Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering.

Received September 03, 2014;

Accepted manuscript posted April 16, 2015. doi:10.1115/1.4030374
Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

FRACTURE MECHANICS MODEL OF NEEDLE

CUTTING TISSUE

Andrew C. Barnett
Department of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering

d
The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
[email protected]

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Yuan-Shin Lee

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Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering
North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA

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[email protected]

Jason Z. Moore1

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Department of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering
The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
[email protected]

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ABSTRACT
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This work develops a needle insertion force model based on fracture mechanics which
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sc

incorporates the fracture toughness, shear modulus, and friction force of the needle and
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tissue. Ex vivo tissue experiments were performed to determine these mechanical tissue
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properties. A double insertion of the needle into the tissue was utilized to determine the

fracture toughness. The shear modulus was found by applying an Ogden Fit to the stress-
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strain curve of the tissue achieved through tension experiments. The frictional force was
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measured by inserting the needle through precut tissue. Results show the force model
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predicts within 0.2 N of experimental needle insertion force and the fracture toughness is
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primarily affected by the needle diameter and needle edge geometry. On average, the

1
Corresponding Author

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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. Received September 03, 2014;
Accepted manuscript posted April 16, 2015. doi:10.1115/1.4030374
Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

tearing force was found to account for 61% of the total insertion force, the spreading

force to account for 18%, and the friction force to account for the remaining 21%.

Keywords: Needle Insertion, Tissue Cutting, Cutting Edge Geometry, Tribology

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1. INTRODUCTION

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Needles are a commonly used instrument in medicine. They are used to deliver

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drugs, biopsy tissue, draw blood, conduct brachytherapy radiation cancer treatment,

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and in many other medical procedures [1]. Low insertion force is critical in these

procedures for two reasons: first, a low insertion force has been shown to reduce the

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pain felt in patients [2]; second, lower insertion force allows for more accurate needle
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tip placement by reducing tissue deflection and needle bending [3].
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Brachytherapy is an example of a procedure that requires precise needle

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sc

accuracy for the placement of radioactive seeds to kill cancer cells. The needle insertion
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force between the tissue and needle hinder placement accuracy. The insertion force
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causes the needle to bend, as seen in Figure 1(a). The insertion force also causes the

target movement, as shown in Figure 1(b). Unlike in traditional manufacturing

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processes where the work piece is rigidly clamped, the tissue is free to move so the
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target can easily become displaced upon needle insertion. Lower insertion force has
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shown to reduce needle bending and tissue deflection [3].

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Work has been done to reduce the insertion force of needles by altering tip

geometries and reducing the gauge size. Needle geometries have been modelled in

order to define a more efficient cutting geometry [4-6]. This leads to different tip

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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. Received September 03, 2014;
Accepted manuscript posted April 16, 2015. doi:10.1115/1.4030374
Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

geometries (bevel, lancet point, triangular, etc.) being created to reduce the insertion

force [7-9]. Smaller needles, including microneedles (needles that are sometimes only

100 μm in diameter) are now being used in procedures to drastically reduce the

insertion force [10]. However, microneedles cannot be used in all procedures. For

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example, vaccinations that require a large dose or have large particulates require a

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needle of sufficiently large diameter [11].

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The dynamic effects of insertion on cutting force have been briefly explored in

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tissue cutting literature. Work has been carried out exploring the effect of needle

rotation on insertion mechanics [12, 13]. Applied vibration has also been explored by

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researchers for cutting tissue [14-18]. Another dynamic method of insertion is to
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increase the needle insertion speed. Heverly et al. has shown that with increasing the
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insertion speed of the needle, the force needed to puncture the tissue is reduced in
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sc

porcine heart [19]. Higher insertion speed has also been shown to reduce tissue
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deflection in porcine hearts [20], porcine liver samples [21], and turkey breast [22].
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However, for tougher tissues such as skin, the reduction in insertion force is not seen

with higher velocities. Frick et al. showed no velocity dependence of insertion force on
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the insertion of suture needles into sheep skin [23]. In a skin like simulant, Koelmans et
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al. found that the insertion force increases 12% by increasing the insertion speed from
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100 µm/s to 500 µm/s [24]. A force model is needed to describe the velocity dependent
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phenomena occurring in the needle-tissue interactions.

