Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorems

Often, we may use a relatively complex circuit to deliver power to a load.

Thevenin’s theorem says that the entire circuit (exclusive of the load) can be replaced by an equivalent
circuit containing only an independent voltage source in series with a resistor.

Norton’s theorem says we can replace the driving circuit by an independent current source in parallel
with a resistance.

RT

Thevenin VT +- RL

Circuit RL

RN RL
Norton
In both cases the current-voltage relation at the load stays the same. We can change the load value and
the equivalent will accurately model the actual circuit!

Consider the Thevenin equivalent first.

Consider a complex circuit that can be split into two parts: A and B:

Part Part
Original
A B
Circuit
There is a current i between the circuits and a voltage VB at the terminals. We could replace part B with
a voltage source VB without changing the voltage or current at the terminals.

Circuit +- VB

If we were to apply superposition to the circuit, we could find the current iB due to the new source VB,
and the current with VB = 0 (short circuit) due to other sources in circuit A iA, then the total will be

48
 i = iA + iB

Setting all sources in A to zero we find:

iB = -VB/RTH

where RTH would be the resistance between the terminals of circuit A with all independent sources = 0,
therefore:

i = iA -VB/RTH

Now if we set VB =0 (we short the terminals) then we are left with:

i = isc = iA

So

i = iSC -VB/RTH (***)

Now say we open circuit the terminals, then VB = VOC and the current is equal to zero so:

i = 0 = iSC -VOC/RTH

VOC = RTH ∙ iSC

Thus, the ratio of the open circuit voltage and the short current is related by the resistance of circuit A
with all sources zeroed out! We can therefore re-write (***) as:

i = VOC/RTH -VB/RTH

Solving for VB:

VB = VOC -i∙RTH

Look at the above equation. How would you draw it as a circuit? It is a voltage source in series with a
resistor! The first term tells you the voltage when no current is drawn. The second term i∙RTH indicates
that any current drawn from the circuit will reduce the output voltage -> real circuit.

Thevenin

RTH = resistance looking into the terminals of driving circuit A with all sources = 0 -> Theven Resistance.

VOC = The voltage at the terminals of circuit A when the terminals are open circuit.

The circuit A can then be replaced by a source VOC in series with a resistor RTH:

Thevenin’s Theorem
RTH

Circuit Circuit +- VOC

Circuit
A B B

49
This indicates circuit A can also be replaced by a current source in parallel with a resistor RTH.

Norton’s Theorem

Circuit Circuit i SC RTH

Circuit
A B B

Note the two circuit equivalents are different representations of the same equations. Note they are
equivalent only in terminal characteristics -> Norton dissipates power O.C.

Example: Use Thevenin’s Theorem to find Vo

3kW 2kW 4kW

12V +- 6kW 2mA 8kW Vo

We can do this in stages. We will start by considering just the part to the left of the current source:

3kW 2kW

12V +- 6kW VOC

VTH = VOC = 12V X 6k/(6k+3k) = 8V (note this is a simple voltage divider between the 3k and 6k
resistor… why?? We assume open circuit at the terminals so no current flow through the 2k resistor thus
it doesn’t appear in the equation).

RTH -> find the equivalent R between the terminals with sources = 0.

RTH = 2k + 6k//3k = 4k (note 12V supply becomes a short circuit)

Our new circuit is:

50
 4kW C 4kW

8V +- 2mA 8kW Vo

Now break the circuit at C/D:

4kW C

8V +- 2mA VOC

The new VTH = 8V + 2mA X 4k = 16V

New RTH = 4k (current source open, voltage source short)

Our equivalent is now:

4kW C 4kW

16V +- 8kW Vo

And Vo = 16V X 8k/(8k+4k+4k) = 8V and

RTH = 8k//(4k+4k) = 4k (voltage source again a short circuit)

The equivalent could also be found using superposition of 2 sources.

Note:

4kW

8V +- = IN RN

51
IN would be the short circuit current = 8V/4k = 2mA.

And RN would provide the same O.C. voltage:

8V = IN ∙ RN or RN = 8V/2mA = 4k

i.e. RN = RTH -> source transformation.

Thevenin:

1) Remove the load, find the open circuit voltage.

2) Find the equivalent resistance between the output terminals with independent sources set to
zero.
3) If there are dependent sources present RTH may not be obvious so a ‘test source’ is connected to
the output and RTH is found from VTEST / ITEST. (ohm’s law).
4) Re-attach the load and complete the analysis.

