2.

1 Mass Media and Its Messages

Learning Objectives

1. Explain the different ways mass media affects culture.

2. Analyze cultural messages that the media send.
3. Explain the ways new media have affected culture.

When media consumers think of media messages, they may think of televised public service announcements or
political advertisements. These obvious examples provide a venue for the transfer of a message through a medium,
whether that message is a plea for fire safety or the statement of a political position. But what about more abstract
political advertisements that simply show the logo of a candidate and a few simple words? Media messages can
range from overt statements to vague expressions of cultural values.

Disagreements over the content of media messages certainly exist. Consider the common allegations of political
bias against various news organizations. Accusations of hidden messages or agenda-driven content have always
been an issue in the media, but as the presence of media grows, the debate concerning media messages increases.
This dialogue is an important one; after all, mass media have long been used to persuade. Many modern persuasive
techniques stem from the use of media as a propaganda tool. The role of propaganda and persuasion in the mass
media is a good place to start when considering various types of media effects.

Propaganda and Persuasion

Encyclopedia Britannica defines propaganda simply as the “manipulation of information to influence public
opinion (Britannica Concise Encyclopedia).” This definition works well for this discussion because the study and
use of propaganda has had an enormous influence on the role of persuasion in modern mass media. In his book
The Creation of the Media, Paul Starr argues that the United States, as a liberal democracy, has favored employing
an independent press as a public guardian, thus putting the media in an inherently political position (Starr, 2004).
The United States—in contrast to other nations where media are held in check—has encouraged an independent
commercial press and thus given the powers of propaganda and persuasion to the public (Starr, 2004).

Figure 2.2

54
55 • UNDERSTANDING MEDIA AND CULTURE: AN INTRODUCTION TO MASS COMMUNICATION

Benjamin Franklin used a powerful image of a severed snake to emphasize the importance of the colonies
joining together during the American Revolution.

Wikimedia Commons – public domain.

Like any type of communication, propaganda is not inherently good or bad. Whether propaganda has a positive
or negative effect on society and culture depends on the motivations of those who use it. People promoting
movements as wide-ranging as Christianity, the American Revolution, and the communist revolutions of the
20th century have all used propaganda to disseminate their messages (Jowett & O’Donnell, 2006). Newspapers
and pamphlets that glorified the sacrifices at Lexington and Concord and trumpeted the victories of George
Washington’s army greatly aided the American Revolution. For example, Benjamin Franklin’s famous illustration
of a severed snake with the caption “Join or Die” serves as an early testament to the power and use of print
propaganda (Jowett & O’Donnell, 2006).

As you will learn in Chapter 4 “Newspapers”, the penny press made newspapers accessible to a mass audience and
became a force for social cohesion during the 1830s (Jowett & O’Donnell, 2006). Magazines adopted a similar
format later in the 19th century, and print media’s political and social power rose. In an infamous example of the
new power of print media, some newspapers encouraged the Spanish-American War of 1898 by fabricating stories
of Spanish atrocities and sabotage (Jowett & O’Donnell, 2006). For example, after the USS Maine sunk off the
coast of Havana, Cuba, some newspapers blamed the Spanish—even though there was no evidence—fueling the
public’s desire for war with Spain.

The present-day, pejorative connotation of propaganda stems from the full utilization of mass media by World
War I–era governments to motivate the citizenry of many countries to go to war. Some media outlets characterized
the war as a global fight between Anglo civilization and Prussian barbarianism. Although some of those fighting
the war had little understanding of the political motivations behind it, wartime propaganda convinced them to
 2.1 MASS MEDIA AND ITS MESSAGES • 56

enlist (Miller, 2005). As you will read in Chapter 12 “Advertising and Public Relations”, World War I legitimized
the advertising profession in the minds of government and corporate leaders because its techniques were useful
in patriotic propaganda campaigns. Corporations quickly adapted to this development and created an advertising
boom in the 1920s by using World War I propaganda techniques to sell products (Miller, 2005).

In modern society, the persuasive power of the mass media is well known. Governments, corporations, nonprofit
organizations, and political campaigns rely on both new and old media to create messages and to send them to the
general public. The comparatively unregulated nature of U.S. media has made, for better or worse, a society in
which the tools of public persuasion are available to everyone.