Accurate models of needle force interaction can allow for the development of

more accurate needle insertion instruments. Several physics and nonphysics based

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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. Received September 03, 2014;
Accepted manuscript posted April 16, 2015. doi:10.1115/1.4030374
Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

models have been developed to predict insertion forces. Many models have been

created to fit the insertion force profile without using any physical parameters in the

model [19, 25, 26]. Further, other models looked at incorporating mechanics of cutting

into the models by looking at the forces acting on the needle [8, 27, 28]. These models

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ite
broaden the utilization across different medium and needle geometries; however they

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do not develop fundamental knowledge on how these forces are created. Shergold and

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Fleck developed a fracture mechanics based model to describe the forces acting on the

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needle for quasistatic insertion, and is the basis of the model presented in this work

[29]. Mirsa et al. utilized fracture mechanics concepts to determine the mechanics of

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steerable needles in tissues [30]. However, dynamic insertion models have only briefly
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been utilized. Mavash et al. developed a force model for dynamic insertion of needles
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by using the Modified Kelvin model to describe the tissue [31]. The work presented in
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sc

this paper develops a fracture mechanics based model to describe dynamic needle
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insertion.
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Fracture mechanics based approaches have been used extensively on metallic

and ceramic materials because of its ability to better predict when failure will occur [32,
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33]. In addition, fracture mechanics based models have been applied to cutting of
pt

traditional manufacturing materials [34-36]. Recently, researchers have been applying

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fracture mechanics techniques to highly deformable materials including biological

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materials [37-39]. By measuring the energy to fracture tissue and moving a needle

through the newly developed crack, an accurate physics-based force model is

constructed in this paper. The fracture mechanics model incorporates parameters

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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. Received September 03, 2014;
Accepted manuscript posted April 16, 2015. doi:10.1115/1.4030374
Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

including fracture toughness and shear modulus of the tissue. Because of the

viscoelastic properties of the tissue, these factors are strain rate dependent, causing the

speed of insertion to vary the insertion force. In addition, the model developed

incorporates a frictional component. Researchers have found that the friction force

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between the needle and the tissue is dependent on insertion speed [8, 40].

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This study investigates the fracture mechanics of porcine skin and develops a

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physics based model to explain the dynamic needle-tissue interaction. This model

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explores the physical parameters of the tissue to determine how the velocity of

insertion affects their properties. Porcine skin was chosen as the testing medium for this

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work, as researchers in the past have used it as an appropriate analog to human skin
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[41]. Hypodermic needles of various sizes were used in this study, as they are commonly
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used in the medical field. This paper describes the mechanics of tissue cutting as well as
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the fracture mechanics model developed to describe the cutting. Experiments were
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conducted to determine the mechanical properties of the tissue as well as the needle-
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tissue interaction. For each parameter, a model was fit to the resultant data. Once all

the parameters were determined, they were incorporated into the final model and
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validated with experimental data.

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2. NEEDLE INSERTION MECHANICS

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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. Received September 03, 2014;
Accepted manuscript posted April 16, 2015. doi:10.1115/1.4030374
Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

2.1 Needle Insertion Forces

As the needle inserts through a 4 mm section of porcine tissue with no backing,

there are three phases, as shown in Figure 2. In Phase 1, the tissue deflects and the

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force gradually rises. In Phase 2 the tissue is cut; an initial crack is formed, the crack is

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widened by the needle geometry, and the needle passes through with friction acting

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between the needle and the tissue. In Phase 3 the needle continues to pass through the

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tissue and there is friction force between the outside of the needle and the tissue. If the

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needle was passing through a thicker tissue there may be multiple deflection and

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cutting phases before the needle reaches its target location. The maximum cutting force
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is reached in Phase 2 and is defined as the total cutting force, P as shown in Figure 2.

The three forces that make up P are the tearing force (Pt) that tears the tissue forming a
r ip

crack, the force (Ps) needed to spread the tissue apart to allow the needle through, and
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the friction (PF) that acts between the needle and the tissue as shown in Figure 3 and
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Equation 1. The fracture mechanics model focuses on determining P.

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P = Pt + Ps + PF (1)
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2.2 Fracture Mechanics Model

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A tissue fracture mechanics model is formed dependent on needle diameter

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and insertion speed. As the needle inserts into tissue, work is performed equal to Pδl

where P is the force exerted and δl is a differential insertion length. The needle then

creates a crack in the tissue and spreads the tissue apart to accommodate the width of

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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. Received September 03, 2014;
Accepted manuscript posted April 16, 2015. doi:10.1115/1.4030374
Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

the needle. During cutting, there is friction between the needle and tissue as well. The

work done by the needle is equal to the energy released by the creation of the crack

δWR, the strain energy stored by the tissue spreading around the needle δΛ, and the

work done by the friction on the needle PF (l) ∙ δl, where the friction is a function of

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insertion depth l. This relationship produces Equation 2:

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Pδl = δWR + δΛ + PF(l) ∙ δl (2)

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The work released by the generation of a crack in the tissue, δWR, is:

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δWR(d,v) = JIC(d,v) a(d) δl (3)

Where a(d) is the length of the crack generated in m, JIC(d,v)is the mode-I fracture

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toughness of the tissue in J/m2, d is the outer diameter of the needle in m, and v is the
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insertion speed of the needle in m/s. Kinetic energy was neglected in the development
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of the model due to its contribution in the work-energy equation being in the range of
r
sc

micro-Joules when a relatively small mass of tissue is acted upon. In experiments

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performed in Section 3.1, only 3.3*10-4 kg of tissue is acted upon.

