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/ 120
The Context of Language Teaching CAMBRIDGE LANGUAGE TEACHING LIBRARY
A series covering central issues in language teaching and learning, by authors
who have expert knowledge in their field
sn this series
‘Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching by Jack. Richards ad
Theodore S. Rodgers
Appropriate Methodology and Socal Context By Adrian Holidey
Collaborative Language Learning and Teaching edited by David Nusan
Communicating Naturally ina Second Language by Wiles M. Rivers
Commonicative Language Teaching by William Litewood
CCommuticative Methodclogy in Langoage Teaching ly Cbritopher
Brett
“The Context of Language Teaching by Jack C. Richards
Course Design by Fraide Dubin and Ete Olsbtain
Caltare Bound edited by Joyce Merrill Vales
Designing Task forthe Communicative Clasroom by David Nuon
Developing Reading Skills by Frangoise Grellet
Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers by Michael McCarthy
Discourse and Language Education by Evelyn Hatch
English for Academic Purposes by RR, Jordan
English for Specific Purposes by Tort Hiuchinson and Alan Waters
Focus onthe Language Classroom by Dick Allright and
Katleen M. Bailey
Foreign and Second Language Learaing by William Littlewood
Inerative Language Teaching exited by Wilge M. Rivers
“The Language Teaching Matrix by Jack C. Richards
[Language Test Construction and Evaluation by J. Charles Alderson,
Caroline Clapham, ad Dianne Wall
Learnercentsedness as Language Education by Tan Tudor
Manaying Curricular Innovation by Numa Markee
Principles of Course Design for Language Teaching by Joce Vlden
Psychology for Language Teachers by Marian Wiliams and
Robert L. Burden
Research Methods in Language Learning by David Numan
Second Language Teacher Education edited by Jack C. Richards and
David Near
Sel Instruction in Language Learning by Leslie Dickinzom
Steategic Interaction by Rabe J. Di Petro
“Teacher Learning in Language Teaching edited by Donald Freeman
and Jack C. Richards
“Teaching the Spoken Language by Gilli Brown end George Yule
Understanding Research in Second Language Leaning by James Deon
Brown
Video in Language Teaching by Jack Lonergo
Vocabulary, Semantics, and Language Education by Evelyn Hatch and
‘Cheryl Brown
Voices From the Language Classroom edited by Karbleen M. Bailey and
David Nena The Context of
Language Teaching
Jack C. Richards
=] CAMBRIDGE
§) UNIVERSITY PRESS PUBLISHED BY THE PRESS SYNDICATE OF TILE UNIVERSITY OF CAMARIDCE
“The Pe Boiling, Trumpington Stet, Cambridge CB2 IRP, United Kingdom
‘The Fdinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, United Kingdom
40 West 20th Steet, New Yor, NY 10011-4211, USA
10 Stamford Road, Oakleigh, Melboue 3166, Avsrlia
(© Cambridge Univers Press 1985
‘This book isin copyright. Subject ro seautory exception
and to the provisions of slevar collective ceasing agreements,
no reproduction of sny part may tke pace without
the writen permission of Cambridge University ress.
ise published 1985,
Seventh pricing 1997
Prine inthe United Seater of America
“Typeset in Sabon
Library of Congress Cataloging Publication Data
Richard, Jack C.
‘The context of lnguage reaching
Bibliography p.
