CHAPTER

ROTATIONAL
DYNAMICS FOR
RIGID BODIES
If each element of a body be multiplied into the square of its distance
from the axis OA and all these products be collected into one sum and if this
is put = Mkk, which I call the moment of inertia of the body with respect to the
axis OA, then the moment of force required to produce acceleration a will be
Mkk • a.
• Leonhard Euler, in Theoria Motus Corporum Solidorum seu Rigidorum (1765)

14.1 ROTATION OF A RIGID BODY ABOUT A FIXED AXIS

The motion of bodies is determined by Newton's laws. The detailed application of these
laws, however, to actual problems such as the motion of the earth under all forces exerted
on it by the sun, the moon, and the other planets is a complex matter. One of the main
difficulties is that the earth does not spin about a fixed axis in space. Another complication,
which manifests itself in tides, is that the earth is not perfectly rigid.
363

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 364 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS FOR RIGID BODIES

We will tackle some of these complications in due course, but for the present we
confine our attention to rigid bodies rotating about fixed axes. The rotation of a flywheel,
for example, occurs about a fixed axis. The rolling of a wheel along a straight path
involves rotation about an axis which, while moving in space, does not change its
direction. These problems are relatively simple. Moreover, we have already noted that
torque bears the same relation to rotation as force bears to translation, and in the case of
rigid-body rotation we shall find a number of further analogies between rotational and
translational quantities.

14.2 CENTER OF MASS OF A CONTINUOUS MASS DISTRIBUTION

Before entering into the details of rigid-body rotation, we need to become more familiar
with the techniques for locating the center of mass of an extended body. We recall from
Chapter 11 that the center of mass of any extended body, rigid or not, plays a basic role
in mechanics as the point r at which Newton's second law acts in the simple form
d2f _ _

Later in this chapter we shall find that complicated motion involving rotation is best
analyzed if we divide the problem mentally into a motion of the center of mass and a
rotation about the center of mass. We shall also find that in rotational problems a new
quantity called moment of inertia enters quite naturally and plays the role of inertia.
Calculation of moment of inertia is closely related to that for determining center of mass.
Therefore we turn now to the center of mass of a continuous mass distribution, generalizing
the discussion initiated in Chapter 11.
In Eq. (11.8) we defined the center of mass of a system of n positive masses mu m2,
. . ., mn located at discrete points ru r 2 , . . ., rn by the weighted sum

where M = S? = 1 mt is the total mass of the system.

When we deal with a system whose total mass is distributed along all the points of
an interval or throughout some region in the plane rather than at a finite number of discrete
points, the concepts of mass and center of mass are defined by integrals rather than sums.
For example, consider a rod of length L made of material of varying density. Place
the rod along the positive x axis with one end at the origin, and let m(x) denote the mass
of the portion of the rod from 0 to x. If there is a continuous function X such that

m(x) = £ k(x') dx\

then

—
ax

and the function X is called the mass density of the rod. The number k(x) is the mass
per unit length at the point x.

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 14.2 CENTER OF MASS OF A CONTINUOUS MASS DISTRIBUTION 365

The integral
'L

l x\(x) dx,

also written as /& x dm, is called the first moment of the rod about 0. The center of mass
is the point whose x coordinate is
1 fL
x = —- xk(x)dx. (14.1)
m(L) Jo
This formula is analogous to that in (11.8) except that the sums are now replaced by
integrals.

Example 1
A rod of length L has mass per unit length \(x). Locate the center of mass if
(a) X(JC) = X = const. (Such a rod is called uniform.)
(b) \(x) = ex2, where c is constant.
The mass of the rod is m(L) = /£ k(x) dx and the center of mass is located at
1 fL
x = —— xk(x) dx.
m(L) Jo
(a) If k(x) = X (a constant) then the mass is m(L) = XL and

X
XL Jo XL 2 2"
The center of mass lies at the center of the rod, as expected.
(b) If \(x) = ex2 the mass is m(L) = J{j ex2 dx = \cL3 and

3 [L
cL3 Jo
Jo - cL3 4 " 4'
The center of mass is three-quarters of the way toward the heavy end.

If mass is distributed throughout a plane region rather than on a line, the concepts
of mass and center of mass are defined by double integrals.
For example, consider a thin plate having the shape of a region S. Assume that matter
is distributed over this plate with a known mass density (mass per unit area). This means
there is a nonnegative function p defined on S such that p(x, y) is the mass per unit area
at the point (x, y). The total mass m(S) of the plate is defined by the double integral

m(S) = J J p(x, y) £fc rfy.

s

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 366 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS FOR RIGID BODIES

By analogy with (14.1) the center of mass is the point (x, y) whose coordinates x and
y are determined by the equations
1
x = m(S) J J xp(x, y) dx dy (14.2)

and

(14.3)

In order to understand these definitions it is necessary to explain the concept of the

double integral. For the applications we have in mind, double integrals can be expressed
in terms of the ordinary one-dimensional integrals that were introduced in Chapter 3.
Specifically, suppose the region S consists of all points (x, y) lying between two curves
y ~ 8i(x) a n d y — gi(x)> w ith a ^ x ^ b, as shown in Fig. 14.1. Then an integral of
the form

yk

Figure 14.1 Region of integration S.

J j F(x, y) dx dy
s
is defined as follows:

jj FQc, y)dxdy = j ( [ ^ F(x, y) dy ) dx. (14.4)

gi(x)

The right-hand side of Eq. (14.4) is to be interpreted as follows. First calculate the one-
dimensional integral
[82(x)
F{x, y) dy
JgiM

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 14.2 CENTER OF MASS OF A CONTINUOUS MASS DISTRIBUTION 367

in which x is kept fixed and F(x, y) is thought of as a function of y, integrated from y

= gi(x) to y = g2(x). The result of this first integration is a number depending on x\
hence it is a function of x which we then integrate from x = a to x = b to obtain the
double integral. This definition is illustrated in the next example.

Example 2
An isosceles triangular plate has a constant mass density p per unit area and altitude A,
as shown in the figure. Find its center of mass.

We place the triangle with its axis of symmetry along the x axis and one vertex at
the origin. The two equal sides of the triangle have slopes c and — c, and the triangular
region S consists of all points between the two curves,
y = — ex and y = ex (0 ^ x ^ h).
Hence the mass of the plate is
r r rh / rex \ rh
m(S) = \\ pdxdy = I pdy) dx = I 2pcx dx = pch2.
JJ Jo \J -ex J Jo
The x coordinate of the center of mass is

1 1
x = m(S) px dx dy = dy) dx
pch2

1 2/z
Ipcx2 dx =
Jo pch2 3'

The same calculation for y gives y = 0 because $clcx y dy = 0. This is to be expected

because the center of mass should lie on the axis of symmetry.

Example 3
Find the center of mass of a semicircular disk D of radius R and constant mass density
P-

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 368 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS FOR RIGID BODIES

When D is placed as shown in the figure it lies between the two curves
y =0 and y = \/R2 ~ x2 (-R ^ x ^ R).

-R

Its mass is
r r CR / rV/?2 -xi \
m(D) = \\9dxdy = \_ M pdyjdx
X
D '

(R / ^ , pTT/?2
= pVR2 - x2 dx = p(area of D) = -——.
J -R 2

For the center of mass (x, y) we have x = 0 by symmetry, and

-—rm(D)J-R \Jo
m(D)J-*
2 R
[ p _
PJ ^y H ^

pir/? 2 J-^2
2 2p/e3
3 3TT*

A number of properties of center of mass were discovered by Pappus of Alexandria,

who lived around 300 A.D. and was one of the last geometers of the Alexandrian school
of Greek mathematics. We mention two of his theorems, which often enable us to
determine the center of mass without the use of integration.
One theorem states that the center of mass of a uniform region (constant mass density)
lies on any line which is an axis of symmetry of the region.
Another theorem of Pappus states that a region C that is the union of two non-
overlapping regions A and B has its center of mass on a line joining the center of mass
of A and the center of mass of B.
To illustrate the use of these theorems we consider two examples shown in Figs.
14.2 and 14.3. In Fig. 14.2 a uniform rod C has been bent at its center to form an angle.
The vertical dotted line is an axis of symmetry so-by Pappus' first theorem the center of
mass of C lies on this line. The left-hand portion A has its center of mass at its geometric

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 14.2 CENTER OF MASS OF A CONTINUOUS MASS DISTRIBUTION 369

Figure 14.2 Determining the center of mass of a bent rod by using

the two theorems of Pappus.

center a, and the right-hand portion B has its center of mass at its geometric center b.
Therefore by Pappus' second theorem the center of mass of the entire rod C lies on the
horizontal dotted line joining a and b. Hence the center of mass of C lies on the intersection
of the two dotted lines as shown.
In Fig. 14.3 we use Pappus' theorems again to determine the center of mass of an
L-shaped region C of constant mass density which does not have an axis of symmetry.
We divide this region into the union of two rectangles in two different ways, as indicated.
By Pappus' first theorem, the center of mass of each rectangle is at its geometric center.
Draw a line through the centers a and b of A and B, and another through the centers a'
and b' of A' and B', as indicated in the figure. Their intersection c is the center of mass
ofC.
The foregoing examples illustrate that the center of mass of a body might be outside
the body. A surprising example of this phenomenon and of using the location of the

Figure 14.3 Determining the center of mass of an L-shaped region by

using the two theorems of Pappus.