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The strain energy δΛ associated with the spreading of the tissue can be modelled

as spreading a circle with an initial radius r = 0 to final radius r = R. With a plane strain
ed

assumption, this reduces to:

pt

δΛ = ½ π µ(v) R2 δl (4)
ce

However, the crack around the needle is not completely circular [37]. Because of this, a
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nondimensional contact factor f(d) needs to be added into the δΛ term. Absorbing the

constants, Equation 4 then becomes:

δΛ = µ(v) R2 f(d) δl (5)

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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. Received September 03, 2014;
Accepted manuscript posted April 16, 2015. doi:10.1115/1.4030374
Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

Substituting Equations 3 and 5 into Equation 2 yields:

P(d,v) δl = JIC(d,v) a(d) δl +µ(v) R2 f(d) δl + PF(l,d,v) ∙ δl (6)

The goal of this work is to be able to describe the maximum insertion force of the

needle into tissue. The friction occurring at the maximum insertion force is the puncture

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friction force PFP. This friction force is substituted into Equation 6. Assuming the tissue

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parameters do not change with depth and describing only the maximum insertion force,

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Equation 6 becomes:

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P(d,v) = JIC(d,v) a(d) + µ(v) R2 f(d) + PFP(d,v) (7)

In order to determine the mechanical properties of fracture toughness JIC and

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shear modulus μ, as well as the needle-tissue interaction components crack length a and
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puncture friction force PFP, experiments were conducted as discussed in Section 4. The
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contact factor f(d) is determined by fitting the model to the experimental data as
r
sc

discussed in Section 6. For this model, only the diameter of the needle and the insertion
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speed were explored. The needles were inserted into the same tissue under the same
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conditions. Other factors such as type of tissue, temperature of the tissue, and pre-

stress of the tissue were held constant during this study.

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pt

3. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
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Two experimental procedures were carried out to determine the parameters

utilized in the model. In experimental procedure 1 the fracture toughness, frictional

force, and crack length were found by inserting a needle into tissue as discussed in

Sections 3.1 and shown in Table 1. Experiments used four different needle gauge sizes

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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. Received September 03, 2014;
Accepted manuscript posted April 16, 2015. doi:10.1115/1.4030374
Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

(16, 18, 21, and 25) and 4 different speeds (1, 20, 40, and 80 mm/s) with each

parameter set run at 5 trials for a total of 80 trials. In experimental procedure 2 the

shear modulus was determined by stretching the porcine skin at 4 different strain rates

(0.25, 1, 10, and 25 % mm/mm-s) as described in Section 3.2.

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ed
3.1 Needle Insertion Experiment

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The fracture toughness, friction force, and crack length of the tissue were

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experimentally determined utilizing the needle insertion setup shown in Figure 4. The

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setup uses a linear motor (Dunkermotoren) to insert the needle into the porcine skin.
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The porcine skin is mounted between two plates to have consistent boundary

conditions across trials. A six-axis force sensor (ATI Industries) records the force on the
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tissue. Position data was acquired from an encoder located on the linear motor.
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For each trial the needle was inserted through the porcine skin, tearing a hole
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into the skin, and then reinserted through the same hole in the skin. During the initial
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needle insertion, the total insertion force at puncture, P, is due to the fracturing of the
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tissue, the spreading of the tissue, and friction. In the second insertion the needle is
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inserted into the exact hole as before producing a force P′. Since the crack has already
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been formed in the first insertion, only the force from spreading the tissue and the
Ac

friction remain. These forces are equal to the spreading and friction forces of the first

insertion. The difference between P′ and P is therefore the fracture force. Therefore

these forces can be compared as:

P’δl = δΛ + PF δl (8)

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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. Received September 03, 2014;
Accepted manuscript posted April 16, 2015. doi:10.1115/1.4030374
Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

Subtracting Equation 8 from Equation 6 yields:

(P-P’) δl = JIC a δl (9)

Utilizing Azar and Hayward’s method using two insertions, the fracture toughness is able

to be extracted when the needle is under steady penetration during a portion of Phase

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2, from x to x′ [37]. The region begins after the drop off in force after the initial puncture

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and ends before the relaxation of the tissue begins. An example plot of the double

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insertion can be seen in Figure 5(a). The fracture work, the integral of the difference in

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force P-P’ with respect to insertion depth, can be seen plotted against the fracture area

in Figure 5(b). The crack area was calculated with the crack width results shown later in

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Section 4.3. The slope of this line yields the fracture toughness JIC, as shown in Figure
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5(b).
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The puncture friction force PFP was acquired during the needle insertion trials.
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sc

Because the porcine skin has no tissue backing, after the fracture the force drops and
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levels off. The force occurring in Phase 3, as can be seen in Figure 2, is comprised only of
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friction force acting on the surface area of the needle along the thickness of the tissue.

