IPv4 Addressing

• Networks recognize two addresses

– Logical (Network layer)
– Physical (MAC, hardware) addresses
• IP protocol handles logical addressing
• Specific parameters
– Unique 32-bit number
• Divided into four octets (sets of eight bits)
• Separated by periods
• Example: 144.92.43.178

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 1

 IPv4 Addressing (cont d.)

Table 4-1 Commonly used TCP/IP classes

• IP address information
– Network Class determined by first octet
• Class A, Class B, Class C

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 2

 IPv4 Addressing (cont d.)
• Class D, Class E rarely used (never assign)
– Class D: value between 224 and 230
• Multicasting
– Class E: value between 240 and 254
• Experimental use
• Eight bits have 256 combinations
– Networks use 1 through 254
– 0: reserved as placeholder
• 10.0.0.0
– 255: reserved for broadcast transmission
• 255.255.255.255

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 3

 IPv4 Addressing (cont d.)
• Class A devices
– Share same first octet (bits 0-7)
• Network ID
– Host: second through fourth octets (bits 8-31)
• Class B devices
– Share same first two octet (bits 0-15)
– Host: second through fourth octets (bits 16-31)
• Class C devices
– Share same first three octet (bits 0-23)
– Host: second through fourth octets (bits 24-31)
Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 4
 Figure 4-8 IP addresses and their classes

• Running out of addresses

– IPv6 incorporates new addressing scheme

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 5

 IPv4 Addressing (cont d.)

• Loop back address

– First octet equals 127 (127.0.0.1)
• Loopback test
– Attempting to connect to own machine
– Powerful troubleshooting tool
• Windows XP, Vista
– ipconfig command
• Unix, Linux
– ifconfig command

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 6

 IPv4 Addressing (cont d.)

Figure 4-9 Results of the ipconfig /all command on a Windows XP

or Windows Vista workstation

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 7

 IPv4 Addressing (cont d.)

Figure 4-10 Results of the ifconfig -a command on a UNIX

workstation

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 8

 Binary and Dotted Decimal Notation

• Decimal number between 0 and 255 represents

each binary octet
• Period (dot) separates each decimal
• Dotted decimal address has binary equivalent
– Converting each octet
– Remove decimal points

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 9

 Subnet Mask

• Identifies every device on TCP/IP-based network

• 32-bit number (net mask)
– Identifies device s subnet
• Combines with device IP address
• Informs network about segment, network where device
attached
• Four octets (32 bits)
– Expressed in binary or dotted decimal notation
• Assigned same way a IP addresses
– Manually, automatically (via DHCP)
Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 10
 Table 4-2 Default subnet masks

• Subnetting
– Subdividing network single class into multiple, smaller
logical networks (segments)
• Control network traffic
• Make best use of limited number of IP addresses
– Subnet mask varies depending on subnetting
• Nonsubnetted networks use defaults
Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 11
 Assigning IP Addresses

• Government-sponsored organizations
– Dole out IP addresses
– IANA, ICANN, RIRs
• Companies, individuals
– Obtain IP addresses from ISPs
• Every network node must have unique IP address
– Error message otherwise

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 12

 Assigning IP Addresses (cont d.)

• Static IP address
– Assignment manually
– Modify client workstation TCP/IP properties
• Only way to change
– Human error cause duplicates
• Automatic IP addressing
– BOOTP and DHCP
– Reduce duplication error

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 13

 BOOTP (Bootstrap Protocol)

• Mid-1980s
• Application layer protocol
• Central list
– IP addresses, associated devices MAC addresses
– Assign client IP addresses dynamically
• Dynamic IP address
– Assigned to device upon request
– Changeable

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 14

 BOOTP (cont d.)
• BOOTP process
– Client connects to network
– Sends broadcast message asking for IP address
• Includes client s NIC MAC address
– BOOTP server looks up client s MAC address in
BOOTP table
– Responds to client
• Client s IP address
• Server IP address
• Server host name
• Default router IP address

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 15

 BOOTP (cont d.)
• Process resembles RARP
– Difference
• RARP requests, responses not routable
• RARP only capable of issuing IP address to client
• BOOTP may issue additional information (client s
subnet mask)
• BOOTP surpassed by DHCP (Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol)
– More sophisticated IP addressing utility
– DHCP requires little intervention
• BOOTP difficult to maintain on large networks

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 16

 DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol)
• Assigns network device unique IP address
– Automatically
• Application layer protocol
• Developed by IETF (BOOTP replacement)
• Operation
– Similar to BOOTP
– Lower administrative burden
• Administrator does not maintain table
– Requires DHCP service on DHCP server
• Many reasons to use

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 17

 DHCP Leasing Process

• Device borrows (leases) IP address

– Devices use IP address temporarily
• Specified time limit
• Lease time
– Determine when client obtains IP address at log on
– User may force lease termination
• DHCP service configuration
– Specify leased address range
– Configure lease duration
• Several steps to negotiate client s first lease
Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 18
 DHCP Leasing Process (cont d.)