Media and Behavior

Although the mass media send messages created specifically for public consumption, they also convey messages
that are not properly defined as propaganda or persuasion. Some argue that these messages influence behavior,
especially the behavior of young people (Beatty, 2006). Violent, sexual, and compulsive behaviors have been
linked to media consumption and thus raise important questions about the effects of media on culture.

Violence and the Media

On April 20, 1999, students Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold entered their Denver-area high school, Columbine
High School, armed with semiautomatic weapons and explosives. Over the next few hours, the pair killed 12
classmates and one faculty member before committing suicide (Lamb, 2008). The tragedy and its aftermath
captured national attention, and in the weeks following the Columbine High School shootings, politicians and
pundits worked to assign blame. Their targets ranged from the makers of the first-person shooter video game
Doom to the Hollywood studios responsible for The Matrix (Brook, 1999).

However, in the years since the massacre, research has revealed that the perpetrators were actually attempting a
terrorist bombing rather than a first-person shooter style rampage (Toppo, 1999). But did violent video games so
desensitize the two teenagers to violence that they could contemplate such a plan? Did movies that glorify violent
solutions create a culture that would encourage people to consider such methods? Because modern culture is so
immersed in media, the issue becomes a particularly complex one, and it can be difficult to understand the types
of effects that violent media produce.

Figure 2.3
57 • UNDERSTANDING MEDIA AND CULTURE: AN INTRODUCTION TO MASS COMMUNICATION

The 1999 Columbine High School shooting led to greater debate and criticism over violent video games.

Mentat Kilbernes – Columbine Massacre RPG – CC BY-NC 2.0.

A number of studies have verified certain connections between violent video games and violent behavior in young
people. For example, studies have found that some young people who play violent video games reported angry
thoughts and aggressive feelings immediately after playing. Other studies, such as one conducted by Dr. Chris
A. Anderson and others, point to correlations between the amount of time spent playing violent video games and
increased incidence of aggression (Anderson, 2003). However, these studies do not prove that video games cause
violence. Video game defenders argue that violent people can be drawn to violent games, and they point to lower
overall incidence of youth violence in recent years compared to past decades (Adams, 2010). Other researchers
admit that individuals prone to violent acts are indeed drawn to violent media; however, they claim that by keeping
these individuals in a movie theater or at home, violent media have actually contributed to a reduction in violent
social acts (Goodman, 2008).

Whether violent media actually cause violence remains unknown, but unquestionably these forms of media send
an emotional message to which individuals respond. Media messages are not limited to overt statements; they can
also use emotions, such as fear, love, happiness, and depression. These emotional reactions partially account for
the intense power of media in our culture.

Sex and the Media

In many types of media, sexual content—and its strong emotional message—can be prolific. A recent study by
 2.1 MASS MEDIA AND ITS MESSAGES • 58

researchers at the University of North Carolina entitled “Sexy Media Matter: Exposure to Sexual Content in
Music, Movies, Television, and Magazines Predicts Black and White Adolescents’ Sexual Behavior” found that
young people with heavy exposure to sexually themed media ranging from music to movies are twice as likely
to engage in early sexual behavior as young people with light exposure. Although the study does not prove a
conclusive link between sexual behavior and sexually oriented media, researchers concluded that media acted as
an influential source of information about sex for these youth groups (Dohney, 2006). Researcher Jane Brown
thinks part of the reason children watch sexual content is related to puberty and their desire to learn about sex.
While many parents are hesitant to discuss sex with their children, the media can act like a “super peer,” providing
information in movies, television, music, and magazines (Dohney, 2006). You will learn more about the impact of
sexual content in the media in Chapter 14 “Ethics of Mass Media”.

Cultural Messages and the Media

The media sends messages that reinforce cultural values. These values are perhaps most visible in celebrities
and the roles that they adopt. Actors such as John Wayne and Marilyn Monroe came to represent aspects of
masculinity and femininity that were adopted into mainstream culture during the mid-20th century. Throughout
the 1990s, basketball player Michael Jordan appeared in television, film, magazines, and advertising campaigns
as a model of athleticism and willpower. Singers such as Bob Dylan have represented a sense of freedom and
rebellion against mainstream culture.
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Figure 2.4

Tonto from The Lone Ranger reinforced cultural stereotypes about Native Americans. Do you think this type of
characterization would be acceptable in modern television?