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 370 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS FOR RIGID BODIES

center of mass to analyze complex motions of extended bodies is provided by the pole
vault in the next example. (Strictly speaking it is the center of gravity that is dealt with
in this case, but as noted in Sec. 11.3, this has the same location as the center of mass
for ordinary bodies on the earth's surface.)

Example 4
How high can an athlete pole vault if he can sprint at the very fast speed of 10 m/s and
is able to convert all his kinetic energy into potential energy with the aid of a fiberglass
pole?
The initial kinetic energy ^mv2 is converted at the peak of the vault into an increase
AU = mgh in gravitational potential energy:
jmv2 = mgh.
Solving for h we find
h = v2f2g = (10 m/s)2/(2 x 9.8 m/s2) = 5.1 m = 16.8 ft,
well short of the 1985 world record vault of 19 ft 8 in.
But note that the h we have calculated is not the height of the cross bar above the
ground, but the height the vaulter's center of gravity has been raised. For it is his center
of gravity r that the force of gravity acts upon in Eq. (10.24): AJ7 = —/F • dr. Taking
into account that the runner's center of gravity is at least 3 ft above the ground in his
initial vertical position, it can certainly be lifted close to 20 ft above the ground in our
ideal vault.
Moreover, as shown in the illustration, much of the jumper's body dangles below
the cross bar at the peak of his jump. As in Fig. 14.2, his center pf gravity can lie outside
of his body in this bent-over position, and it is even possible that his center of gravity
passes slightly under the bar as he passes over! Thus the theoretical maximum for a pole
vault by a 10 m/s sprinter is over 20 ft.

peak eg ft.— cross bar

initial eg

The pole vault is a highly complex event, and you may be able to think of additional
ways a skillful performer adds height to his vault.
Passing one's center of gravity under the cross bar is also a useful strategy in the
high jump. The modern "Fosbury flop" technique of jumping over backwards, with arms
and legs arched downward, accomplishes this better than the older techniques such as
the "straddle style," in which the jumper passes over parallel to the bar.

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 14.3 MOMENT OF INERTIA 371

Fosbury flop straddle

14.3 MOMENT OF INERTIA

We now return to the central concern of this chapter, rigid-body rotation. Consider a
rigid-body rotating about a fixed axis, which we take to be the z axis, with angular speed
GO. A particle of mass mh situated at radius rt from the z axis and circulating with speed
v-t about it, has angular momentum

Li = r^m-Ui) (14-5)
about a point on the axis (Fig. 14.4). Since vf = cor,- for rotation about the axis, we can
write

L, = m-r}^. (14.6)

Figure 14.4 Circular motion of a particle about an axis normal to the

page and passing through point P.

Summing over all particles in the body, we obtain the total angular momentum of the
body about the axis of rotation:

L = 2 mir? °>9 (14.7)

since in a rigid body all particles have the same angular speed GO.
The coefficient of GO in Eq. (14.7) is denoted by the symbol /:

/ = (14.8)

There is an exact analogy between the relation

L= (14.9)

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 372 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS FOR RIGID BODIES

and p = mv: angular momentum L is the rotational analog of momentum p> angular
speed a) is the analog of speed v, and / plays a role analogous to mass m.
Applying the law T = dL/dt to rotation about the z axis, we obtain

T = —-(/co) = la (14.10)
at

where
do>
a = ~dt (14.11)

is the angular acceleration about the z axis. Equation (14.10) is the fundamental dynam-
ical law for rigid-body rotation about a fixed axis. Once again there is an exact analogy
to the dynamical law F = ma for linear motion, with torque T, angular acceleration a,
and / being the rotational analogs of force F, acceleration a, and m.
The quantity / = 2 m-r] is called the moment of inertia. As usual, inertia denotes
resistance to change. We see from Eq. (14.10) that / resists angular acceleration due to
torque just as, in F = ma, m resists acceleration due to force. Thus both / and m are
inertial quantities. The term moment arises from the fact that in the definition of/, the
mass of each particle is multiplied or "weighted" by the square of its distance from the
axis of rotation. Just as the quantity 2 m,*, occurring in the center of mass is called the
first moment, the quantity 2 m(rj is called the second moment. The weighting makes
rotational inertia depend on both the mass and its distribution.

Example 5
A flywheel (rotating disk) is attached to a horizontal axle of radius r = 2 cm, as shown
in the figure. A cord is wrapped tightly about the axle. A mass m = 2 kg is attached to
the cord and allowed to descend.

UiUJ-

(a) Find an eixpression for the angular acceleration a of the flywheel.

(b) If the flywheel completes its first revolution in one second, find the total moment
of inertia / of the flywheel and axle about their axis of rotation.
(a) The linear acceleration of the mass is related to the tension T in the cord by
ma — mg - T.

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 14.3 MOMENT OF INERTIA 373

The tension T exerts a torque Tr on the axle-flywheel combination, whose angular ac-
celeration is controlled by the dynamical equation
Tr = la.
Since a = ar, we have two equations relating a to T. Eliminating T, we find
la
mar = mg — —,
r
so the angular acceleration is
mgr

In other words, the angular acceleration is in the form of torque divided by moment of
inertia, and both the suspended mass and the axle-flywheel combination contribute inertia,
(b) The angular acceleration is constant. Integrating, we find in complete analogy
with constant acceleration that the angular speed co and angle 0 are
co = at 4- co0
and
6 = yort2 + <o0r + 60.
The first revolution is completed when 6 = 2TT. If we take 90 = co0 = 0, the time it
takes for this is

which implies

I = - mr1 H = —mr~ - \ .
a 4IT
When tx = 1 s we have a = 4IT and hence / = 0.003 kg m2.

It is important to understand clearly the precise meaning of/. The quantity r, appearing
in its definition is the distance of the ith particle from the axis of rotation,
n = (xf + y})m
(illustrated in Fig. 14.5), not its distance from the origin, which would be
(xj + yj + z})"\
Because r, is the distance from the axis of rotation, the numerical value of/ depends
on the axis chosen. For example, consider a cylindrical disk lying in the horizontal plane.
Its / with respect to the vertical axis through its center differs from its / with respect to

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 374 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS FOR RIGID BODIES

2 i

Figure 14.5 Distance rt from the axis of rotation (taken to be the z

axis in this example).

a vertical axis placed off-center. It has yet another value with respect to a horizontal axis
passing through, say, its center.
The quantity

(14.12)

is a particular kind of average or mean value of the square of all particle distances from
the axis of rotation. We see that the moment of inertia is equal to this mean value
multiplied by the total mass M of the body. The quantity

(14.13)

which has the physical dimension of length, is called the radius of gyration. It represents
the distance from the axis of rotation at which a point mass M would produce the same
moment of inertia as the body.

14.4 CALCULATION OF MOMENTS OF INERTIA

The moment of inertia is a number associated with a body and a given axis about which
the body could be rotated. For the simplest case of a single particle of mass m at distance
r from the axis the moment of inertia is, by definition,
/ = mr2,

the mass times the square of the distance from the axis.
The moment of inertia (about a given axis) of a system of n particles is the sum of
the moments of inertia of the individual particles (Fig. 14.6):

(14.8)

If all the particles are the same distance rf- = r from the axis then
n

I = r1 2 m, = Mr2

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 14.4 CALCULATION OF MOMENTS OF INERTIA 375

one particle mr2 six particles 2 mr2 = 3m,r 1 + 3m2r2

Figure 14.6 Moment of inertia about an axis.

where M is the total mass of the system. In this special case the radius of gyration k
equals r, but in general k lies between the smallest and largest r,.
For a system whose total mass is distributed along a line or throughout some plane
region or some solid body in space rather than at a finite number of discrete points, the
moment of inertia is defined by an integral rather than a sum. The type of integral depends
on the type of body but is always arrived at by the same process. The body is divided
into a large number n of small pieces with masses Am^ . . ., Amw. Each piece of mass
A/w, is treated as though it were a particle with its center of mass at distance rt from the
given axis. According to (14.8) the moment of inertia of this system is the sum

i=\

As the number of pieces n increases without bound and the mass Am, of each piece
approaches zero, the sum approaches a limiting value which we express symbolically in
integral notation as follows:

r2 dm. (14.14)
Jbody

To illustrate how such an integral should be interpreted and calculated we consider some
simple examples.

Example 6
(a) Express as an integral the moment of inertia of a rod of given mass density and
length L about an arbitrary axis perpendicular to the rod. (b) Calculate the integral when
the rod is uniform (with constant density X) and the axis passes through the center of the
rod.
(a) Place the rod along the positive x axis with one end at x = 0 and the other end
at x = L, and assume the axis of rotation passes through the point x = a. If m(x) denotes

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 376 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS FOR RIGID BODIES

the mass of the portion of the rod from 0 to x then the mass density X(x) at x is the
derivative
dm
w \ =
\{x) —.
dx
Divide the rod into n pieces of lengths AJC,, . . ., AJC,,. The mass Am, of the /th piece is
Am, = X, A*,
where X, is the ratio Am/Ax,-. If the center of mass of the /th piece is at xt then the moment
of inertia of this system of n pieces is, according to (14.8),
n n
X Am/x,- - a) = 2 (*/ - a)2 K &*i-
2

axis

-^1 I

As we let the pieces shrink to zero and let n increase without bound the sum is replaced
by the integral

I=\ (x - a)2 \(x) dx.