Includes index
1. Language and langges~ Sty and teaching.
LTide
Psi.Ra7 19854181007 21383
ISBN 0-521-26565-7 hardback
ISBN 0-521-31952-8 paperback Contents
Preface vii
1
2
10
u
2
3B
14
‘The context of language teaching 1
Method: approach, design, and procedure 16
with Ted Rodgers
‘The secret life of methods 32
A noncontrastive approach to error analysis 46
Error analysis, interlanguage, and second language acquisition:
areview 62
‘Communicative needs in second and foreign-language
learning — 82
Answers to yesino questions 93
Speech acts and second-language learning 100
with Richard W. Schmidt
Cross-cultural aspects of conversational competence 129
with Mayuri Sukwivat
The status of grammar in the language curriculum 144
Introducing the progressive 158
Introducing the perfect: an exercise in pedagogic
grammar 170
Lexical knowledge and the teaching of vocabulary 176
Listening comprehension: approach, design, and
procedure 189
References 208
Index 226 Preface
In the last few years, my professional interests and activities have in-
cluded classcoom language teaching, studying and learning foreign lan-
guages, curriculum development and syllabus design, research, textbook
‘writing, and lecturing to teachers in training. In order to obtain a better
understanding of language teaching and learning, | have been obliged
to immerse myself in its practical realities, to consult the findings of
relevant theory and rescarch, to undertake research, and to engage in
speculation and theorizing. One result of this experience isthe realization
that there is still mach to be learned about most aspects of language
teaching, This is one of the frustrating consequences of working in a
rapidly developing field; but it also means that there are fascinating
issues to explore in almost any topic of interest. This, I hope, is dem-
onstrated in The Context of Language Teaching. These essays illustrate
both the scope of the applied linguistics of language teaching as well as
the need for an integration of theory and practice in developing a fuller
understanding of it.
‘Apart from three chapters written especially for this book (Chapters
4,5, and 10), the essays represent attempts made at different times (from
1971 to the present) and in different locations (Quebec, central Java,
Singapore, Hong Kong, and Honolulu! to develop a principled approach
to practical issues in language teaching. This has involved questions of
approach (as defined in Chapters 2 and 4), which is the realm of theories
of the nature of language and language learning; those of design, which
is concerned with developing a rationale for a language curriculum and
syllabus; and procedure, the level at which questions of classroom tech-
niques arise. The chapters hence deal with both “macro” and ‘‘micro”
isgues in language teaching. Although a topically organized collection
of independently written papers inevitably deals with some issues more
fully than others, it is hoped that the book will assist teachers, teachers
in training, and students of applied linguistics to arrive at a clearer
understanding of a wide range of important topics in the teaching of
English as a second or foreign language.
In order to maximize the usefulness of the book, the chapters are
grouped around several complementary themes. Chapters 1, 2, and 3
deal with curriculum and method issues. Chapter 1, “The Context of
Language Teaching,” gives an overview of language teaching and traces Preface
the ways in which language-teaching practices evolve, from the level of
language policy through the curriculum and instructional process to
evaluation. The main emphasis is the different levels of planning and
organization that successful language teaching entails. Decisions made
at one level inevitably produce repercussions elsewhere in what is es
sentially an interdependent system of curriculum, teaching, learning, and
method variables,
‘The cutrent interest in method and curriculum issues prompted me
to write the next two chapters. In “Method: Approach, Design, and
Procedure” (written with Ted Rodgets), we present a framework for the
systematic description and comparison of methods. A method is defined
in terms of theee levels of theory and practice: approach, design, and
procedure. Approach refers to the theory of language and language
learning that underlies a method. Design refets to how this is opera-
tionalized in the form of a syllabus model and in terms of specific roles
for teachers, learners, and teaching materials. Procedure is concerned
with the teaching techniques and practices that a method employs in
the classroom. The model is intended to enable methods to be understood
and compared more easily, and its applications are illustrated with ref-
‘erence to recent method proposals. The chapter that follows, “The Secret
Life of Methods,” offers a complementary focus on methods. ! compare
methods according to whether they primarily represent innovations at
the level of syllabus theory or instructional practice. A historical per-
spective is given and an attempt made to demythologize the method
concept by showing how little evidence is available to substantiate the
sometimes extravagant claims made for individual methods,
In Chapters 5 and 6, we turn to the theme of processes in second-
and foreign-language learning, Chapter 4, “A Noncontrastive Approach
to Error Analysis,” is one of a group of papers by Corder, Selinker,
myself, and others that appeared in the early seventies and began a
paradigm shife in how second-language learning processes were viewed.