At this point, no fracture or spreading of tissue is occurring. For this study, the friction
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measured during Phase 3 was approximated to be the friction occurring at the

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maximum insertion force during puncture. This approximation was made because the
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friction during puncture is at its maximum value when it is in contact with the entire
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thickness of tissue, just as in Phase 3. Although the geometry of the needle in contact

with the tissue varies between Phase 2 and Phase 3, the identical tissue thickness will

make this an accurate approximation. Separating the friction force during puncture from

10

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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. Received September 03, 2014;
Accepted manuscript posted April 16, 2015. doi:10.1115/1.4030374
Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

the spreading force is a difficult task as they occur simultaneously. The speed

dependence of PFP was determined through the needle insertion experiments run at

varying speeds.

After needle insertion experiments were performed, the skin was inspected

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under an optical microscope. The crack length was then measured. An example tissue

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crack can be seen in Figure 6. Black ink was applied to the needle before insertion to

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allow for easier visual inspection of the crack length.

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3.2 Tissue Tension Experiment

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The shear modulus was found by performing tension experiments on porcine

skin. The experiment utilized the test setup shown in Figure 7. The skin was pulled at
r ip

strain rates of 0.25, 1, 10, and 25 % mm/mm-s. The results of this experiment were
sc

analyzed with an Ogden model to determine the shear modulus and strain hardening
nu

properties of the tissue.

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Porcine skin is viscoelastic and anisotropic. These properties come from the
ed

structure of the skin. The skin consists of stiffer collagen fibers and softer more flexible
pt

elastin. The collagen fibers are naturally oriented in a specific direction, along Langer
ce

lines, due to the natural pretension of skin. When tensioned, the Young’s modulus of
Ac

the tissue is low to begin because the collagen fibers are moving about each other. Most

of the initial stress occurs in the elastin fibers. At higher strains, the fibers become

aligned and the tissue stiffens. This creates a J-shape stress-strain curve. As can be seen

in Figure 8, the shape of the curve is dependent on the direction the skin is pulled. These

11

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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. Received September 03, 2014;
Accepted manuscript posted April 16, 2015. doi:10.1115/1.4030374
Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

mechanics are strain rate sensitive as well [42]. It has been seen that most biological

materials experience shear thinning, thus making it easier to deform them at high strain

rates [43].

A sample response of the material with an Ogden fit can be seen in Figure 8. For

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this study, the shear modulus of the porcine skin is perpendicular to the Langer lines. It

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is easier for a crack to travel along the collagen fibers than through them, similar to

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what occurs in bone tissue [44]. Thus, the tissue spreads perpendicular to the Langer

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lines upon needle insertion. The response can be described by the Ogden model for

incompressible, isotropic, hyper-elastic solids. The Ogden fit is used to determine the

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shear modulus and strain hardening of the skin [45]. The Ogden fit can be written as:
tN
2
  2  3  3
ip


ϕ (10)
2
1
r
sc

Where ϕ is the strain energy density, μ is the shear modulus, α is the strain hardening,
nu

and λi are the principle stretch ratios. The one term, one dimension Ogden fit is utilized
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to determine μ and α:
ed

  1 1 / 2
z 2 z  z  (11)

pt
ce

Where σz and λz are the stress and stretch ratio in the pull direction respectively. The
Ac

Ogden equation is fit to the tension test data using least square regression to determine

the shear modulus and strain hardening. The one dimensional Ogden fit can closely

match the experimental data as shown in the example in Figure 8.

12

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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. Received September 03, 2014;
Accepted manuscript posted April 16, 2015. doi:10.1115/1.4030374
Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Fracture Toughness

The results of the fracture toughness trials are shown in Figure 9. As can be seen

d
in the figure, the velocity of the insertion has little effect on the value. The diameter of

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the needle plays a major role in determining the fracture toughness. A third-degree

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multivariable (d and v) polynomial was fit to the data with an R2 value of 0.95. The fit

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was third ordered across the needle diameters and first ordered across the speeds. The

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equation for the fitted surface is:

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JIC(d,v) = 1.305x107d + 1.52x104v + 3.389x1010d2 – 2.222x107dv
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– 1.003x1013d3 + 8.006x109d2v (12)

The fracture toughness found in this study for hypodermic needles has a
r ip

complex shape; the 21 gauge needle has the lowest fracture toughness while the 25
sc

gauge needle has the highest. Gokgol et al. found that the measured fracture toughness
nu

of round sharp punches decreases linearly with increased diameter [46]. The possibility
Ma

for difference with our needles is the hypodermic needle is more complex than a round
ed

sharp punch. Hypodermic needles have three angles that define their geometry: ξ1, ξ2,
pt

and β, as can be seen in Figure 10 [6]. The three angles were measured for all for needle
ce

gauges used in this study and the results are shown in Table 2. It has been seen that
Ac

different experimental techniques in measuring fracture toughness yield different

results [47, 48]. The different angled bevels of the different diameter needles could be

affecting the fracture toughness and causing the 21 gauge needle have lower fracture

13

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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. Received September 03, 2014;
Accepted manuscript posted April 16, 2015. doi:10.1115/1.4030374
Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

toughness than the 16 gauge needle. As seen in Table 2, both bevel angles, ξ1 and ξ2, are

smallest for the 21 gauge needle.