Jo

(b) When a = |L and the density is constant, k(x) = X, the integral becomes
[L I T\2 CUl T3
I = \ (x - -) \dx = k \ x2 dx = X —
Jo \ 2/ J-L/2 12

= XL^ = ^ ,
12 12 '
where M = XL is the mass of the rod.

Example 7
Calculate the moment of inertia of a rotating flywheel of radius R and constant mass
density p about its axis of rotation.
Let D denote the thickness of the flywheel. This time we divide the region into small
pieces arranged in thin concentric rings about the axis. We find the moment of inertia
of the pieces in each ring and then sum over all the rings to get the total moment of
inertia.

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 14.4 CALCULATION OF MOMENTS OF INERTIA 377

JL

Each thin ring can be thought of as a system of n particles, all at the same distance
r from the axis. A typical piece on the ring at distance r has volume Ar AL, D as shown
in the figure, so its mass is pD Ar AL,.
The total mass M(r) of the thin ring is

M(r) = pD Ar

•AL,

so the moment of inertia of the system in each ring is

Mir)?*2 = 2npDr 3 Ar.
Summing over all the rings and letting Ar —» 0 we are led to the integral

[R , i
/ = 2irpDr J dr = j -rrpD/?4.
Jo

Since pDirR2 = M, the mass of the flywheel, we find

/ = i MR2.
The positive number k such that / = Mk2 is the radius of gyration. In this case we find
k = VI/M = R/V2.

The perpendicular-axis theorem provides a shortcut that is sometimes useful in finding

the moment of inertia of a lamina, i.e., a thin flat object of uniform thickness and density,
such as is obtained by cutting a figure out of a sheet of cardboard. We place our lamina
in the xy plane. If the lamina is made up of a finite system of particles we have
= m
Ix 2 iyf (moment of inertia about the x axis)

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 378 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS FOR RIGID BODIES

and
m x
Iy = 2 i l (moment of inertia about the y axis).
[Normally, Ix = X m^yj + zj), but for a sufficiently thin lamina in the xy plane, zj is
so small it can be ignored. Similarly it can be ignored in Iy.] Adding the two equations
for Ix and Iy we get

Ix + Iy = 2 "»i(*? + y?) = 2 mrf

where jf = ;c? 4- yf as shown in Fig. 14.7. But the last sum is the moment of inertia
of the system about the z axis (perpendicular to the plane of the lamina). Thus we obtain
the perpendicular-axis theorem, which states that for a lamina of arbitrary shape we have
Ix + Iy = lz> (14.15)

mass mf

Figure 14.7 Distance of mass m{ from the z axis.

if the x and y axes are in the plane of the lamina. It is important to note that Eq. (14.15)
does not apply to objects that are thick or nonplanar.

Example 8
Calculate the moment of inertia of a thin uniform circular disk about a transverse axis
through its center (i.e., an axis in the plane of the disk).
In Example 7 we learned that the moment of inertia of the disk about the z axis is
Iz = ^MR2. Because of the circular symmetry of the disk, the moment of inertia is the
same about any axis lying in the plane of the disk and passing through the center. In
particular, Ix = Iy so the perpendicular-axis theorem (14.15) implies that
Ix = k = j

Table 14.1 lists the moments of inertia for various uniform bodies.

14.5 THE PARALLEL-AXIS THEOREM

Often we know the moment of inertia of a body about an axis through the center of mass,
as in Table 14.1, and wish to find it about some other axis parallel to the first one. At

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 14.5 THE PARALLEL-AXIS THEOREM 379

Table 14.1 Moments of Inertia for Uniform Bodies

Body Axis /

Rod (length L) Perpendicular axis through center f2^2

Thin ring (radius R) Perpendicular axis through center MR2

Circular cylinder Axis of cylinder {MR2

Thin disk Transverse axis through center

\MR2

Solid sphere Any axis through center \MR2

Thin spherical shell Any axis through center \MR2

Rectangular plate (length a, Axis through center perpendicular ±M(a2 + b2)

height b) to the plate

first sight the calculation may look complicated, but in fact the answer can be written
down immediately with the aid of the parallel-axis theorem, which we'll now prove.
Figure 14.8 represents a section through the rigid body whose moment of inertia we
wish to calculate. The axis of rotation, which is perpendicular to the plane of the figure,
pierces this plane at point P, and C is the point where an axis passing through the center
of mass and parallel to the axis of rotation pierces this plane. The distance between P
and C is r; for convenience we choose the x axis so that it passes through both P and C.
The moment of inertia of the body about the axis through P is
/P = ]>>/>?•
From Fig. 14.8, the law of cosines gives

>f = r/2 + r2 + 2rr\ cos 6,-, (14.16)

and we have r\ cos 6, = x\, the x coordinate of m, relative to the center of mass. Hence
m 2
'p = 2 A + 2 "V2 + 2r 2 mrf. (14.17)

r
p c
Figure 14.8 The parallel-axis theorem.

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 380 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS FOR RIGID BODIES

The first sum on the right is / c , the moment of inertia about the center of mass; the
second is M, the mass of the body, times r2, the square of the distance between the two
parallel axes. The last sum vanishes because 2 m^-JM represents the distance of the x
component of the center of mass from C, which is zero. Thus we obtain the parallel-
axis theorem:

= Ir + Mr2. (14.18)

The parallel-axis theorem is very useful in determining moments of inertia about

axes that lie off-center in a body, or even outside the body. Note that the moment of
inertia is always smaller about an axis through the center of mass than about any other
parallel axis.
We can rediscover the parallel-axis theorem for a rod by using the result of Example 6,
where we showed that the moment of inertia Ia of a rod about an axis through any point
a of the rod is the integral

Ia = I (x - a)2 \(x) dx
Jo

where \(x) is the mass density. Since (x - a)2 = x2 - lax + a2 we have

la = x2\{x) dx - la \ xk(x) dx + a2 I k(x) dx.

Jo Jo Jo

The first integral on the right is Io, the moment of inertia about the left end (where a =
0). The second integral is xMy and the third is M, where x is the center of mass and M
is the total mass of the rod. Therefore

Ia = Io ~ 2axM + a2M.

Similarly, for a parallel axis through any other point c we have

Ic = / 0 - 2cxM 4- c2M.

Subtracting this from Ia we get

Ia - Ic = (a2 - c2)M - 2xM(a - c).

If c is placed at the center of mass so that x = c, the last equation becomes la — lc —

{a2 - lac + c2)M, or
la = Ic + M(a - c) 2 ,

which is the parallel-axis theorem once again. For a uniform rod (constant density) we
can find / 0 by taking a = 0 in the above integral, or we can use the parallel-axis theorem
with c = |L, Ic = YyML2y and get

/ 0 = ±ML2 + M(\L)2 = {ML2.

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 14.6 ENERGY AND WORK IN RIGID-BODY ROTATION 381

Example 9
Find the moment of inertia of a disk of radius R suspended by a string of length L - R,
about an axis which passes through the point of suspension P and is perpendicular to the
disk.

As we found in Example 7, the moment of inertia of the disk about a transverse axis
through its center is / c = \MR2. By the parallel axis theorem, the moment of inertia
about the axis through P is

/ P = | MR2 + ML2.

14.6 ENERGY AND WORK IN RIGID-BODY ROTATION

The kinetic energy of any moving body is the sum of the kinetic energy of its particles;

For a rigid body rotating with angular speed co about an axis, we have vt - cor,-, where
r, is the distance of the ith particle from that axis, so

But 2 m>jf\ is just the moment of inertia about the axis of rotation, so

K = i (14.20)

Note the analogy to K — hnv2 with / once again taking the place of mass and co replacing
v.
The work W done by a constant force F moving a body a distance s parallel to the
force is
W = Fs. (14.21)

Now consider the case in which the force provides a torque about an axis of a rigid body.
For example, the suspended weight in Fig. 14.9 supplies a constant torque FR about the

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 382 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS FOR RIGID BODIES

Figure 14.9 Work done by a constant torque.

central axis of the disk. As the disk turns through an angle 8, the weight descends through
a distance s = RQ. The work can be expressed in terms of the torque and the angle by
W = Fs = FRQ = T0. (14.22)

In the more general case in which the force is variable in magnitude, but still parallel
to the displacement, Eq. (14.22) must be replaced by an integral

W = J F ds = J FR d% = J T JO. (14.23)
Rewriting Eq. (14.23) as

W = \ 7^-dt = \ T<*dt (14.24)

J dt J
and applying the first fundamental theorem of calculus we find dW/dt — TCO. But we
recall that the general definition of power is P = dWIdt, so we obtain the formula
dW
P = — = TCO (14.25)
dt
for power spent in rotational motion. This should be compared with the formula Fv for
power due to linear motion.
The dynamical relation (14.10), T = d(Ioy)/dt, can be inserted into Eq. (14.24) to
obtain yet another formula for work,

W = JI ^^-
dt
o*dt = J\
Since / is constant for a rigid body, the work done in passing from angular configuration
1 to 2 is

W/l2 == /I I\ Cco do) == 22" /<*>! -

O do> 2 /<*?. (14.26)
J ooi

The right-hand side of Eq. (14.26) is recognized as just the change in kinetic energy, so
the work done in the rotational displacement from configuration 1 to 2 equals the change
in kinetic energy, just as for linear motion of a particle.