‘This began with a questioning of some of the assumptions of contrastive
analysis and led to a focus on leamer error and learner language as
evidence of success rather than failure. The terms error analysis and
interlanguage were coined at this time and attracted considerable atten-
tion among researchers and teachers. The gradual evolution from an
interest in error types and learner language to a more comprehensive
approach to the study of second language learning is documented in
Chapter 5, “Error Analysis, Interlanguage, and Second Language Ac-
quisition: A Review,” which discusses the emergence of the field of
second language acquisition. Significant research issues and findings are
presented, and the need for an integration of such research into a more
comprehensive perspective on language learning is suggested. Such a
view may be possible by considering the teaching/learning process in Preface
terms of input, process, task, and context variables and their inter-
relationships.
‘The next four chapters shift from a psycholingnisticto a sociolinguistic
focus and illustrate the relevance to language teaching of conversational
analysis, discourse analysis, and speech-act theory. In Chapter 6, “Com-
rmunicative Needs in Second- and Foreign-Language Learning,” several
components of communicative competence are discussed. Second- and
foreign-language learning are seen to be influenced by communicative
goals and processes. Strategies learners resort to in expressing meanings
are shown to influence the nature oftheir discourse. The need for learners
to acquire conventional ways of expressing meanings is discussed, as
‘well as the importance of acquiring alternative ways of expressing speech
acts. Conversation is seen as a process that reflects the interaction be-
‘ween the speaker, the heater, language, and the message. In Chapter
7, “Answers to Yes/No Questions,” a grammatical rule commonly taught
in introductory ESL/EFL textbooks is rested against conversational and
other data for its communicative authenticity. A considerable gap is
found between the rules learners are required to master in textbooks
and the rules native speakers use conversationally when they answer
yesfno questions. This chapter offers a caution against relying on the
intuitions of textbook writers when it comes to accurate representation
of features of conversational discourse. In addition, ic illustrates how
teachers in training can be involved in data collection and discourse
analysis as part of their preparation to teach English. Chapters 8 and
9, “Speech Acts and Second-Language Learning” (written with Richard
Schinidt) and “Cross-Cultural Aspects of Conversational Competence”
(written with Mayuri Sukwiwat), expand on some of the issues raised
in Chapter 6. Conversational competence is discussed in terms of rules,
of speech-act and conversational management. Differences between Eng-
lish and the native language with respect to realization of speech acts,
expression of directness, topic behavior, expression of politeness, and
use of conversational routines are shown to have a potentially important
influence on the processes of learning and communication.
The interest in communicative issues in language curriculum devel-
‘opment in recent years, while necessitating a reevaluation of the role of
grammar in language teaching, has not meant that grammatical ques-
tions are no longer of concern to teachers or textbook writers. Rather,
«questions concerning grammar are now typically dealt with in the con:
text of the communicative treatment of particular language skills. Chap-
ters 10, 11, and 12 deal with grammatical topics. In “The Status of
Grammar in the Language Curriculum,” grammar is discussed from the
viewpoint of its contribution to language proficiency. A theory of lan-
guage proficiency is seen as the starting point for curriculum development
and for determining the importance of grammar at any given stage in a Preface
language curriculum. In the next two chapters, approaches to the teach-
ing of grammar are considered. A case is made for sequencing and
presenting the different meanings of the progressive and perfect aspects
{rom an analysis of the nosional and semantic meanings implicit in these
grammatical distinctions. This is seen to involve minimizing potential
learning problems by relating each grammatical form to uses where it
is communicatively appropriate and functionally motivated
‘The ast ewo chapters consider the teaching of vocabulary and listening
comprehension. In “Lexical Knowledge and the Teaching of Vocabu-
lary,” a consideration of what it means to know a word is discussed as
1 frame of reference for assessing vocabulary teaching. Linguistic, psy-
cholinguistic, and discoursal aspects of vocabulary knowledge are ex-