4.2 Friction Force

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The puncture friction force was recorded and the results are shown in Figure 11.

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A two-dimensional fit was applied to the data with an R2 value of 0.90. The equation of

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the fit is:

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PFP (d, v)= 0.1493 + 365.7d + 0.4463 ln(v) (13)

ot
As in previous studies [8, 21], the experiments show an increase in frictional force with
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increasing speed. The puncture friction force also increases with increasing needle

diameter which is to be expected. A larger needle size has more contact surface area
r ip

and there is more pressure pushing the needle and tissue together.
sc
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4.3 Crack Length

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The results of the crack length showed a linear trend of increasing crack length
ed

for larger needle diameters, as shown in Figure 12 and Equation 14.

pt

a(d) = 0.9052 d (14)

ce

Where a is the crack length and d is the diameter of the needle in millimeters. The data
Ac

is plotted in Figure 12 along with the standard deviation. The smaller crack size than

needle diameter occurs because as the needle moves forward, the skin deflects and is

stretched before the needle begins to cut. The crack does not run and keep enlarging

14

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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. Received September 03, 2014;
Accepted manuscript posted April 16, 2015. doi:10.1115/1.4030374
Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

because there are many mechanisms found in biological tissues to increase the amount

of energy needed to continue fracturing material once a crack is formed, such as the

fibers being stretched and therefore helping to round the edge of the crack [43].

d
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4.4 Shear Modulus

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The shear modulus  was measured at four different speeds using the Ogden fit

py
described in Section 4.2. The shear modulus results and standard deviation are plotted

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in Figure 13. An equation was fit to the data:

  .006 ln   .087

ot
tN (15)

Where μ is in MPa and ε is strain rate of insertion in mm/mm-s. The shear modulus
ip

decreased as the strain rate increased, confirming that the porcine skin shows shear
r

thinning. The shear modulus was reduced by 36.4% from the 1 mm/s insertion speed to
sc

the 80 mm/s speed. The shear modulus values are similar to others in literature [42, 49].
nu

To determine the strain rate  induced by the needle insertion, it was assumed
Ma

that the tissue strained perpendicular to the insertion direction. The strain rate of the
ed

tissue is proportional to the insertion speed of the needle by the following equation:
pt

v ta n( )
  (16)
Rs
ce

Where β is the major bevel angle of the needle and Rs is the radius of the hole in the
Ac

back plate holding the skin, as shown in Figure 4(b). Combining Equation 15 and 16 gives

the value of μ(v) needed for completing the model, Equation 7.

15

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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. Received September 03, 2014;
Accepted manuscript posted April 16, 2015. doi:10.1115/1.4030374
Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

4.5 Contact factor

The contact factor f was found by fitting the insertion force model, Equation 7, to

the experimental force results. The contact factor was found for each needle gauge size

d
separately using a best fit least-squares regression. The results for the contact factor are

ite
shown in Figure 14 and were shown to decrease with increasing diameter based on

ed
Equation 17.

py
f = 17.534 d -0.542 (17)

Co
ot
5. Force Model and Validation tN
The completed force model, Equation 7, with the values of JIC(d,v) (Equation 12),
ip

a(d) (Equation 14), μ(v) (Equations 15 and 16), f(d) (Equation 17), and PFP(d,v) (Equation
r
sc

13) is formed and shown in Figure 15 with the experimental results. The model for each
nu

needle gauge is within one standard deviation of the experimental data with the largest

error being 0.2 N. Equation 7 can be used to determine the portion of the total insertion
Ma

force represented by each of the three forces acting on the needle as given by
ed

Equation 1. The tearing force is given by JIC(d,v)a(d), the spreading force is given by
pt

µ(v)R2f(d), and the puncture friction force is PFP. On average across the four needle sizes,
ce

the tearing force accounts for 61% of the total insertion force, the spreading force
Ac

accounts for 18%, and the friction force accounts for the remaining 21%.

To validate the force model, a 27 gauge hypodermic needle was tested. The

needle’s outer diameter is 0.41 mm as can be seen in Table 1. The experimental data

16

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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. Received September 03, 2014;
Accepted manuscript posted April 16, 2015. doi:10.1115/1.4030374
Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

was plotted in Figure 16 along with the model’s prediction. The over prediction of the

model is caused by the complex third degree fit of the fracture toughness

overestimating the fracture toughness outside the range of needles tested. However,

the model is still within one standard deviation for each data point with all the errors

d
ite
less than the 0.2 N maximum error of the trials used to create the model.