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 14.7 ANALOGIES BETWEEN ROTATIONAL AND TRANSLATIONAL MOTION 383

14.7 ANALOGIES BETWEEN ROTATIONAL AND TRANSLATIONAL

MOTION
We have repeatedly emphasized the general parallelism between the laws of motion as
they apply to translation (nonrotating motion) and to rotation. The similarities involve
both the quantities used to describe the motions and the general laws that govern them.
We list the similarities systematically in Table 14.2. Keep in mind that the dynamical
laws of rotation are not independent of Newton's laws; they are derived from the equation
F = dp/dt.

Table 14.2 Analogies between Translation and Rotation

Corresponding Quantities

Quantity Translation Rotation

Displacement X e
dx
Speed v = o> = —
Jt dt

dv doi
Acceleration a
-~dt

Inertia m I=2mr2
Force F T = r x F

Momentum p = mv L = r x p

Impulse J Fdt J 7dt

General Laws

Law Translation Rotation

dL
Newton's second law
dt

Work W = I F dx w = 1 7 <*e
dW
Power P = ™ = Fv P = = TO)
dt dt

Impulse J F dt = Ap J T dt = AL

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 384 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS FOR RIGID BODIES

There are further similarities for the special laws for various detailed kinds of motion.
We list some of these in Table 14.3.

14.8 THE PHYSICAL PENDULUM

We have already studied the simple pendulum, i.e., a small bob suspended by an inex-
tensible weightless cord or rod, from the point of view of forces. Let us now use torque
to analyze the more general case of the physical pendulum, defined as an arbitrarily
shaped rigid body, suspended as in Fig. 14.10 and swinging about a fixed horizontal
support axis through O under the action of gravity. The concept of moment of inertia
first arose in connection with this problem, which was solved by Christian Huygens,
along with many other dynamical problems related to clock design, in his classic book
Horologium Oscillatorium published in 1673.
In Fig. 14.10 gravity acts through the center of mass C, exerting a torque about O
when C is displaced from its equilibrium position by an angle 0. If D is the distance
between O and C, the torque about O is mgD sin 9. Applying the dynamical law of rigid-
body rotation, T = / d2§ldt2 [Eq. (14.10)], we obtain
dd
I—y = -mgD sin 6 (14.27)

Table 14.3 Analogies between Translation and Rotation for Special Motions

Special Laws

Law Translation Rotation

Uniform motion a = 0 a = 0
v = const co = constant
JC = XQ 4- Vt 0 = 0O 4- cor

Uniformly accelerated motion F = const T = constant

a = const a = constant
V = VQ 4" at CO = C0 0 4 - QLt

X = XQ 4" VOt 4" ^tf/2 0 = 0O 4- o v + \oit2

^ 2 ~ ^o =
2tfj CO2 — COQ = 2<X0

Rigid-body motion of center of mass: about fixed axis:*

p = mv L = /co
K = \mv2 = |/?2/m K = i/co2 = \L2I1
F = me T = /a

*These laws also apply about an axis passing through the center of mass, even if the center of
mass moves, provided the direction of the axis remains fixed.

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 14.8 THE PHYSICAL PENDULUM 385

Figure 14.10 Physical pendulum.

where / is the moment of inertia of the physical pendulum about O. As in the case of
the simple pendulum, this is not the equation for simple harmonic motion, but it becomes
so in the small-angle approximation sin 0 ~ 0, which gives us

(14.28)

This represents simple harmonic motion with angular frequency

(14.29)

(14.30)
mgD
According to the parallel-axis theorem [Eq. (14.18)], / = / c + mD2, where Ic is
the moment of inertia of the rigid body about its center of mass. Therefore the period
can be written

T = 2<n —±- + - . (14.31)

In the special case of the simple pendulum all the mass is concentrated at the center of
mass (/ c = 0), so the moment of inertia about the point of suspension is simply mD2
and the period is T = 2ir\/Z)7g as we found in Chapter 12. Any distribution of mass
away from the center increases rotational inertia and makes the period longer.

Example 10
The pendulum in a grandfather clock consists of a bronze disk of mass m and radius R
which is attached to the point of suspension O by a wooden rod of length D = 10R
whose weight we shall neglect. Find D so that the half-period | 7 (the time between a
"tick" and the next "tock") is exactly 1 s.
For a simple pendulum, T = 2TTVDig, and a 1-s half-period is obtained by choosing
D = g(7V2ir)2 = 0.994 m.

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 386 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS FOR RIGID BODIES

To find the correction due to the spatial extent of the disk, we insert the entry of
Table 14.1 for the disk, / c = \mR2, into Eq. (14.31) and obtain

imR2 D „ i?2
T = 2ir + — = 2TT + 1|5
Solving for D we obtain, for a 1-s half-period,

— = 0.988
2iT 2D 2 / 2ir

The correction factor 1 + R2/2D2 differs from 1 by \% in our case - a small amount,
but significant for good timekeeping.

Example 11
How far from its center of mass should a rigid body be suspended to minimize the period
of oscillation?
In Eq. (14.31), / c is independent of the distance D between C and O. The minimum
of T2, found by taking the derivative of T2 with respect to D,
d(T2) m o / - / c .
\mgD2 g

Tk

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 14.9 THE TORSION PENDULUM 387

occurs when d(T2)/dD = 0, which gives

m
Recalling the definition of the radius of gyration in Eq. (14.13), kc = \/Iclm, we find
that the minimum is located at
D = kc
corresponding to the period

At larger D, T grows because the rotational inertia becomes large, and at smaller D, T
grows because the restoring torque becomes small.

14.9 THE TORSION PENDULUM

When the bottom of a wire is twisted about its central axis through an angle 0 relative
to the top of the wire, the wire gives rise to a restoring torque - c 0 . The minus sign
indicates that the torque is in a direction opposite to 0, and the linear dependence on 0
is a manifestation of Hooke's law, accurate up to near the elastic limit of the wire. The
constant c is an empirical parameter, analogous to the spring constant k9 and is called
the torsion constant of the wire.
The accurate linearity of the twisting of a wire subjected to moderate torsion makes
it useful in various measuring devices. We have already remarked on the use of a torsion
fiber in the Cavendish balance for determining the gravitational constant G. A similar
application of torsion is made in ammeters and voltmeters.
In the torsion pendulum, a solid disk is hung from a wire as shown in Fig. 14.11.
When the disk is rotated through an angle 0 and then released, the ensuing motion is
described by T = / d2Q/dt2 [Eq. (14.10)] with the torque given by - c 0 :

^ = -c6. (14.32)

Here / is the moment of inertia of the disk about its central axis, / = ^mR2. The motion

Figure 14.11 Torsion pendulum.

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 388 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS FOR RIGID BODIES

is simple harmonic, in this case not only for small angles but for the entire range of
angles over which Hooke's law T = — c8 is satisfied. The angular frequency is co =
and the period of oscillation is

(14.33)

This formula provides a convenient method for measuring the torsion constant of a wire.

14.10 COMBINED TRANSLATIONS AND ROTATIONS

The action of external forces on any body causes its center of mass to move according
to the law
d2f
F = m-^. (11.14)

The torque applied by external forces on any body causes it to rotate about an arbitrary
point according to the law

T =f . (13.4)
Both Eqs. (11.14) and (13.4) are true for general motion.
In problems involving rigid-body rotation about a fixed axis, we have found it
convenient to focus on Eq. (13.4), or more precisely on its fixed-axis version T =
/ d2§ldt2 [Eq. (14.10)]. Equation (11.14) is also valid, but the center-of-mass motion is
already known from the overall rotation of the body about the fixed axis. And to evaluate
Eq. (11.14) would require consideration of the reaction force applied to the rotating body
by the support at the fixed axis. In a fixed-axis problem we would normally make explicit
use of Eq. (11.14) only if we wished to find this reaction force.
Nevertheless it is often of interest to separate motion into rotation about the center of
mass and translation of the center of mass. We have already remarked, for example, on the
parallel-axis theorem which expresses / in terms of moment of inertia about the center of
mass plus a contribution representing motion of the center of mass about another axis. The
parallel-axis theorem has an immediate consequence for the kinetic energy of a body that
rotates about an axis through an off-center point P with angular speed co. The kinetic energy
is

K = |/ P (o 2 (14.20)

and the parallel-axis theorem tells us that

/ P = / c + mr2 (14.18)

where r is the distance from P to C. Therefore

K = i/ c o) 2 + l
-mr2o>2.

