and 2 until all elements have been assigned to as many
Dr. S.A.Shah
stations as needed

Solution for Largest Candidate Rule

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 Solution for Largest Candidate Rule

Dr. S.A.Shah

Largest Candidate Rule

Work elements assigned to stations by LCR

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 Solution for Largest Candidate Rule

Solution to line
balancing example:
a) Assignment of work
elements

b) Physical sequence
of stations with
assigned work
elements

Dr. S.A.Shah

Example:
Balance Efficiency
Twc 4.0
Eb    0.80
wTs 5(1.0)

Dr. S.A.Shah

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 Kilbridge and Wester Method

 Elements are selected for the workstation assignment based on their

position in the precedence diagram

 First, the work elements are arranged into columns in the precedence
diagram
 Organize the elements into a list according to their columns, with
the elements in the first column listed first
 If an element can be located in more then one column, then list all
the columns for that element (In this case element 5 & 8)
 Column wise list should be in order of Tek values
 When the list is completed, proceed with same steps 1, 2, and 3 as
in the largest candidate rule
Dr. S.A.Shah

Kilbridge and Wester Method

Figure 15.7 Work elements in example problem arranged into columns for the Kilbridge and Wester method.

Dr. S.A.Shah

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MED, UET, Peshawar
 Kilbridge and Wester Method

Dr. S.A.Shah

Kilbridge and Wester Method

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 Analysis of single model assembly lines

Kilbridge and Wester Method

Dr. S.A.Shah

Ranked Positional Weights Method

 A ranked position weight (RPW) is calculated for each work element

 RPW for element k is calculated by summing the Te values for all of

the elements that follow element k in the diagram plus Tek itself

 Work elements are then organized into a list according to their RPW
values, starting with the element that has the highest RPW value

 Proceed with same steps 1, 2, and 3 as in the largest candidate rule

 Example:
 RPW 11 = 0.5+0.12 = 0.62
 RPW 08 = 0.6+0.27+0.38+0.5+0.12 = 1.87
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 Ranked Positional Weights (RPW)

Dr. S.A.Shah

Ranked Positional Weights (RPW)

Dr. S.A.Shah

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 Analysis of single model assembly lines

Ranked positional weights

Dr. S.A.Shah

Analysis of single model assembly lines

Ranked positional
Largest Candidate Kilbridge and Wester
weights
Rule method

Dr. S.A.Shah

120
DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar
 Summary
1. Determine Maximum Output
OT (Operating per day)
CT (Cycle time)
D (Desired time)

Cycle Time= OT/D

Output capacity= OT/CT

2. Steps Involved in Assembly Line Balancing

1. Draw the precedence diagram
2. Determine the required cycle time (c)
3. C=(Production time/day) /Output per day (in units)
4. Determine the theoretical no of work stations (Nt = Sum of the task times/cycle time)
5. Select a rule which tasks are to be assigned to work stations and a secondary rule to
break the ties.
6. Efficiency = Sum of the tasks times/[ actual no of workstations x Cycle time ]
7. Balance delay =1-Efficiency

Dr. S.A.Shah

121
DR. S.A.Shah
MED, UET, Peshawar