Figure 4-11 The DHCP leasing process

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 19

 APIPA (Automatic Private IP
Addressing)
• Client cannot communicate without valid IP address
• What if DHCP server not running?
– Microsoft offers Automatic Private IP Addressing
• Windows 98, Me, 2000, XP, Vista, Windows Server
2003, Windows Server 2008
• Provides IP address automatically
• IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority)
reserved predefined pool of addresses
– 169.254.0.0 through 169.254.255.255

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 20

 APIPA (cont d.)

• APIPA
– Assigns computer s network adapter IP address from
the pool
– Assigns subnet default Class B network
• 255.255.0.0
– Part of operating system
• No need to register; check with central authority
• Disadvantage
– Computer only communicates with other nodes using
addresses in APIPA range

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 21

 IPv6 Addressing
• IP next generation (IPng)
– Replacing IPv4 (gradually)
• IPv6 support
– Most new applications, servers, network devices
• Delay in implementation
– Cost of upgrading infrastructure
• IPv6 advantages
– More efficient header, better security, better
prioritization provisions, automatic IP address
configuration
– Billions of additional IP addresses
Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 22
 IPv6 Addressing (cont d.)

• Difference between IPv4 and IPv6 addresses

– Size
• IPv4: 32 bits
• IPv6: eight 16-bit fields (128 bits)
• IPv6: 296 (4 billion times 4 billion times 4 billion)
available IP addresses
– Representation
• IPv4: binary numbers separated by period
• IPv6: hexadecimal numbers separated by colon
• IPv6 shorthand: :: any number of multiple, zero-value
fields
Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 23
 IPv6 Addressing (cont d.)

• Difference between IPv4 and IPv6 addresses

(cont d.)
– Representation (cont d.)
• IPv6 loopback address is 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:1
• Abbreviated loopback address ::1
– Scope
• IPv6 addresses can reflect scope of transmission s
recipients
• Unicast address represents single device interface
• Multicast address represents multiple interfaces (often
on multiple devices)
Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 24
 IPv6 Addressing (cont d.)

• Difference between IPv4 and IPv6 addresses

(cont d.)
– Scope (cont d.)
• Anycast address represents any one interface from a
group of interfaces
• Any one can accept transmission
– Format Prefix (IPv6)
• Beginning of address
• Variable-length field
• Indicates address type: unicast, multicast, anycast

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 25

 Sockets and Ports
• Processes assigned unique port numbers
• Process s socket
– Port number plus host machine s IP address
• Port numbers
– Simplify TCP/IP communications
– Ensures data transmitted correctly
• Example
– Telnet port number: 23
– IPv4 host address: 10.43.3.87
– Socket address: 10.43.3.87:23

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 26

 Sockets and Ports (cont d.)

Figure 4-12 A virtual connection for the Telnet service

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 27

 Sockets and Ports (cont d.)
• Port number range: 0 to 65535
• Three types
– Well Known Ports
• Range: 0 to 1023
• Operating system or administrator use
– Registered Ports
• Range: 1024 to 49151
• Network users, processes with no special privileges
– Dynamic and/or Private Ports
• Range: 49152 through 65535
• No restrictions

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 28

 Sockets and Ports (cont d.)

Table 4-3 Commonly used TCP/IP port numbers

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 29

 Sockets and Ports (cont d.)

• Servers maintain an editable, text-based file

– Port numbers and associated services
– Free to change
• Not good idea: standards violation
– May change for security reasons

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 30

 Host Names and DNS
(Domain Name System)
• TCP/IP addressing
– Long, complicated numbers
– Good for computers
• People remember words better
– Internet authorities established Internet node naming
system
• Host
– Internet device
• Host name
– Name describing device
Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 31
 Domain Names

• Domain
– Group of computers belonging to same organization
– Share common part of IP address
• Domain name
– Identifies domain (loc.gov)
– Associated with company, university, government
organization
• Fully qualified host name (jasmine.loc.gov)
– Local host name plus domain name

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 32

 Domain Names (cont d.)
• Label (character string)
– Separated by dots
– Represents level in domain naming hierarchy
• Example: www.google.com
– Top-level domain (TLD): com
– Second-level domain: google
– Third-level domain: www
• Second-level domain
– May contain multiple third-level domains
• ICANN established domain naming conventions

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 33

 Table 4-4 Top-level domains

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 34

 Domain Names (cont d.)

• ICANN approved over 240 country codes

• Host and domain names restrictions
– Any alphanumeric combination up to 63 characters
– Include hyphens, underscores, periods in name
– No other special characters

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 35

 Host Files

• ARPAnet used HOSTS.TXT file

– Associated host names with IP addresses
– Host matched by one line
• Identifies host s name, IP address
• Alias provides nickname
• UNIX-/Linux-based computer
– Host file called hosts, located in the /etc directory
• Windows 9x, NT, 2000, XP, Vista computer
– Host file called hosts
– Located in %systemroot%\system32\drivers\etc folder
Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 36
 Host Files (cont d.)