But rw is the speed v with which the center of mass C moves about P. Thus

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 14.10 COMBINED TRANSLATIONS AND ROTATIONS 389

(14.34)

the kinetic energy is the sum of the rotational energy | / c w 2 about the center of mass,
and the kinetic energy \mv2 of linear motion of the center of mass with the entire mass
considered to be at the center of the body.
In the same vein, we may consider the angular momentum of a system of particles
about an arbitrary origin O:

x¥ (14.35)
Expressing r, in terms of center-of-mass coordinates r/ and the position r of the center
of mass, we have r, = r/ + r and v, = v- 4- v. Substituting these relations into Eq.
(14.35), we find
L = 2 fr/ + r) x /nf(v; + v)

r\m\ x v
+ r x 2 /w,-v; + r /n,-v.
Fortunately the second term is zero because 2 m,r,' is proportional to the position of the
center of mass, which vanishes in center-of-mass coordinates. Similarly, the third term
is zero because

Wi = 2 mi -

again depends on the vanishing quantity 2 /W/r/. The first term is the angular momentum
with respect to the center of mass, L c ; the last term is r X M v, the angular momentum
of the center of mass (with all masses considered concentrated there) about O. So we
are left with

L = Lc + r x M\. (14.36)

For example, it is convenient to split the angular momentum of the earth into two parts:
the "spin" associated with the earth's daily rotation about its own center of mass, and
the "orbital" contribution associated with the earth's yearly passage about the sun. A
similar splitup of angular momentum into spin and orbital parts is extremely useful in
describing the motion of electrons around the nucleus in atomic physics.

Example 12
A yo-yo of radius R and mass m is lowered by its string. At a given instant it rotates
about its center of mass with angular speed coc and its center of mass falls with speed

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 390 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS FOR RIGID BODIES

vc, where vc = Ru>c- If w e treat the yo-yo as a uniform solid disk, what is its kinetic
energy, and what is its angular momentum L about an axis normal to the disk and passing
through the point O where the yo-yo is held?

The disk has moment of inertia / = ^ . Using Eq. (14.34) and vc = /?ooc we
find that the kinetic energy is

K = I {\mR2)<*l + \mvl = \mvl.

From Eq. (14.36) and vc = /?<oc the angular momentum about O is

L = /<oc + Rmvc = \mR2u>c 4- Rmvc = \

(Note that in the orbital term, |r x m\c\ = Rmvc independent of the height of O above
C.) In this example the "spin" of the yo-yo adds 50% to the translational kinetic energy
and angular momentum about O.

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 14.10 COMBINED TRANSLATIONS AND ROTATIONS 391

When a rigid body rotates about a fixed axis, the alternative viewpoint of separating
the motion into rotation about the center of mass and translation of the center of mass
represents something of a complication. But when a rigid body has no fixed axis and
tumbles freely through space, then its center of mass is the point it rotates about, so
separating the motion into rotation about the center of mass and translation of the center
of mass is the natural and simple way to analyze the motion. In this case both Eqs.
(11.14) and (13.4) must be used. We shall give some illustrations in Examples 13 and
14.

Example 13
An irregularly shaped lamina has been cut out of a Styrofoam sheet and its center of
mass marked with an orange spot for a lecture demonstration. Describe the motion of
the lamina when it is tossed spinning through the air with the flat side vertical and the
spin axis perpendicular to the flat side.

Under the action of gravity the center of mass moves in a Galilean parabola. The
orange spot makes the parabola readily visible. Gravity exerts no torque about the center
of mass, so the angular momentum about the center of mass is conserved and the lamina
spins with constant angular speed.

There are unique advantages to analyzing the motion with reference to the center of
mass in this problem. About any other point, gravity exerts a torque and L is not conserved.
Moreover, a spot placed on any other point would follow a less regular trajectory.

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 392 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS FOR RIGID BODIES

Example 14
A uniform thin bar of mass M and length 2R lies at rest on a frictionless table. A putty
ball of mass m with horizontal velocity v normal to the bar hits the bar at one end, sticking
to it. Describe the subsequent motion.

c c
I
1
-R 0 x R

After the impact, the center of mass C of the combined system travels with uniform
velocity V in a straight line, since no further horizontal forces act. Moreover, the system
rotates with uniform angular speed w about its center of mass, because no further torques
act. Note that C, the geometrical center of the bar, moves along a more complicated
path. (What is this path?)
The collision is most simply treated by using momentum and angular momentum
conservation. Momentum conservation,
mv = ( m + M)V, (1)
determines the final velocity V = mvl(m + M). Angular momentum conservation about
the center of mass C relates the initial angular momentum (R — xc>)mv (see figure) to
the final angular momentum / c co as follows:
(R - xC')mv = / c o ) . (2)
To evaluate <o we need to know the position xc of C . As measured from the geometrical
center of the bar, it is
_ mR
Xc> =
WVm' '
The moment of inertia about this point is

/ c , = ±M(2R)2 + Mx& + m(R - xc)2

where the first two terms give the contribution for the bar alone, and the last term is the
contribution from the putty. (Note that the parallel-axis theorem has been used in the
first two terms to find the moment of inertia of the bar around the off-center point C\)
Using the value for xc> we get
MR2 ( mR V n / m
Ic. = + M + mR2 1
3 \M + mj \ M + m
which reduces after a bit of algebraic manipulation to
_ MR^ MmR2
c +
~ 3 M + m'

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 14.11 KINEMATICS OF THE ROLLING WHEEL 393

Finally, substituting xc> and Ic> into the angular momentum conservation relation (2)
above we find, after more algebra,
R — xQ' 3mv
CO = ftlV
ftlV =
II R(M + Am)
c

14.11 KINEMATICS OF THE ROLLING WHEEL

An important special case of combined translation and rotation is the motion of a rolling
wheel. There are two ways, both equally correct, in which this can be described, (i) One
can describe the wheel as rotating with angular speed to c about a moving axis through
the center of mass C, while C progresses with a linear speed vc (Fig. 14.12). (ii) Alternatively,
one can say that the wheel rotates with angular speed coP about an axis through the point
of contact P, an axis which is instantaneously at restl This is physically plausible from
the fact that by ''rolling" we mean a motion without slipping, and if the part of the
wheel at the point of contact is not slipping, it cannot be moving relative to the surface
below.

p
Figure 14.12 The rolling wheel.

With regard to the first point of view, as the point of contact moves from P to P',
the wheel rotates through an angle 6 and progresses a distance s. From Fig. 14.12,
s = RQ. Differentiating, we find for the linear speed of C
ds dti
Vc = T = R~T = R^c (14.37)
at at
and for the acceleration of C

* - * - . * = - ««. (-4.38,

We can immediately verify that point P has instantaneous speed zero as claimed.
We find vP (see Fig. 14.13) by adding to vc the velocity of rotation of P about C, namely
— /?<oc, and this gives zero by Eq. (14.37).

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 394 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS FOR RIGID BODIES

What is the relation between (oP and coc? Surprisingly, they are equal. We have just
shown that vc = /?a) c , whereas from the second point of view C has speed vc = Ro)P
as a consequence of its rotation about P. Consistency of the two results requires
a) c = cap. (14.39)
As a check, let us calculate the speed of the point Q at the top of the wheel by both
methods. In the first method (Fig. 14.13) we find vQ by adding to vc the speed of rotation
of Q about C, namely /?coc, and with the help of Eq. (14.37) this gives 2vc. In the
second method VQ = (2/?)o>P, and this also equals 2vc.

v
c —
rot. vel. —
V
tot =

Figure 14.13 Vector addition of center-of-mass velocity and

rotational velocity about the center in rolling motion. The result is
equivalent to instantaneous rotation about P.

14.12 ROLLING DOWN AN INCLINED PLANE

The rolling of a cylinder, sphere, or other symmetric object down a rough inclined plane
(Fig. 14.14) is conveniently analyzed as an acceleration of the center of mass C along
the plane and a simultaneous rotation of the object about C.

Mg sin 6

Figure 14.14 Rolling down an inclined plane.

We have previously shown in Eq. (11.14) that C moves as if all the external force
were applied at C. Normal to the plane the component Mg cos 8 of gravity is evidently
canceled by the normal reaction force exerted by the plane, for there is no acceleration
in that direction. Along the plane the component Mg sin 9 of gravity is opposed by the

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 14.12 ROLLING DOWN AN INCLINED PLANE 395

frictional force f produced by the rough plane. Although we have not yet determined the
magnitude of f, the linear acceleration ac of C for an object of mass M on an incline of
angle 0 is related t o / b y Newton's second law,
Mac = Mg sin 0 - / . (14.40)
We also recall that the object will rotate about C according to the law T = la [Eq.
(14.10)]. Since gravity acts at C and the normal reaction force points directly toward the
center of the object, neither exerts any torque about C. The torque due t o / i s / R , exerted
clockwise. Therefore
fR = la. (14.41)
If the object rolls without slipping, ac = Ra [Eq. (14.38)], and Eq. (14.41) gives
14 42
/=t- K
<->
When this is introduced into Eq. (14.40), we find
Mg sin 0
ac = — -2 . (14.43)

The physical interpretation of this result becomes especially transparent if we write / =

bMR2y where 0 ^ b ^ 1. In terms of b, Eq. (14.43) reads simply
g sin 0
(14 44)
* = TTT • -
This tells us that the acceleration of the rolling object does not depend on M or R\ only
the distribution of the mass (as represented by b) affects the result. We note that b =
k2/R2, where k is the radius of gyration.
For the particular example of a homogeneous cylinder, b - | and we find

ac = \g sin 0. (14.45)

The acceleration is only two-thirds of what it would be in frictionless sliding. The frictional
force/has the magnitude ^Mg sin 0. If the coefficient of friction is fx, the maximum
value of/is given by jx times the normal reaction force, i.e., |(Mg sin 0) < \x,Mg cos 0.
Because the frictional force cannot exceed this value, rolling can only occur when jx >
|tan 0. When this inequality is not satisfied, the cylinder will slip.