Wikimedia Commons – public domain.

Although many consider celebrity culture superficial and a poor reflection of a country’s values, not all celebrities
are simply entertainers. Civil rights leaders, social reformers, and other famous public figures have come to
represent important cultural accomplishments and advancements through their representations in the media. When
images of Abraham Lincoln or Susan B. Anthony appear in the media, they resonate with cultural and historical
themes greatly separated from mere fame.
 2.1 MASS MEDIA AND ITS MESSAGES • 60

Celebrities can also reinforce cultural stereotypes that marginalize certain groups. Television and magazines from
the mid-20th century often portrayed women in a submissive, domestic role, both reflecting and reinforcing the
cultural limitations imposed on women at the time. Advertising icons developed during the early 20th century,
such as Aunt Jemima and the Cream of Wheat chef, similarly reflected and reinforced a submissive, domestic
servant role for African Americans. Other famous stereotypes—such as the Lone Ranger’s Native American
sidekick, Tonto, or Mickey Rooney’s Mr. Yunioshi role in Breakfast at Tiffany’s—also reinforced American
preconceptions about ethnic predispositions and capabilities.

Whether actual or fictional, celebrities and their assumed roles send a number of different messages about cultural
values. They can promote courageous truth telling, hide and prolong social problems, or provide a concrete
example of an abstract cultural value.

New Media and Society

New media—the Internet and other digital forms of communication—have had a large effect on society. This
communication and information revolution has created a great deal of anguish about digital literacy and other
issues that inevitably accompany such a social change. In his book on technology and communication, A Better
Pencil, Dennis Baron discusses this issue:

For Plato, only speech, not writing, can produce the kind of back-and-forth—the dialogue—that’s needed to get at the
truth…the text, orphaned by its author once it’s on the page, cannot defend itself against misreading…. These are strong
arguments, but even in Plato’s day they had been rendered moot by the success of the written word. Although the literacy
rate in classical Greece was well below 10 percent, writing had become an important feature of the culture. People had
learned to trust and use certain kinds of writing—legal texts, public inscriptions, business documents, personal letters, and
even literature—and as they did so, they realized that writing, on closer examination, turned out to be neither more nor less
reliable or ambiguous than the spoken word, and it was just as real (Baron, 2009).

Baron makes the point that all communication revolutions have created upheavals and have changed the standards
of literacy and communication. This historical perspective gives a positive interpretation to some otherwise
ominous developments in communication and culture.

Information
The Internet has made an incredible amount of new information available to the general public. Both this wealth
of information and the ways people process it are having an enormous effect on culture. New perceptions of
information have emerged as access to it grows. Older-media consumption habits required in-depth processing of
information through a particular form of media. For example, consumers read, watched, or viewed a news report
in its entirety, typically within the context of a news publication or program. Fiction appeared in book or magazine
form.

Today, information is easier to access, thus more likely to traverse several forms of media. An individual may
read an article on a news website and then forward part of it to a friend. That person in turn describes it to a
coworker without having seen the original context. The ready availability of information through search engines
61 • UNDERSTANDING MEDIA AND CULTURE: AN INTRODUCTION TO MASS COMMUNICATION

may explain how a clearly satirical Onion article on the Harry Potter phenomenon came to be taken as fact.
Increasingly, media outlets cater to this habit of searching for specific bits of information devoid of context.
Information that will attract the most attention is often featured at the expense of more important stories. At one
point on March 11, 2010, for example, The Washington Post website’s most popular story was “Maintaining a Sex
Life (Kakutani, 2010).”

Another important development in the media’s approach to information is its increasing subjectivity. Some
analysts have used the term cyberbalkanization to describe the way media consumers filter information.
Balkanization is an allusion to the political fragmentation of Eastern Europe’s Balkan states following World War
I, when the Ottoman Empire disintegrated into a number of ethnic and political fragments. Customized news feeds
allow individuals to receive only the kinds of news and information they want and thus block out sources that
report unwanted stories or perspectives. Many cultural critics have pointed to this kind of information filtering
as the source of increasing political division and resulting loss of civic discourse. When media consumers hear
only the information they want to, the common ground of public discourse that stems from general agreement on
certain principles inevitably grows smaller (Kakutani, 2010).