ed
py
6. CONCLUSIONS

Co
A dynamic physics-based model was constructed and shown to accurately

ot
predict insertion forces upon needle insertion into porcine skin for four different gauge
tN
hypodermic needles. The model shows that on average, 61% of the total insertion force

comes from creating the crack. Friction contributes 21% of the total force and the
r ip

spreading of the tissue contributes 18% of the force. For porcine skin, increasing the
sc

insertion speed did not lower the insertion force. From the experimental results, it is
nu

evident that fracture toughness is relatively constant across different insertion speeds. It
Ma

was also shown that increasing insertion speed increases the frictional force on the
ed

needle. Increasing speeds were shown to benefit in reducing the spreading force of the
pt

tissue to accommodate the needle.

ce
Ac

17

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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. Received September 03, 2014;
Accepted manuscript posted April 16, 2015. doi:10.1115/1.4030374
Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under

Grant No. CMMI-1404916.

d
ite
ed
py
Co
ot
tN
r ip
sc
nu
Ma
ed
pt
ce
Ac

18

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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. Received September 03, 2014;
Accepted manuscript posted April 16, 2015. doi:10.1115/1.4030374
Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

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d
Skin Following Needle Insertions," European Journal of Pain, 3(1), pp. 41-49.

ite
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ed
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py
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Co
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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

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with Application to the Injection and Wounding of Skin," Proceedings of the Royal Society a-
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of Flexible Needles Robotically Steered through Soft Tissue," International Journal of Robotics
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Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

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Penetration of Soft Solids by Sharp and Blunt Punches, with Application to the Piercing of Skin,"
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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

[44] Nalla, R. K., Stolken, J. S., Kinney, J. H., and Ritchie, R. O., 2005, "Fracture in Human Cortical
Bone: Local Fracture Criteria and Toughening Mechanisms," Journal of Biomechanics, 38(7), pp.
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[47] Pereira, B. P., Lucas, P. W., and Sweehin, T., 1997, "Ranking the Fracture Toughness of Thin

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Co
[48] Purslow, P. P., 1983, "Measurement of the Fracture-Toughness of Extensible Connective
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ot
tN
[49] Shergold, O. A., Fleck, N. A., and Radford, D., 2006, "The Uniaxial Stress Versus Strain
Response of Pig Skin and Silicone Rubber at Low and High Strain Rates," International Journal of
ip

Impact Engineering, 32(9), pp. 1384-1402.

r
sc
nu
Ma
ed
pt
ce
Ac

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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. Received September 03, 2014;
Accepted manuscript posted April 16, 2015. doi:10.1115/1.4030374
Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

NOMENCLATURE

a Length of crack in the tissue

α Strain hardening factor

β Rotation angle of lancets

d
ite
d Outer diameter of the needle



ed
Strain rate of the tissue

f Contact factor

py
JIC Mode I fracture toughness of the tissue

Co
l Insertion depth of the needle

ot
Λ Strain energy stored in tissue
tN
λi Principle stretch ratios

λz Stretch ratio in the z (pull) direction

r ip

µ Shear modulus of the tissue

sc

N Number of termed Ogden fit

nu

P Total insertion force

Ma

P’ Insertion force of second insertion

Pt Tearing Force
ed

PF Friction Force
pt

PFP Puncture Friction Force

ce

Ps Spreading Force
Ac

ϕ Strain energy density

ϕ Secondary bevel angle

R Outer radius of the needle

Rs Radius of back skin plate hole

24

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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. Received September 03, 2014;
Accepted manuscript posted April 16, 2015. doi:10.1115/1.4030374
Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

σz Stress in the z (pull) direction

v Needle insertion velocity

WR Energy released by crack formation

x Position of start of steady needle penetration

d
ite
x’ Position of end of steady needle penetration

ξ1 Primary bevel angle of the needle

ed
ξ2 Secondary bevel angle of the needle

py
y Axis initially normal to major bevel angle

Co
y’ Axis normal to major bevel after rotation

ot
tN
r ip
sc
nu
Ma
ed
pt
ce
Ac

25

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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. Received September 03, 2014;
Accepted manuscript posted April 16, 2015. doi:10.1115/1.4030374
Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

Figure Caption List

FIGURE 1. Needle position inaccuracy due to (a) the needle bending and (b) target
position movement

FIGURE 2. Force profile of needle passing through porcine skin

d
FIGURE 3. Forces that compose total cutting force

ite
FIGURE 4. (a) Experimental setup for needle insertion and (b) porcine skin

ed
mounting

FIGURE 5. (a) Graph of 1st and 2nd needle insertion and (b) graph of fracture work

py
performed to determine JIC

Co
FIGURE 6. Measured needle crack length in porcine skin

FIGURE 7. Experimental setup for stretching porcine skin to determine shear

ot
modulus tN
FIGURE 8. Stress-strain curve of the porcine skin parallel, at a 45° angle, and
perpendicular (including Ogden Fit) to the Langer lines
ip

FIGURE 9. Fracture toughness of varying gauge needles from 1 to 80 mm/s

r
sc

FIGURE 10. Definition of the three angles that define hypodermic needle geometry
nu