Rolling down an inclined plane can also be analyzed by means of energy consid-
erations. When the object rolls a distance s, its potential energy decreases by
Mgh = Mgs sin 0.
If it started from rest, Eq. (14.34) tells us that it will have gained kinetic energy of
amount

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 396 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS FOR RIGID BODIES

Since Ro>c = vc> the kinetic energy of the rolling object can be expressed succinctly as
1(1 + b)Mv\. Conservation of mechanical energy then requires that

Mgs sin 6 = 1(1 + b)Mvl,

or v£ = [2/(1 + b)]gs sin 6. Comparing this with the general relation v2 = las for
uniformly accelerated motion we find
_ g sin 8

in agreement with the result (14.44) obtained by analyzing the forces.

At first sight it may appear inconsistent to apply mechanical energy conservation to
a problem involving frictional forces. However, we recall from the kinetics of the rolling
wheel that the point of contact P, where the frictional force is applied, is momentarily
at rest. This provides justification for assuming that friction does no work in our idealized
treatment of rolling motion.

14.13 CORIOLIS FORCES

As we have seen in Chapter 9, the extension of Newton's second law to accelerated

frames requires that extra "inertial forces" be introduced in addition to any applied (i.e.,
real) forces that may be acting. In a frame that accelerates at a rate BQ relative to an
inertial frame, the inertial force is f = — mao.
The rotation of a rigid body offers a natural instance of an accelerated frame of
reference. We live on a slowly rotating rigid body, the earth, and occasionally experience
rapidly rotating ones, such as merry-go-rounds. We have already discussed the fact that
a point located at distance r from the axis of a frame rotating with uniform angular speed
(o is accelerated at a rate co2r toward the axis, and therefore a particle at that point feels
a centrifugal force f = mo)2r away from the axis in that frame. Recognizing the effects
of centrifugal force on the latitude variation of the gravitational acceleration g, we were
able to demonstrate the earth's rotation in a way that was not known to Galileo.
When a particle moves with respect to a rotating frame, the centrifugal force is
supplemented by another inertial force called the Coriolis force. The effect is relatively
easy to visualize at the axis of rotation, where the centrifugal force is negligible, so let
us begin with that case. Consider a puck crossing the axis of a rotating horizontal disk.
If friction can be ignored, the puck is free of horizontal forces and therefore moves in a
straight line (the solid line of Fig. 14.15a) with constant velocity v relative to the laboratory
(which will serve sufficiently well as an inertial frame for our present purposes). As seen
from the laboratory, the rotating disk turns, say, counterclockwise with angular speed
(o. But as seen from a frame fixed in the disk, it is the laboratory that rotates, and it
rotates with the same angular speed in the opposite sense, clockwise. In this frame the
puck's trajectory turns clockwise, following the curved path indicated by the dashed line
in Fig. 14.15b. Thus there must be an inertial force in the rotating frame to provide the
curvature that was not present in the inertial frame, and we call that force the Coriolis
force.

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 14.13 CORIOLIS FORCES 397

Figure 14.15 Motion of a frictionless puck passing over the rotation

axis C, as seen from above in (a) an inertial frame (solid line) and
(b) the rotating frame (dashed line).

To find the direction and magnitude of the Coriolis force we argue as follows. In a
travel time At from the axis C to point P a small distance r = v At away, the puck is
deflected through an angle AO = co At in the rotating frame (Fig. 14.16). The distance
As it is deflected from a straight line out to radius r is therefore As = r A6 = r<o At.
And because r = v At, we have

As = (OT/(A/) 2 . (14.46)

Figure 14.16 Kinematics of puck motion through the axis in the

rotating frame.

Comparing this expression with the constant-acceleration law As = ^a(At)2, we see

that the magnitude of the acceleration is a = 2<AV and that the associated Coriolis force
has magnitude

/ c = ma = 2mwv. (14.47)

To determine its direction, we define an angular velocity vector <o with magnitude co
directed along the axis of rotation (Fig. 14.16). We see from Fig. 14.16 that the deflection
is in a direction perpendicular to both v and co. Therefore we can express the Coriolis
force as a vector cross product of v and a>, and using the right-hand rule to find the
direction we obtain

fc = -2mco x v.

Though we have only given an argument for the form of fc in a special case, the
above equation turns out to be true in general provided we replace v by v', the velocity
in the rotating frame:

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 398 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS FOR RIGID BODIES

fc = -2m<o x v'. (14.48)

In the above example, v = v' at the moment when the puck moves radially through the
axis, so we did not notice the distinction. Equation (14.48) can be derived by working
out the acceleration relative to an inertial frame of a particle moving with velocity v'
relative to a rotating frame. We shall not give the derivation here, but will provide further
examples and physical discussion.
The direction of the Coriolis force can often be seen from angular momentum ar-
guments. For example, the frictionless puck in Fig. 14.15a has no angular momentum
with respect to the center at the instant when it passes through the center. To conserve
angular momentum in the inertial frame as it subsequently moves outward, it must maintain
zero angular speed in the inertial frame. But this requires that it curve to the right at
angular speed co in the rotating frame. In any example of this type, one can deduce either
from the Coriolis force in the rotating frame or from angular momentum conservation in
the inertial frame that the trajectory curves to the right in a frame rotating counterclockwise
and to the left in one rotating clockwise.
The magnitude of the Coriolis force can be appreciable on a turntable or merry-go-
round. For example, if co is one radian per second and v' is five meters per second, the
Coriolis acceleration 2coi/ is 10 m/s2, equal to the acceleration g of gravity.
Away from the axis of a turntable, Coriolis and centrifugal forces are both present
in the rotating frame. For example, consider an experiment in which a frictionless puck
is initially tethered by a string of length r to the axis of a rotating disk (Fig. 14.17a).
From the point of view of an inertial frame, it circles with the disk at its angular speed
a) under the centripetal force rncoV supplied by the string tension. From the point of view
of a frame fixed in the rotating disk, the puck is in equilibrium under the opposing pulls
of the centrifugal force and the string tension. Then at time / = 0 the string is broken,
releasing the puck. It now travels in a straight line in the inertial frame, being acted upon
by no horizontal forces in that frame. Relative to the rotating frame, it is at rest until
t = 0, then accelerates radially outward under the action of the centrifugal force. As it
acquires velocity, it also feels the Coriolis force, which deflects it to the right (Fig.
14.17b).
An example in which we can readily check the Coriolis force law (14.48) quanti-
tatively is provided by a particle which remains at rest in the inertial frame. In a rotating
frame, the particle rotates backward with speed v' = cor at fixed radius r. To keep it

Figure 14.17 Motion of a frictionless puck (a) as seen in the

laboratory, (b) relative to the turntable.

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 14.13 CORIOLIS FORCES 399

circling at fixed radius r in the rotating frame, the net force must be of magnitude mo)2r
directed inward. Since the particle (being at rest in the inertial frame) is evidently subject
to no net true forces, and the centrifugal force is known to be mco2r directed outward,
the Coriolis force must supply 2mco2r inward. But we see from Fig. 14.18 that this is
indeed what we get from the vector

Figure 14.18 A particle at rest in the laboratory has this motion

relative to a rotating disk.

fc = - 2 m w x v'
where co is the angular velocity of the rotating frame relative to the inertial frame, v' is
the velocity of the particle relative to the rotating frame, and the magnitude of v' is cor.
The Coriolis force associated with the earth's rotation is much weaker than the effects
considered above because the earth rotates only once per day, corresponding to an angular
speed co ~ 2TT X 10~ 5 rad/s. Even at projectile velocities of meters per second, the
Coriolis acceleration 2on/ is only on the order of 10~2 m/s2, far less than g. That is why
the Coriolis force is not intuitively familiar.
When the Coriolis force associated with the earth's rotation acts over a sufficient
period of time, however, it can have striking effects. Trajectories curve slowly but surely
to the right in the Northern Hemisphere since, as seen from above the North Pole, the
earth rotates counterclockwise like the turntables in the preceding figures. (In the Southern
Hemisphere these directions are reversed.) A classic example is the Foucault pendulum.
If a pendulum were placed at the North Pole, and suspended in such a way that no torque
was exerted about the vertical axis, the plane of oscillation would remain fixed with
respect to an inertial frame such as that provided by the fixed stars. As the earth turned
under it, this plane would precess with respect to the earth with a period of one day. The
precession would be clockwise when viewed from above (Fig. 14.19). The sideways
acceleration 2cot/ to the right is tiny, but acting over the 105 seconds in a day it turns
the pendulum around completely. At latitudes other than the North Pole the precession
of a Foucault pendulum is somewhat harder to visualize, but it is always described by
the acceleration - 2 w x v' and thus provides evidence of the earth's rotation.
A number of important large-scale phenomena on the earth are driven by Coriolis
forces acting over a span of hours or days. For example, the air in a high-pressure zone
tends to flow outward in all directions (dashed lines in Fig. 14.20a). If we look at a high-
pressure zone in the Northern Hemisphere from a vantage point above, the Coriolis force
tends to deflect the air currents to their right (solid lines in Fig. 14.20a). The result is
that the high-pressure zones known as anticyclones which periodically move across the
temperate zone, bringing generally clear weather, normally rotate in the clockwise di-

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 400 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS FOR RIGID BODIES

(a) (b)

Figure 14.19 Path of Foucault pendulum bob at the North Pole, as

seen from (a) side in inertial frame, (b) above in frame corotating with
earth. (The precession is greatly exaggerated.)

rection in the Northern Hemisphere. As they generally move from west to east, we see
from Fig. 14.20a that their approach is announced by west or northwest winds.
Conversely, air flows toward a low-pressure zone (dashed line in Fig. 14.20b). The
Coriolis force deflects these winds to their right in the Northern Hemisphere (solid lines
in Fig. 14.20b). Therefore the low-pressure weather zones known as cyclones which
periodically traverse the temperate zone, bringing stormy weather as disparate air masses
converge, generally rotate counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere. Since lows,
like highs, generally move from west to east in the temperate zone, we see from Fig.
14.20b that the approach of the stormy weather they bring is announced by east or southeast
winds. The somewhat more localized but more violent subtropical storms known as
hurricanes or typhoons also rotate counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere. In the
Southern Hemisphere, all these rotations are reversed.