amined. These include word frequency, collocation, register, case relations,
‘associative meaning, and semantic networks. Teaching techniques are
examined according to the way they attempt to build these aspects of
vocabulary knowledge. In the final chapter,.thréé dimensions in the
teaching of listening comprehension are outlined. Initially, the nature of
spoken discourse is described and a theory of listening processes devel-
‘oped. Then, from an analysis of listener needs, a taxonomy of listening
tmicro-skillsis developed. Finally, criteria for exercise types and teaching
activities are presented
Tn publishing this book, itis my hope that some of the insights I have
gained from attempting fo deal with specific issues may be helpful to
teachers and others interested in the applied linguistics of language teach-
ing. Rather than providing answers the essays suggest the sorts of ques-
tions that need to be asked and demonstrate ways of looking for solutions
to both practical and theoretical questions. Throughout the period that
the essays were being written, I have been fortunate to have found
sympathetic listeners or readers in the form of friends and colleagues
who were always ready to respond to ideas and proposals with con-
structive feedback and encouragement. Their support has been much
appreciated. I owe a special debt of gratitude to James Alatis, Alison
Anglejan, Chris Candlin, S. Pit Corder, Richard Day, H. V. George,
Francis Johnson, R. Keith Johnson, Evelyn Hatch, Graeme Kennedy,
Michael H. Long, Ted Rodgers, John Schumann, Richard Schmidt, Mer
sill Swain, H. H. Stern, Bernatd Spolsky, Peter Strevens, Henry
dowson and Richard Tucker, and to Peter Donovan and Ellen Shaw at
Cambridge University Press for their support and effort in secing the
book through publication.
Chapter 2 is a jointly revised version (with Ted Rodgers) of a plenary
address given at the Japan Association of Language Teachers’ Conven-
tion in Nagoya, Japan, in November 1980. It was published in TESOL
Quarterly 16 (2), June 1982, and is reprinted here with permission. Preface
Chapter 3 was originally given as a plenary address at the 18th TESOL
convention in Toronto, March 1983. It was subsequently published in
TESOL Quarterly 18 (1), March 1984, and is reprinted here with per-
mission. Chapter 4 was originally presented as a paper at the TESOL
convention in San Francisco, March 1970. [twas subsequently published
in English Language Teaching 25, 1971, and is reprinted by permission
‘of Oxford University Press. Chapter 6 was originally given as a plenary
address at the Japan Association of Language Teachers’ convention in
"Tokyo, November 1981. It was subsequently published in English Lan-
guage Teaching Journal 37 (2), April 1983, and is reprinted by permis-
sion of Oxford University Press. Chapter 7 was originally published in
English Language Teaching 31 (2), January 1977, and is reprinted by
permission of Oxford University Press. Chapter 8' was originally pub-
lished in Applied Linguistics 1 (2), 1980, and is reprinted by permission
of Oxford University Press. Chapter 9 was originally published with the
tile “Language Transfer and Conversational Competence” in Applied
Linguistics 2 (2), 1982, and is reprinted by permission of Oxford Uni-
versity Press. Chapter 11 was originally presented as a paper at the
TESOL convention in Detroit, March 1981. It was subsequently pub-
lished in TESOL Quarterly 13 (4), 1981, and is reprinted by permission
Chapter 12 was originally published in TESOL Quarterly 13 (4), 1979,
and is reprinted by permission. Chapter 13 was originally published with
the title “The Role of Vocabulary Teaching” in TESOL Quarterly 10
(1), 1976, and is reprinted by permission. Chapver 14 was originally
published in TESOL. Quarterly 17 (2), June 1983, and is reprinted by
permission. 1 The context of language teaching
‘The teaching of second and foreign languages is a major international
enterprise. The current status of English has turned a significant per-
centage of the world’s population into part-time users or learners of
English. The widespread need for English as a second or foreign language
puts a considerable pressure on the educational resources of many cour~
tries, Problems relating to the teaching of English are discussed the world
over. These range from practical questions concerning curriculum, meth-
odology, and testing to more theoretical questions concerning the nature
of second and foreign language learning and the role of cognitive and
affective variables in the acquisition process. In this chapter, we will
survey the nature and scope of English language teaching and consider
the ways in which the field of Teaching English to Speakers of Other
Languages (TESOL) deals withthe practical realities of language teaching.