FIGURE 11. Two-dimensional fit of friction data where the points are the
experimental data and the surface is the best fit
Ma

FIGURE 12. Tissue crack length results with linear fit

ed

FIGURE 13. Measured shear modulus compared to strain rate

FIGURE 14. Contact factor f compared to needle outer diameter

pt
ce

FIGURE 15. Completed force model (lines) plotted against experimental needle
insertion force results (points)
Ac

FIGURE 16. Completed force model (line) plotted against experimental needle
insertion force result (point) for 27 gauge needle

26

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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. Received September 03, 2014;
Accepted manuscript posted April 16, 2015. doi:10.1115/1.4030374
Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

Table Caption List

Table 1. Experimental procedure 1, needle insertion into porcine skin

Table 2. Measured angles of hypodermic needles

d
ite
ed
py
Co
ot
tN
r ip
sc
nu
Ma
ed
pt
ce
Ac

27

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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. Received September 03, 2014;
Accepted manuscript posted April 16, 2015. doi:10.1115/1.4030374
Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

TISSUE
Intended Path
Needle Trajectory

(a)
Final Target Initial Target

d
Position Position

ite
Needle

ed
(b)

py
FIGURE 1. Needle position inaccuracy due to (a) the needle bending and
(b) target position movement

Co
ot
tN
r ip
sc
nu
Ma
ed
pt
ce
Ac

28

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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. Received September 03, 2014;
Accepted manuscript posted April 16, 2015. doi:10.1115/1.4030374
Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

TISSUE
Needle

d
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3

ite
1.2 Delfection Cutting Friction Force

ed
1 Point of
Total cutting
needle

py
force (P)
0.8 exiting
Force (N)

Point of tissue

Co
intial
0.6
crack
formed

ot
0.4 tN
0.2
ip

0
r
sc

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Needle Displacement (mm)
nu

FIGURE 2. Force profile of needle passing through porcine skin

Ma
ed
pt
ce
Ac

29

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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. Received September 03, 2014;
Accepted manuscript posted April 16, 2015. doi:10.1115/1.4030374
Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

TISSUE

Spreading Force, Ps

d
ite
Tearing Force, Pt Needle

ed
Friction Force, PF

py
Co
ot
FIGURE 3. Forces that compose total cutting force
tN
r ip
sc
nu
Ma
ed
pt
ce
Ac

30

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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. Received September 03, 2014;
Accepted manuscript posted April 16, 2015. doi:10.1115/1.4030374
Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

Skin Plates

Needle Piezoelectric Skin

Actuator Plates

Rs
Force Sensor

d
Needle

ite
Porcine

ed
Linear Motor Skin

py
(a) (b)

Co
FIGURE 4. (a) Experimental setup for needle insertion and (b) porcine skin mounting

ot
tN
r ip
sc
nu
Ma
ed
pt
ce
Ac

31

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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. Received September 03, 2014;
Accepted manuscript posted April 16, 2015. doi:10.1115/1.4030374
Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

Phase 1 Phase 2

1.2 x x'
P
1
Insertion Forec (N)

0.8

d
0.6

ite
P-P'
0.4

ed
0.2 P'
0

py
0 1 2 3 4 5
Needle Displacement (mm)
(a)

Co
0.18
0.16
Fracture Work ∫(P-P')δl

ot
0.14
0.12
tN
0.1
JIC
0.08
ip

0.06
r

0.04
sc

0.02
0
nu

0 0.1 0.2 0.3

Crack Area ∫aδl
(b)
Ma

FIGURE 5. (a) Graph of 1st and 2nd needle insertion and (b) graph of fracture work
performed to determine JIC
ed
pt
ce
Ac

32

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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. Received September 03, 2014;
Accepted manuscript posted April 16, 2015. doi:10.1115/1.4030374
Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

Porcine skin

1.847 mm

d
ite
ed
Crack formed by needle
insertion

py
1 mm

Co
FIGURE 6. Measured needle crack length in porcine skin

ot
tN
r ip
sc
nu
Ma
ed
pt
ce
Ac

33

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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. Received September 03, 2014;
Accepted manuscript posted April 16, 2015. doi:10.1115/1.4030374
Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

Porcine Skin

d
Force Sensor

ite
ed
Linear Motor

py
Co
FIGURE 7. Experimental setup for stretching porcine skin to determine shear modulus

ot
tN
r ip
sc
nu
Ma
ed
pt
ce
Ac

34

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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. Received September 03, 2014;
Accepted manuscript posted April 16, 2015. doi:10.1115/1.4030374
Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

3.5
Parallel
3
Ogden Fit
Stress σz (MPa)
2.5
2 45o Angle

d
1.5

ite
1 Perpendicular

ed
0.5
0

py
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Stretch Ratio λz

Co
FIGURE 8. Stress-strain curve of the porcine skin parallel, at a 45° angle, and

ot
perpendicular (including Ogden Fit) to the Langer lines
tN
r ip
sc
nu
Ma
ed
pt
ce
Ac