Figure 4-13 Example host file

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 37

 DNS (Domain Name System)
• Hierarchical
– Associate domain names with IP addresses
• DNS refers to:
– Application layer service accomplishing association
– Organized system of computers; databases making
association possible
• DNS redundancy
– Many computers across globe related in hierarchical
manner
– Root servers
• 13 computers (ultimate authorities)

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 38

 Figure 4-14 Domain name resolution

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 39

 DNS (cont d.)
• Three components
– Resolvers
• Any hosts on Internet needing to look up domain name
information
– Name servers (DNS servers)
• Databases of associated names, IP addresses
• Provide information to resolvers on request
– Namespace
• Abstract database of Internet IP addresses, associated
names
• Describes how name servers of the world share DNS
information

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 40

 DNS (cont d.)
• Resource record
– Describes one piece of DNS database information
– Many different types
• Dependent on function
– Contents
• Name field
• Type field
• Class field
• Time to Live field
• Data length field
• Actual data

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 41

 Configuring DNS
• Large organizations
– Often maintain two name servers
• Primary and secondary
– Ensures Internet connectivity
• Each device must know how to find server
– Automatically by DHCP
– Manually configure workstation TCP/IP properties

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 42

 Configuring DNS (cont d.)

Figure 4-15 Windows XP Internet Protocol

(TCP/IP) Properties dialog box

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 43

 Configuring DNS (cont d.)

Figure 4-16 Windows Vista Internet Protocol

Version 4 (TCP/IPv4) Properties dialog box

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 44

 DDNS (Dynamic DNS)
• Used in Website hosting
– Manually changing DNS records unmanageable
• Process
– Service provider runs program on user s computer
• Notifies service provider when IP address changes
– Service provider s server launches routine to
automatically update DNS record
• Effective throughout Internet in minutes
• Not DNS replacement
• Larger organizations pay for statically assigned IP
address
Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 45
 Zeroconf (Zero Configuration)

• Collection of protocols
– Designed by IETF
– Simplify TCP/IP network node setup
– IP addresses assigned through IPv4LL
• IP version 4 Link Local
– Manages automatic address assignment
• Locally connected nodes
– Not used on larger networks
– Especially useful with network printers

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 46

 Application Layer Protocols

• Work over TCP or UDP plus IP

– Translate user requests
• Into format readable by network
• HTTP
– Application layer protocol central to using Web
• BOOTP and DHCP
– Automatic address assignment
• Additional Application layer protocols exist

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 47

 Telnet
• Terminal emulation protocol
– Log on to remote hosts
• Using TCP/IP protocol suite
– TCP connection established
• Keystrokes on user s machine act like keystrokes on
remotely connected machine
• Often connects two dissimilar systems
• Can control remote host
• Drawback
– Notoriously insecure

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 48

 FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
• Send and receive files via TCP/IP
• Host running FTP server portion
– Accepts commands from host running FTP client
• FTP commands
– Operating system s command prompt
• No special client software required
• FTP hosts allow anonymous logons
• After connected to host
– Additional commands available
– Type help

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 49

 FTP (cont d.)
• Graphical FTP clients
– MacFTP, WS_FTP, CuteFTP, SmartFTP
• Rendered command-line method less common
• FTP file transfers directly from modern Web browser
– Point browser to FTP host
– Move through directories, exchange files
• SFTP
– More secure

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 50

 TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol)
• Enables file transfers between computers
– Simpler (more trivial) than FTP
• TFTP relies on Transport layer UDP
– Connectionless
– Does not guarantee reliable data delivery
• No ID and password required
– Security risk
• No directory browsing allowed
• Useful to load data, programs on diskless
workstation

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 51

 NTP (Network Time Protocol)
• Synchronizes network computer clocks
• Depends on UDP Transport layer services
– Benefits from UDP s quick, connectionless nature
• Time sensitive
• Cannot wait for error checking
• Time synchronization importance
– Routing
– Time-stamped security methods
– Maintaining accuracy, consistency between multiple
storage systems

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 52

 NNTP (Network News Transfer
Protocol)
• Facilitates newsgroup messages exchange
– Between multiple servers, users
• Similar to e-mail
– Provides means of conveying messages
• Differs from e-mail
– Distributes messages to wide group of users at once
• User subscribes to newsgroup server host
• News servers
– Central collection, distribution point for newsgroup
messages
Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 53
 PING (Packet Internet Groper)

• Provides verification
– TCP/IP installed, bound to NIC, configured correctly,
communicating with network
– Host responding
• Uses ICMP services
– Send echo request and echo reply messages
• Determine IP address validity
• Ping IP address or host name
• Ping loopback address: 127.0.0.1
– Determine if workstation s TCP/IP services running
Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 54
 PING (cont d.)

Figure 4-17 Output from successful and unsuccessful PING tests

• Operating system determines Ping command
options, switches, syntax

Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition 55