English as a mother tongue
English can be described as the mother tongue or first language of over
45 percent of the population in 10 countries; ranked according to great-
est percentage of speakers of English these are the United Kingdom,
Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, Barbados, Jamaica, Trinidad, the United
States, Canada, and Guyana (Fishman et al. 1977). In English-speaking
countries like these, English is not spoken in an identical manner, how-
ever. Different varieties or dialects of English exist, reflecting such factors
as a person's dogree of education, ethnic group, social class, oF geo-
graphical location, A dialect may be distinguished by differences of
‘vocabulary or grammar, but differences in pronunciation are generally
its most recognizable feature and determine the speaker's accent, that
is, the way his or her dialect is pronounced. The variety of English that
is recognized by speakers of English as being the “correct” way of speak-
ing, that is used as the basis for written English, and that is the variety
‘generally used to teach English to those learning itas a second or foreign
language is referred to as Standard English. |
‘
|
i
i
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i
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The context of language teaching
English as a second language (ESL)
In many countries a language that is not the mother tongue of the
majority of the population may still function as an offical language,
that is, as the sole or major language of law, government, education,
business, and the media. In countries where English has these functions
it is usually referred to as a second language. English is an official (and
hence second) language in Botswana, Cameroon, Fiji, Gambia, Ghana,
India, Lesotho, Liberia, Malawai, Malta, Mauritius, Namibia, Nauru,
Nigeria, Philippines, Zimbabwe, Sierra Leone, Singapore, South Africa,
Swaziland, Tanzania, Tonga, Uganda, Western Samoa, and Zambia.
‘When English functions as a second language, that is, where it is used
alongside other languages but is commonly the most important language
of education, government, or business, itis often regarded by its users
as a local rather than a foreign language (Richards 1979). Conse-
«quently, it is spoken in ways that mark its local status. Thus in countries
like India, Nigeria, and Singapore people tefer to their varicty of English
as Nigerian English, Indian English, or Singaporean English. These are
legitimate varieties of English with a greater total number of users than
the varieties of English spoken in countries where English is considered
a native language (L.E. Smith 1981; Kachru 1982). They often serve
as vehicles for the expression of literature and creative writing. In their
written forms they are close to standard British or American English,
but theie spoken forms may be quite distinctive
English as a foreign language (EFL)
In countries where English is not an official language it may still have
a significant role to play. It may be an important school subject and it
‘may be necessary to pass an examination in English to enter a university.
Jt may be the language of certain courses at a university, or at least of
a large percentage of the students’ textbooks. It may be needed for people
who work in tourism, business, and for some sections of the civil service.
In countries where English has these functions, such as China, Japan,
France, Germany, Mexico, Israel ~ that is, all those countries where
English is not regarded as a second language ~ English is described as
a foreign language.
In EFL countries, as they are sometimes referred to, English is in-
creasingly the first forcign language studied at school or college. In China,
English has replaced Russian as the most commonly studied foreign
language. In many South American countries, itis replacing French as
a foreign language in schools. In addition, over 50 percent of the world’s
nnon-English-speaking foreign students study in English-speaking coun-
2 The context of language teaching
ties. This has led to a greater need for English to be taught at the higher
levels of education in EFL countries
The language of the world’s written information
Increasingly English is becoming the major international language of
printed information, A great deal of the world’s scientific, commercial,
economic, and technological knowledge is written and published in Eng”
lish, though the writers may be Chinese, Swedes, or Italians. Publication
in English ensures the widest possible readership for new findings and
ideas. English is also an important language for the dissemination of
news around the world. International newspapers, such as the Inter-
national Herald Tribune ~ which is published in France, in English —
are widely read and distributed. International news magazines, such as
Time and Newsweek, have the majority of their readers in countries
where English is not a mother tongue. In countries like China, Japan,
and Indonesia, where the national language is not widely known outside
the country, English-language newspapers are often used to present the
official view of national and international events to the world.