Thevenin Dependent and Independent Sources

Find Vo using Thevenin’s Theorem:

4kW
+ -
4kW
12V +
- +- 6kW Vo

We will once more do this in steps. First we will remove the 6k resistor:

4kW
+ -
4kW
12V +- i +- VOC

Using KVL:

12V –Vx – 4k∙i +Vx/2 = 0

We also note that Vx = 4k∙i, therefore:

12V –4k∙i – 4k∙i +2k∙i = 0

i = 2mA

We now note that:

52
 VOC = 4k∙i - Vx/2

VOC = 2k∙i = 2k ∙ 2mA = 4V

We have found the open circuit voltage, next we need to find RTH which isn’t obvious because we
have dependent sources! Thus, we will zero all independent sources and apply a test voltage and
find the test current:

ITest
4kW
+ -
4kW
VTest
+-

We note that Vx = -VTEST

Therefore:

ITEST = VTEST/4k + (VTEST/2)/4K

***Note a good test if you can keep track of negative signs! The 4k in series with dependent source
sees a voltage of +VTEST/2.

VTEST/ITEST = (8k/3) = 2.7k

Now we can replace the 6k resistor with our simple model to give:

2.7kW

4V +- 6kW Vo

Vo = 4V X 6k/(2.7k+6k) = 2.75V

Source Transformation or Source Exchange

A current source in parallel with a resistor can be replaced by a voltage source in series with a resistor.
This may simplify circuit analysis, for example allowing sources to be combined.

53
 3kW 2kW 4kW

12V +- 6kW 2mA 8kW Vo

The circled elements can be replaced with their Norton equivalent:

2kW 4kW

12V/3k 2mA
3kW 6kW 8kW Vo
=4mA

This puts two resistors directly in parallel for easy combining:

2kW 4kW

4mA 2kW 2mA 8kW Vo

Now we can convert the two circled elements into a Thevenin equivalent:

2kW 2kW 4kW

8V +- 2mA 8kW Vo

Which means the two circled resistors can be easily combined:

54
 4kW 4kW

8V +- 2mA 8kW Vo

Now converting back to Norton:

4kW

4kW 2mA 2mA 8kW Vo

We can see that we can easily combine the two current sources now. Now using a current divider:

Vo = 4mA X (4k/16k) X 8k = 8V

Of course we could also have kept reducing the circuit step by step as well…

Design Example

We would like to design a circuit to combine a course adjustment voltage and a fine adjustment voltage
to give an overall tuning voltage:

Vtune = ½ Vcourse + 1/20 Vfine

Sum of two terms -> superposition of sources?

R1 R2
Vcourse +- +V +- Vfine
R tune
-
We want:
𝑡𝑢𝑛𝑒_𝑐 𝑅//𝑅2 1
= =
𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑅1 + (𝑅//𝑅2 )
𝑅//𝑅2 = 𝑅1
We also want:

𝑡𝑢𝑛𝑒_𝑓 𝑅//𝑅1 1
= =
𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑅2 + (𝑅//𝑅1 ) 0

55
 1
𝑅//𝑅1 = 𝑅
19 2
2 equations -> 3 unknowns

Another constraint? Power dissipation?

Otherwise choose ‘reasonable values’ i.e. pick at least one resistor arbitrarily.

Maximum Power Transfer

In some applications we are interested in transferring the maximum possible power to a load element or
circuit. The Thevenin equivalent circuit can aid us with this.

Source of Power RS

Load
V +- RL Element

2
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑖 2 𝑅𝐿 = ( ) 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿
What value of RL makes this a maximum?
2 2
𝑑𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
=0=( ) − 𝑅𝐿
𝑑𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿 (𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿 )3
𝑅𝐿
=1
𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑆
Maximum power transfer occurs when the load resistance matches the source resistance.

Example

Find RL for maximum power transfer.

56
 4kW
2mA
3kW
RL

3V +- 6kW

We start by removing RL and finding the Thevenin equivalent. Note we only need RTH to find RL and we
don’t need VOC unless we want to know the VALUE of the power transferred to the load.

i1
4kW
2mA
3kW VOC

3V +- i2 6kW

i1 = 2mA

-3V – 3k (i2 – i1 ) – 6ki2 = 0

3V -6V + 9k i2 = 0

i2 = 3V/9k = 0.33mA

Then VOC = 6ki2 +4ki1 = 6k X 0.33mA + 4k X 2mA = 10V

Now to find RTH, voltage source -> 0 (short), current source -> open

4kW

3kW RTH

6kW

57
RTH = 4k + 6k//3k = 6k

So RL = 6k for max power.