A
xY low
pressure

Y
(b)
Figure 14.20 Wind circulation in the Northern Hemisphere about
(a) high-pressure area, (b) low-pressure area.

In Chapter 13 we mentioned the formation of a vortex when water goes down a

bathtub drain, a phenomenon in some ways like an upside-down version of a hurricane.
However, the direction in which the bathtub vortex starts to rotate is usually determined
by whatever circulation pattern, even a small one, it has to begin with, plus the way the
plug is pulled, etc. The Coriolis effect is normally negligible on this scale, and the water
is as likely to rotate one way as the other. Only under specially controlled conditions

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 PROBLEMS 401

where outside disturbances are eliminated, and the water is allowed to settle down over
a considerable period of time, can the Coriolis effect be demonstrated in a tub.

14.14 A FINAL WORD

From a certain point of view, rigid-body rotation is merely an application of Newton's

laws - no new basic principles are used. So why spend time on this complicated subject?
One answer is that the applications are very important. Understanding rigid-body
rotation, scientists of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries could begin to deal quan-
titatively with wheels, pulleys, and clocks in the real world, the very objects man's
growing use of natural forces was relying upon. And one could learn subtle details of
forces on the rotating earth itself, such as the Coriolis force which helps shape the pattern
of winds and ocean currents.
Moreover, the study of rigid-body rotation, though complicated, has its own organ-
izing principles and quantities. An example is the use of moment of inertia, a central
quantity in the equations and a rotational analog of mass. Another is center of mass,
already encountered in Chapter 11, but growing in importance with continuing use. It
has been successively revealed as the point in a body that moves under the action of
purely external forces (all other parts of a body can be jerked about in a more complicated
way by internal forces), and as the point about which the rotation of a body in free flight
is most conveniently analyzed. By no means restricted to rigid bodies, it was also discussed
in Chapter 11 as a point relative to which the motion of two colliding or otherwise
interacting bodies can conveniently be analyzed.
The center of mass remains an important tool today. In treating the collision of an
electron and a proton, it is still useful and natural to analyze the motion and discuss the
angular momentum in terms of the center of mass. Like energy conservation and angular
momentum conservation, center of mass turns out to be a concept which, though first
encountered in the context of Newton's laws of classical mechanics, remains valid and
important in the quantum mechanics of the twentieth century.

Problems

Center of Mass
1. Why does a hurdler bend his upper torso down as he passes over the hurdle?
2. The density K of a thin rod OA of length L varies linearly with the distance x from
the end O according to X = \QXIL. Find the distance from O to the center of mass
of the rod.
3. A fork of uniform density p has dimensions as shown on p. 402:
(a) How far from the left end is the center of mass?
(b) How far does the center of mass shift if the handle [area (2h)(2L)] is replaced
by wood of density p/2?

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 402 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS FOR RIGID BODIES

4. A thin uniform bar of mass M is bent into a right angle of edges L and 2L. It is at
rest while propped against a smooth wall as shown, making an angle 6 with the
floor, which has coefficient of friction \L ¥^ 0.

(a) Draw a free body diagram for the bar.

(b) Determine the horizontal and vertical forces of the floor on the bar, and the
force of the wall on the bar.
(c) Determine the interval of values of 6 for which the bar will not slide or fall
away from the wall.

Calculation of Moments of Inertia

5. Derive the formula for the moment of inertia of a thin rectangular plate about an
axis through its center perpendicular to the plate, as given in Table 14.1, by using
the perpendicular-axis theorem together with the result given in the same table for
a rod.
6. Show that if the fork of Problem 3a has its three prongs removed, the radius of
gyration k of the resulting figure about a perpendicular axis passing through the
left end of the handle is given by

7. The density X of a thin rod OA of length L varies linearly with the distance x from
the end at O according to X = XQX/L. Find the moment of inertia of the rod about
each of the following axes:

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 PROBLEMS 403

(a) An axis through O perpendicular to the rod.

(b) An axis through A perpendicular to the rod.
8. An object is made by welding together a solid disk of mass M and radius R, a
hoop of mass M and radius 2R, and a bar of length 4R and mass 2M, as shown in
the figure. Assume each object has negligible thickness and lies in the same plane.

(a) Locate the center of mass of the object relative to point A.

(b) Calculate the moment of inertia of the object about an axis that passes through
A and is perpendicular to the plane of the object.

Rigid Body Rotation about a Fixed Axis

9. A disk undergoes a constant angular acceleration that speeds it up from rest to

1800 rpm in 5 s. How long does it take the disk to rotate from rest through the
first 90°?

10. A turntable of radius 1 m rotates freely at 5 rad/s about a fixed vertical axis. Its
moment of inertia is 4 kg m2. A 1-kg mass falls vertically onto it halfway out to
the rim and is observed to slide on the surface until it slides off the edge with a
speed of 1 m/s directed tangent to the rim and in the direction of rotation. Find
the angular velocity of the turntable just after the mass leaves it.
11. A thin wire of mass M is bent to form the sides of a square of edgelength L. This
rigid square is mounted on a vertical axis along one edge. A constant horizontal
force F, making a constant angle 0 with the plane of the square, is continually
applied at the center of the edge opposite the vertical axis. Neglect all friction.
(a) Find the object's moment of inertia about the axis.
(b) Calculate the magnitude of the torque about the axis due to F.
(c) Determine how long it will take to make the square rotate through five revo-
lutions, starting from rest.
12. Two pulleys with radii R} and R2, are connected by a thin belt of negligible mass.
They rotate about parallel axes with moments of inertia Ix and / 2 , respectively. A
force of constant magnitude F is applied to pulley 1 at a distance r from its axis,
causing angular acceleration. The force is maintained continually at an angle p

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 404 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS FOR RIGID BODIES

from the radial direction. Neglect friction at the axles and assume the belt does
not slip.

pulley 2
pulley 1

(a) If pulley 1 rotates through an angle 6^ find the angle through which pulley 2
rotates.
(b) Find a relation between the angular accelerations of the two pulleys.
(c) Find the tangential acceleration of a point on the belt.
(d) The figure shows tensions Tx and T2 in those parts of the belt between the
pulleys. Determine whether 7, is greater than, equal to, or less than T2.
(e) By applying the rotational analog of Newton's second law to each pulley,
determine the angular acceleration of pulley 1 in terms of the given quantities.
(f) Calculate the difference of the tensions, T2 — Tly in terms of the given quan-
tities.
13. A uniform board of length L and weight mg rests horizontally on supports at its
endpoints A and B. Suddenly the support at the right endpoint B is removed. At
that instant, calculate each of the following:
(a) The torque acting on the board about endpoint A.
(b) The magnitude of the angular acceleration about A.
(c) The magnitude of the linear acceleration of the center of mass.
(d) The force exerted by the support at A.

Energy and Work in Rigid Body Rotation

14. A flywheel with a horizontal axis has moment of inertia 120 kg m2 about its axis.
It starts from rest at time t = 0, and a constant torque of 2400 N m is continually
applied to it for 10 s. Friction is negligible.
(a) Find the magnitude of its angular acceleration.
(b) How many revolutions does it make between t - 5 s and t = 10 s?
(c) Find its angular momentum at t = 10 s.
(d) How much work is done on the flywheel during those 10 s?
15. A wheel is spinning at 10 rad/s on a horizontal axle that has negligible friction at
its supports. The wheel has an outer radius of 0.6 m and a moment of inertia
about the axle of 15 kg m2.

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 PROBLEMS 405

(a) Determine the magnitude of the constant force F, applied tangent to the rim and
in the plane of the wheel, required to produce an opposite spin of 6 rad/s in
10 s.
(b) How many revolutions will the wheel make in those 10 s?
(c) Calculate the work done on the wheel in those 10 s.
16. Two cylindrical pucks, each with radius R, mass M, and uniform density, are slid-
ing on a frictionless air table. They approach one another from opposite direc-
tions, each with speed v, and with impact parameter 2R between their centers of
mass (i.e., a grazing collision so that they barely touch). If they stick together,
determine
(a) the angular speed co with which each puck rotates about the common center of
mass,
(b) the fraction of initial energy lost to heat in the collision.
17. Two weights, one of mass M and the other of mass 3M are connected by a
weightless string that passes over a wheel mounted on a fixed horizontal axle of
negligible friction. The wheel has radius R and moment of inertia / about its axis.
Initially the smaller mass rests on the ground and the larger mass is at a distance h
above the ground, as shown in the figure. Then the masses are released from rest.