35

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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. Received September 03, 2014;
Accepted manuscript posted April 16, 2015. doi:10.1115/1.4030374
Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

4
Fracture Toughness (kJ/m2) 3.5
3
25g
2.5

d
ite
2
18g

ed
1.5
16g

py
1 21g
0.5

Co
0
0 20 40 60 80 100

ot
Insertion Speed (mm/s)
tN
FIGURE 9. Fracture toughness of varying gauge needles from 1 to 80 mm/s
r ip
sc
nu
Ma
ed
pt
ce
Ac

36

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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. Received September 03, 2014;
Accepted manuscript posted April 16, 2015. doi:10.1115/1.4030374
Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

d
ite
ed
ξ2
y = y’

py
ξ1 y’
y
β

Co
ot
FIGURE 10. Definition of the three angles that define hypodermic needle geometry
tN
r ip
sc
nu
Ma
ed
pt
ce
Ac

37

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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. Received September 03, 2014;
Accepted manuscript posted April 16, 2015. doi:10.1115/1.4030374
Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

0.8

d
0.7

ite
Friction Force (N)

0.6

ed
0.5
0.4

py
0.3

Co
0.2
0.1 1.2

ot
m
0.0 tN 1.0
70 60 50 0.6
40 30 20 10
ip

FIGURE 11. Two-dimensional fit of friction data where the points are the experimental
r
sc

data and the surface is the best fit

nu
Ma
ed
pt
ce
Ac

38

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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. Received September 03, 2014;
Accepted manuscript posted April 16, 2015. doi:10.1115/1.4030374
Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

Crack Length (mm)

1.6

1.2

d
0.8 a = 0.9052 d

ite
0.4

ed
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2

py
Needle Diameter (mm)

Co
FIGURE 12. Tissue crack length results with linear fit

ot
tN
r ip
sc
nu
Ma
ed
pt
ce
Ac

39

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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. Received September 03, 2014;
Accepted manuscript posted April 16, 2015. doi:10.1115/1.4030374
Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

0.12

Shear Modulus (MPa)

0.1

0.08

0.06 μ = – 0.006 ln(𝜀) + 0.087

d
ite
0.04

ed
0.02

py
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Strain Rate (%mm/mm-s)

Co
FIGURE 13. Measured shear modulus compared to strain rate

ot
tN
r ip
sc
nu
Ma
ed
pt
ce
Ac

40

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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. Received September 03, 2014;
Accepted manuscript posted April 16, 2015. doi:10.1115/1.4030374
Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

30
25
Contact Factor f
f = 17.534 d -0.542
20
15

d
10

ite
5

ed
0

py
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Needle Outer Diameter (mm)

Co
Figure 14. Contact factor f compared to needle outer diameter

ot
tN
r ip
sc
nu
Ma
ed
pt
ce
Ac

41

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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. Received September 03, 2014;
Accepted manuscript posted April 16, 2015. doi:10.1115/1.4030374
Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

4
3.5
3 16g
Insertion Force (N)

2.5 18g

d
ite
2
21g

ed
1.5
25g

py
1
0.5

Co
0
0 20 40 60 80 100

ot
Insertion Speed (mm/s)
tN
FIGURE 15.
Completed force model (lines) plotted against experimental needle insertion force
ip

results (points)
r
sc
nu
Ma
ed
pt
ce
Ac

42

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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. Received September 03, 2014;
Accepted manuscript posted April 16, 2015. doi:10.1115/1.4030374
Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

2
1.8

Insertion Force (N)

1.6
1.4
1.2
1

d
0.8

ite
0.6
0.4

ed
0.2
0

py
0 20 40 60 80 100

Co
Insertion Speed (mm/s)

FIGURE 16. Completed force model (line) plotted against experimental needle insertion

ot
force result (point) for 27 gauge needle
tN
r ip
sc
nu
Ma
ed
pt
ce
Ac

43

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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. Received September 03, 2014;
Accepted manuscript posted April 16, 2015. doi:10.1115/1.4030374
Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

Table 1. Experimental procedure 1, needle insertion into porcine skin

Needle Outer Insertion Number of

Needle Gauge
Diameter (mm) Speed (mm/s) Trials
16 1.65
18 1.27
1, 20, 40, and
21 0.82 5

d
80
25 0.51

ite
27 0.41

ed
py
Co
ot
tN
r ip
sc
nu
Ma
ed
pt
ce
Ac

44

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Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. Received September 03, 2014;
Accepted manuscript posted April 16, 2015. doi:10.1115/1.4030374
Copyright (c) 2015 by ASME
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering

Table 2. Measured angles of hypodermic needles

Needle Gauge ξ1 ξ2 β
16 9.9° 17.5° 53.0°
18 10.6° 21.5° 48.5°
21 9.4° 16.0° 46.5°

d
25 9.6° 18.5° 43.0°

ite
ed
py
Co
ot
tN
r ip
sc
nu
Ma
ed
pt
ce
Ac

45

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