RS=6kW

10V +- RL=6kW

P = i2 6k = (10V/12k)2 6k = 4.17mW

58
Capacitors

We now have all the basic tools for circuit analysis, but so far the only components we have are sources
and elements that dissipate energy -> resistors.

We can do some interesting things with elements that store energy -> inductors and capacitors

Capacitors - A capacitor is a circuit element composed of two conducting surfaces separated by a non-
conducting dielectric material.

Schematic symbol:

+
C or C
-
Often capacitor electrodes are rolled to give a high capacitance to volume ratio. Different dielectrics are
used depending on the application.

-ceramic

- electrolytic (Al, Ta)

-mica

-polyester

And some new high capacity materials.

Capacitance is charge / potential

Coulombs/volt = farads (F)

(after Michael Faraday)

Typical values are F to pF, although recently energy storage capacitors up to a few 100F have become
available.

➔ Voltage rating -> breakdown or catastrophic failure.

Parallel plate capacitor is commonly analyzed

𝜖∙𝐴
𝐶=
𝑑
Two plates of area A are separated by distance d by a dielectric with permittivity 𝜖.

Consider the 100F double layer capacitor mentioned above with an air gap 𝜖 = 𝜖𝑜 of distance 10-4m.

8.85𝑋10−12 ∙ 𝐴
100𝐹 =
10−4 𝑚

59
A = 1.148X109m2 or 443 square miles!

Note capacitance relates applied voltage to stored charge:

𝑞 = 𝐶 -> energy stored in electric field

And we know current

𝑑𝑞 𝑑(𝐶𝑣)
𝑖= =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
So
𝑑𝑣
𝑖=𝐶
𝑑𝑡
For constant capacitance or turning it around:
1
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝐶
And

1 𝑡
𝑣(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑖(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝐶 −∞

And since we may only know a condition at some initial time

1 𝑡𝑜 1 𝑡
𝑣(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑖(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 + ∫ 𝑖(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝐶 −∞ 𝐶 𝑡𝑜

1 𝑡
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡𝑜 ) + ∫ 𝑖(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝐶 𝑡𝑜

Power delivered to the capacitor

𝑝(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡) ∙ 𝑖(𝑡)

𝑑𝑣(𝑡)
= 𝑣(𝑡)𝐶
𝑑𝑡
And the energy can be found by integrating:

𝑝(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 𝐶𝑣(𝑡)𝑑𝑣
𝑡
𝜔𝑐 (𝑡) = ∫ 𝑝(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
−∞
𝑡
= 𝐶 ∫ 𝑣(𝑡) 𝑑𝑣(𝑡)
−∞

1 𝑣(𝑡) 1
𝜔𝑐 (𝑡) = 𝐶𝑣 2 (𝑥) | = 𝐶𝑣 2 (𝑡)
𝑣(−∞)

60
Also from q = CV :

1 𝑞 2 (𝑡)
𝜔𝑐 (𝑡) =
𝐶
𝑑𝑣
Since 𝑖 = 𝐶 , for a constant (DC) voltage there is no capacitor current in the steady state -> a capacitor
𝑑𝑡
is an open circuit to DC or ‘blocks’ DC.

****think about this for a moment…what is a capacitor physically? -> it is a broken wire!!!

Note however there is an initial transient current when DC is switched on or off. Also since
𝑑𝑣(𝑡)
𝑝(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡)𝐶
𝑑𝑡
An instantaneous voltage change would require infinite current and power -> not physically possible. ->
capacitor voltage must be continuous.

Example:

The voltage across a 5F capacitor is given by:

v(t)

24V

6 8 t(s)

What is the current?

𝑑𝑣(𝑡)
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐶
𝑑𝑡
4
𝑖(𝑡) = 5𝜇𝐹 = 0𝜇𝐴
6𝜇𝑠
For 0 ≤ t ≤ 6s.
− 4
𝑖(𝑡) = 5𝜇𝐹 = −60𝜇𝐴
𝜇𝑠
For 6s ≤ t ≤ 8s.

i(t) = 0A for t > 8 s.

Energy stored at t = 6s depends only on voltage at that instant (not how it got there).

1 1
𝐸 = 𝐶𝑣 2 = ∙ 5𝜇𝐹 ∙ 4 2
= 1.44𝑚𝐽

61
Series Capacitors

We can find how to combine elements from KVL, KCL, and the I-V relationship.