(a) Find the speed the larger mass will have just before it strikes the ground.
(b) Calculate the maximum height the smaller mass will rise above the ground.
18. A uniform circular disk of radius R and mass M is initially rotating counterclock-
wise with angular speed w0 about a horizontal frictionless axle through its center.
A point of mass M falls vertically along a line tangent to the disk and becomes
attached to the rim of the disk, striking it in a direction opposite to the rotation.
(a) If the speed of the falling point mass is 2/?co0 just before the collision and the
time of the collision is very short, find the angular speed of the composite disk-
point mass system just after the collision takes place.

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 406 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS FOR RIGID BODIES

(b) What amount of heat energy is produced during the collision?

(c) The disk-point mass system continues to rotate after the collision. Use work
and energy considerations to find the angular speed of rotation when the point
mass is at its lowest point.

Physical Pendulum and Torsion Pendulum

19. A thin, uniform flat metal sheet, cut in the shape of a rectangle of diagonal length
L, is pivoted about a horizontal, frictionless axis perpendicular to the sheet at one
corner. Determine the period for small oscillations.

20. A thin uniform hoop of diameter d hangs on a nail. It is displaced from equilib-
rium through a small angle in its own plane and then released. Show that if the
hoop does not slip on the nail, its period of oscillation is the same as that of a
simple pendulum of length d.
21. A thin disk of radius R = 10 cm is suspended by a wire of length L = 20 cm.
Determine the angular frequency of oscillation when

(a) the disk moves in the plane of the figure.

(b) the disk moves perpendicular to the plane of the figure.
(c) the center of mass doesn't move, but the disk twists about it.

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 PROBLEMS 407

22. A hollow rod of mass m and length L is hung from a pivot at one end. The rod is
filled with sand having mass 2m (so the total mass is 3m).

pivot-

— rod

-sand,
partially removed
*• V •

(a) What is the period of the pendulum thus formed?

(b) What is the period of the pendulum if the upper half of the sand is removed?
(c) Determine qualitatively how the period of the pendulum changes as various
amounts of sand are removed. Make a rough sketch of the period as a function
of the amount of sand removed. (Do not attempt to find exact formulas. Just
find interesting features by considering the system.)

Combined Translation and Rotation

23. A uniform bar of mass M and length L, initially at rest on a smooth floor, is
struck at one end with impulse P perpendicular to the bar and tangent to the floor.
Determine how far the center of mass will slide before it completes one revolu-
tion.

24. A uniform rod of mass M and length L is hung from a pivot at one end. An im-
pulse P is applied perpendicular to the side of the rod while the rod is at rest in its
equilibrium position. At what distance along the rod (measured from the pivot
point) must the impulse be applied so that the pivot does not feel the impact?
(This point is called the center of percussion.)
25. A wooden hoop of mass 1 kg and radius 0.5 m, lying flat on a frictionless table,
is struck tangentially by a 1-kg pellet, moving at a speed of 4 m/s, that becomes
imbedded in the wood.
(a) Find the center of mass of the final system relative to the center of the hoop.
(b) Calculate the velocity of the center of mass of the final system, the moment of
inertia of the final system, its energy, and the energy lost in the collision.

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 408 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS FOR RIGID BODIES

26. Two equal, uniform, thin rigid rods of length L and mass M are free to move on a
horizontal, frictionless table top. Initially, one rod is at rest and the other is mov-
ing toward it, in pure translation, at a velocity v perpendicular to both rods. The
rods collide and stick together, moving thenceforth as a composite rod of total
length 3L/2. (One half of each rod coincides with one half of the other.) Deter-
mine:

before after

(a) The velocity of the composite rod after the collision.

(b) The moment of inertia of the composite rod about a perpendicular axis through
its center of mass.
(c) The angular velocity of the composite rod about its center of mass after the
collision.
(d) The amount of energy dissipated in the collision.

Rolling Motion
27. A sphere of mass M and radius R starts from rest at the top of an inclined plane
tilted at an angle 0. The sphere is allowed to roll a distance L along the plane
without twisting, curving, or slipping. Find each of the following:
(a) Its linear speed after it has rolled a distance L.
(b) Its angular momentum at the same time as in (a).
(c) The angular acceleration of the sphere about its center of mass.
28. A cart released from rest rolls without slipping down a plane inclined at an angle
6. The cart has four identical wheels, each of mass M9 radius R, and moment of
inertia / about its axis. The rest of the cart also has mass M. Find the speed of the
center of mass of the cart after it has rolled a distance s.
29. A solid homogeneous disk of radius R starts from rest and rolls without slipping
down the roof of a house along a plane inclined at angle 0 with the horizontal. Its
center falls a vertical distance h »Ry at which point the disk rolls off the roof,
and its center falls an additional distance H > h before the disk strikes the
ground.

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 PROBLEMS 409

(a) Find the translational speed of the disk (the magnitude of its velocity) just before
it leaves the roof.
(b) Find its translational speed just before its strikes the ground.
(c) Calculate the amount of time it spent rolling on the roof.
30. The cushions around the edges of a billiard table come into contact with a ball
somewhat above its center in order to reverse the spin as well as the normal veloc-
ity of a rolling ball as it rebounds. What is the ideal height H above the surface of
the table that will accomplish this? (Express this height in terms of the radius R of
the ball. Assume that the force of the cushion on the ball acts horizontally.)
31. Four bodies: a solid cylinder, a hoop, a solid sphere, and a hollow sphere, race
down a smooth inclined plane.
(a) What are the ratios of the linear speeds they acquire in rolling the same distance
down the incline without slipping? Compare these results to the linear speeds
acquired by sliding the same distance down the same incline.
(b) If the plane makes an angle 8 with the horizontal, find, for each body, the
minimum coefficient of friction required to make it roll without slipping.
32. A yo-yo of mass 200 g and outer radius 3 cm is pulled horizontally on a surface
without slipping by a string wrapped around its inner cylinder of radius 1 cm. The
moment of inertia of the yo-yo about its rotation axis is 750 g cm2 and its linear
acceleration is 10 cm/s2.

(a) Calculate the tension in the string.

(b) Find the minimum coefficient of friction required for the yo-yo not to slip.
33. A billiard ball of radius R is struck at its center, causing it to skid with no angular
speed initially.
(a) Make a sketch indicating the manner in which the ball starts to spin as friction
acts on it.
(b) Discuss whether friction increases or decreases the kinetic energy of the ball
while it is "spinning up" (gaining angular speed).
(c) Now suppose the ball is struck below its center, giving it an initial underspin
(a tendency to rotate backward). Describe qualitatively how friction changes
the angular velocity and translational velocity of the ball, up to the point
where the motion changes from skidding to rolling.
(d) Finally, suppose the ball is struck so high above its center that it receives an
initial overspin (u>R > vc). While friction is "spinning down" the ball, does
it increase or decrease the translational velocity of the ball?

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 410 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS FOR RIGID BODIES

34. A bowling ball is thrown down an alley with an initial speed v0. Initially it slides
without rolling. Show that it begins rolling without sliding when friction has
slowed it down to a speed vl = ^v0.

35. A solid sphere of uniform density and radius R is initially at rest on the smooth
icy surface of a frozen lake. Someone gives it a sudden horizontal kick at height
H < R above the surface and the center of the sphere moves to the right with
speed v0 while spinning about a horizontal axis through the center. The coefficient
of friction between the sphere and smooth ice is zero.
(a) Determine, in terms of R, v0 and //, the angular speed of the sphere about its
center of mass just after the kick. Indicate the direction of rotation.
After traveling some distance, the sphere comes to rough ice where the coefficient
of friction is |x > 0. The sphere slips for a while on the rough ice before it starts
rolling.
(b) Determine the speed of the center of the sphere at time t after reaching the rough
ice, while it is still slipping.
(c) Find the angular speed of the sphere at this time t.
(d) Find the time tx at which the sphere achieves a state of pure rolling motion on
rough ice.
(e) Calculate the ratio of the kinetic energy the sphere has when it achieves pure
rolling motion to that it had just after the kick.

Coriolis Force

36. Use the Coriolis force to explain why the circulation pattern of surface ocean cur-
rents moves clockwise in both the North Atlantic (moving up the American coast
and across to England) and the North Pacific (moving past Japan, the Aleutians,
and the American Northwest). In which direction do you think surface currents
circulate in the South Atlantic?

37. A space station spins as indicated in the figure to provide its inhabitants with a
sense of artificial "gravity" when afloat in space. An astronaut in the space sta-
tion stands firmly on the floor and drops a ball from chest height. Relative to the
astronaut*s body, does the ball fall straight down (toward B), backward (toward
A), or forward (toward C)?

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 PROBLEMS 411

38. An artillery shell is fired due north from the South Pole, inclined at an angle of
45°. It follows a Galilean trajectory and lands 20 km away. In which direction
does the Coriolis force deflect its path from due north, and by how many meters?
39. A stone is dropped from a tower of height y located on the Equator. While the
stone is falling the main component of its velocity vector is vertically downward,
but the Coriolis force also acts, causing a small movement x eastward. Find x in
terms of y, g, and the earth's angular speed coE. Calculate the numerical value of
x corresponding to v = 100 m.

https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511818493.015 Published online by Cambridge University Press

https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511818493.015 Published online by Cambridge University Press