Literacy
On one hand, the growth of the Internet as the primary information source exposes the public to increased
levels of text, thereby increasing overall literacy. Indeed, written text is essential to the Internet: Web content is
overwhelmingly text-based, and successful participation in Internet culture through the use of blogs, forums, or a
personal website requires a degree of textual literacy that is not necessary for engagement in television, music, or
movies.

Critics of Internet literacy, however, describe the majority of forum and blog posts as subliterate, and argue that the
Internet has replaced the printed newspapers and books that actually raised the standards of literacy. One nuanced
look at the Internet’s effect on the way a culture processes and perceives information states that literacy will not
simply increase or decrease, but will change qualitatively (Choney, 2010). Perhaps the standards for literacy will
shift to an emphasis on simplicity and directness, for example, rather than on elaborate uses of language.

News
 2.1 MASS MEDIA AND ITS MESSAGES • 62

Figure 2.5

President Barack Obama fired General Stanley McChrystal after a

controversial Rolling Stone story in which McChrystal spoke poorly of the
Obama administration was leaked on the Internet.

Wikimedia Commons – public domain.

Certainly, the Internet has affected the way that cultures consume news. The public expects to receive information
quickly, and news outlets respond rapidly to breaking stories. On Monday, June 21, 2010, for example, a
spokesperson for Rolling Stone magazine first released quotes from a story featuring General Stanley McChrystal
publicly criticizing members of the Obama administration on matters of foreign policy. By that evening, the
story had become national news despite the fact Rolling Stone didn’t even post it to its website until Tuesday
morning—some time after several news outlets had already posted the entire story on their own sites. Later
that same day, McChrystal issued a public apology, and on Wednesday flew to Washington where President
Barack Obama fired him. The printed Rolling Stone issue featuring the article hit newsstands Friday, 2 days after
McChrystal had been replaced (Timpane, 2010).

Convergence Culture
The term convergence can hold several different meanings. In his book Convergence Culture: Where Old and New
Media Collide, Henry Jenkins offers a useful definition of convergence as it applies to new media:
63 • UNDERSTANDING MEDIA AND CULTURE: AN INTRODUCTION TO MASS COMMUNICATION

“By convergence, I mean the flow of content across multiple media platforms, the cooperation between multiple media
industries, and the migratory behavior of media audiences who will go almost anywhere in search of the kinds of entertainment
experiences they want (Jenkins, 2006).”

A self-produced video on the YouTube website that gains enormous popularity and thus receives the attention
of a news outlet is a good example of this migration of both content and audiences. Consider this flow: The
video appears and gains notoriety, so a news outlet broadcasts a story about the video, which in turn increases
its popularity on YouTube. This migration works in a number of ways. Humorous or poignant excerpts from
television or radio broadcasts are often posted on social media sites and blogs, where they gain popularity and are
seen by more people than had seen the original broadcast.

Thanks to new media, consumers now view all types of media as participatory. For example, the massively
popular talent show American Idol combines an older-media format—television—with modern media
consumption patterns by allowing the home audience to vote for a favorite contestant. However, American Idol
segments regularly appear on YouTube and other websites, where people who may never have seen the show
comment on and dissect them. Phone companies report a regular increase in phone traffic following the show,
presumably caused by viewers calling in to cast their votes or simply to discuss the program with friends and
family. As a result, more people are exposed to the themes, principles, and culture of American Idol than the
number of people who actually watch the show (Jenkins, 2006).

New media have encouraged greater personal participation in media as a whole. Although the long-term cultural
consequences of this shift cannot yet be assessed, the development is undeniably a novel one. As audiences
become more adept at navigating media, this trend will undoubtedly increase.

Bert Is Evil

Figure 2.6

Jughead – evil bert – CC

BY-NC-ND 2.0.

In 2001, high school student Dino Ignacio created a collage of Sesame Street character Bert with terrorist
Osama bin Laden as part of a series for his website. Called “Bert Is Evil,” the series featured the puppet
engaged in a variety of illicit activities. A Bangladesh-based publisher looking for images of bin Laden
found the collage on the Internet and used it in an anti-American protest poster, presumably without