AA lingua franca
Finally, we must consider the function of English as a common language,
or lingua franca, that is, a language that permits people who have no
common language to communicate. Because English is widely taught or
used as a second or foreign language, Japanese and German businessmen
who meet, for example, use English as their business language. When
Swedish tourists visit Italy, their travel language is English; when French
tourists visit Bali, their hotel language is English. And English is the
language that the English-speaking world uses to communicate with the
rest of the world, The relative success with which people from non-
English-speaking countries have learned to communicate in English has
made native speakers of English in Britain, the United States, Australia,
and elsewhere the world’s most incompetent language learners. The
pressure of some 300 million largely monolingual speakers of English
in the economically and politically important English-speaking countries
contributes another important dimension to the status of English in the
‘world today and creates further reasons for others to learn it.
Having sketched some ofthe reasons for the current position of English
as the world’s most important second or foreign language, we can now
consider how this need is acknowledged as an educational reality. The
process by which a set of needs becomes translated into a reality is a
complex one involving curriculum planning and development, teachers,
formal instruction, textbooks, classrooms, and learners. Its the relative
3 ‘The context of language teaching
contribution of these dimensions of the teachingylearning process that
we now consider.
| ‘The nature of language teaching
i Language policies and goals
i] We have seen that the role of English and other second or foreign
| languages differs widely from one country to another, as do the reasons
| of particular groups of learners for studying them. A’group of migrant
| children may be studying English in Australia in order to be able to enter
| a regular Australian high school. A Japanese steel company may engage
| foreign teachers to teach English to its employees to enable them to take
| part in international seminars and business meetings or to negotiate
contracts with foreign clients. A group of Saudi university students may
be studying English in order to read English textbooks in chemical en-
sincering, Particular justifications for the teaching of English in different
countries vary widely, but the factor common to all of them is thar
English is studied because the knowledge that it makes available is valued.
Any subject, whether English, history, music, or religion, enters the
‘educational domain when itis found to be relevant ro the demands and
needs of a society. Iti the task of educational and curriculum planners
to examine these needs to determine what goals may be relevant to its
educational system. The decision as to what the status of English will
| be within a society is a question of language policy. Language-policy
decisions are made at the highest levels of national and educational
planning, Such policies may specify (a) the aims or goals that serve as
justifications for the teaching of English, and (b) the circumstances under
which English will be taught. Exampies of educational aims for the
teaching of English might be
for appreciation of foreign cultures
for reasons of higher education
for scientific and technological advancement
| for international commerce, trade, and communication.
i Policy concerning the circumstances under which English will be taught
| may affect whether it will be taught in primary or in secondary school,
| the number of hours per week devoted to teaching it, and whether it
will be made available to all or only certain students in the school system.
| Language-policy decisions have repercussions across a wide spectrum,
ij of the educational system and ultimately determine how English is learned
cor taught. In Malaysia, for example, when language policy concerning
the status of English was changed in 1973, English changed from being
medium of instruction to being a school subject. The requirement that
4 The context of language teaching
a pass in English was needed to enter a university was also dropped.
One result was that the reason for serious study of English was removed
for many students. Performance on national English examinations
dropped dramatically, and Malaysian universities now find it necessary
10 mount intensive courses for students who lack sufficient proficiency
in English to complete their university courses. This is considered a price
‘worth paying to bring about the democratization of education (ic, by
removing the barrier to education that English-medium instruction im-
posed on learners) and to enhance the use and status of the national
language. Similar experiences are reported from the Sudan (Tucker 1978),
where, in the northern provinces asa result of changes in language policy,
Arabic replaced English as the medium of instruction; the time devoted
to the study of English as a subject was reduced, and English was not
required as a pass subject for the secondary school final examination.
English however remained as the language of instruction at the country’s
‘main university, the University of Khartoum, thus ereating the need for
new approach to the teaching of English at the tertiary level.
‘A number of facilites are available for the implementation of language
policy (Noss 1967). These include:
1. Ministries of education; these are responsible for raring language policy
into curriculum plans,
2. Curriculum development units and conters; these tucn curriculum plans
into curriculum content and courses
3. Schools and educational institutions; these are responsible for teaching
‘curriculum content.
4, The media; these may assist in the reception of policies, and provide aux:
iliary learning support.
‘5. Educational research institutions; these evaluate the degree to which policies
are effective and are being successfully implemented.
6. Teacher training institutions; these prepare teachers to teach the cutriculum.
7. Textbook bureaus; these prepare the necessary textbooks and support
materials.
8, Testing and examination centers; these develop and sometimes administer
fests and examinations based on the curriculum.
9. Translation bureaus; these provide specialized services for government and
the private sector.
10. Foreign cultural organizations; organizations such as the British Council
or the American Agency for International Development assist ministries of
‘education, schools, teacher taining institutions, and textbook bureaus in
implementing language policies.
Language policy thus specifies the aims that a government or planning
body secs for its educational system with respect to the role of languages
in the educational system. How these aims are realized is the domain
of what is known as curriculum development (D. Pratt 1980}. ‘The context of language teaching
Language curriculum development
Curriculum development in language teaching is concerned with the
following processes and activities (Richards 1984):
1. determining the needs a particular group ofleamers have for English instruction
2. developing objectives for a language course that will meet those needs
3, selecting teaching and learning activities and experiences that will enable
these needs to be realized
4, evaluating the outcome.
‘The efficiency of a language teaching program depends upon how well
these phases of curriculum development have been cartied out. Let us
consider each of them in turn
[NEEDS ANALYSIS
‘The goals of the needs-analysis phase of curriculum planning are to
decermine what a particular group of learners expect to use English for
and what their present level of competenceis. Ifa course is being designed
for foreign students about to enter English-medium universities, needs
analysis will focus both on determining the demands that will be made
on first-year students in terms of reading, writing, listening, and speaking
skills, and the learners’ present abilities with respect to these demands.
Needs-analysis procedures in this case involve gathering data from a
variety of sources to find out, for example, the sorts of lectures students
will have to attend, the types of reading and writing assignments they
will have to carry out, and the types of study skills they need in order
to be successful as students within a university setting,
Needs-analysis procedures may involve interviews with foreign sta-
dents already in the university to determine perceptions of their major
language difficulties, interviews with lecturers and instructors, obser
vation of students in classes to observe how well they are able to carry
out their assignments, examination of their lecture notes, essays, and so
on, to determine their difficulties, as well as tests of different kinds to
determine the students’ level of proficiency in reading, writing, and note
taking (Mackay and Palmer 1981). The aims of a needs analysis are thus
to determine the types of situations in which learners will be using
English, the tasks and activities they are expected to carry out or take
part in ‘in English, and their existing language skills or abilities with
respect co those tasks (Munby 1978).
‘A course being designed for a foreign medical staff that needs an
intensive English course in order to practice medicine in British hospitals,
for example, would need to develop from an analysis of the type of
‘communicative tasks the doctors will be expected to catry out (cf. Can-
dlin etal. 1976). Techniques derived from discourse analysis (Coulthard
6 The context of language teaching
1977) may be needed to analyze the linguistic dimensions of such tasks
as interviewing patients, understanding the instructions of air traffic
controllers, or understanding instructions on the factory floor (Tupp and
Hodlin 1975). In circumstances where English is being studied for more
general purposes, such as a program for high school students in an EFL
setting, needs analysis may focus on the sort of English language skills
employers expect graduates to have mastered, and on the skills needed
for further education.
GOAL serrine
The results of the procedures of needs analysis enable goals to be set
for a language program. Such goals must be realistic in terms of the
setting and circumstances in which the program will be implemented,
and relevant in terms of the language skills the learners will be expected
to acquire. Particular constraints that result from the circumstances of
the program define the parameters within which a language course op-
erates. Key questions include: What facilites are available? Who will
the teachers be and what is their degree of training and competence?
Who is responsible for implementing and monitoring change? How much
time is available? What are the limitations of the existing program? By
examining the needs of the learners, according to priority, and by re-
ferring to the variables, general goals are turned into a more specific
description of what the language program should set out to achieve.
‘The process by which increasingly specific goals are identified for @