C1 C2 C3 CN

v1(t) v2(t) v3(t) vN(t)

v(t) +-

KVL: v(t) = v1(t) + v2(t) + v3(t) + … + vN(t)

And

1 𝑡
𝑣𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝑣𝑖 (𝑡𝑜 ) + ∫ 𝑖(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝐶𝑖 𝑡𝑜

(same current in each capacitor) So:

𝑁 𝑁
1 𝑡
𝑣(𝑡) = ∑ 𝑣𝑖 (𝑡𝑜 ) + ∑ ∫ 𝑖(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝐶𝑖 𝑡𝑜
𝑖=1 𝑖=1

1 𝑡
= ∫ 𝑖(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑣(𝑡𝑜 )
𝐶𝑆 𝑡𝑜

Where
𝑁

𝑣(𝑡𝑜 ) = ∑ 𝑣𝑖 (𝑡𝑜 )
𝑖=1

And
𝑁
1 1 1 1 1 1
= ∑ = + + + ⋯+
𝐶𝑆 𝐶𝑖 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 𝐶𝑁
𝑖=1

➔ Same current, so each capacitor acquires the same charge in a given time.

Parallel Capacitors

i1(t) i2(t) i3(t) iN(t)

v(t) +- C1 C2 C3 CN

KCL: i(t) = i1(t) +i2(t)+ i3(t) + … + iN(t)

62
And
𝑑𝑣𝑖 (𝑡)
𝑖𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝐶𝑖
𝑑𝑡
But vi(t) = v(t) for all Ci so:
𝑑𝑣(𝑡) 𝑑𝑣(𝑡) 𝑑𝑣(𝑡) 𝑑𝑣(𝑡)
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 + ⋯ + 𝐶𝑁
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
So
𝑑𝑣(𝑡)
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑃
𝑑𝑡
Where:
𝑁

𝐶𝑃 = ∑ 𝐶𝑖
𝑖=1

Example Find the Equivalent Capacitance

3F

2F 4F

Ceq
2F
3F
12F

We first note that the two circled caps are in parallel Cp = 2F + 4F = 6F.

3F

6F
Ceq
2F
3F
12F

We next note that these two circled caps are in series: Cs = (1/6F +1/3F)-1=2F

This leaves us with:

63
 3F

Ceq
2F 2F

12F

We note the two parallel caps have an overall capacitance of 2F + F = 4F.

Thus we are left with a 3 F, 4F, and 12F in series:

Ceq = (1/12 + 1/4 + 1/3 )-1 = 1.5F

Inductors

An inductor consists of a conducting wire usually in the form of a coil.

Typically categorized by the core material around which the wire is wound.

➔ Air and nonmagnetic materials

➔ Iron
➔ Ferrite (iron, iron oxide -> ferromagnetic)

As with capacitors materials depend on value and loss requirements.

Inductance is measured in Henrys (after Joseph Henry) -> volt/s per ampere.
𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
Note that current cannot change instantaneously. We can also write this formula as:

1 𝑡 1 𝑡
𝑖(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑣(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑖(𝑡𝑜 ) + ∫ 𝑣(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝐿 −∞ 𝐿 𝑡𝑜

Typical values are H to mH.

Inductors store energy in a magnetic field created by the current. Power is still given by:

64
 𝑝(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡) ∙ 𝑖(𝑡)
𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
=𝐿 ∙ 𝑖(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
Or energy is given by:
𝑡
𝜔𝐿 (𝑡) = ∫ 𝑝(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
−∞
𝑡
𝑑𝑖(𝑡) 1
𝜔𝐿 (𝑡) = ∫ 𝐿 ∙ 𝑖(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐿𝑖 2 (𝑡)
−∞ 𝑑𝑡

Short circuit for DC (ideal, some small R). THINK about this, and inductor is just a wire!!!

Note:
𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
𝑝(𝑡) = 𝐿 ∙ 𝑖(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
So power is proportional to the instantaneous change in i(t). If di/dt goes to infinity power goes to
infinity which is not possible. Therefore, an inductor requires continuity of current.

Inductors are indispensable in tuned circuits and many power applications. – motors, transformers and
solenoids (actuators).

Example

The voltage measured across a 200mH is v(t) = (1-3t)e-3t mV for t ≥ 0 and zero for t < 0. What is the
current and power?

1 𝑡
𝑖(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑣(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝐿 −∞

103 𝑡
= ∫ (1 − 3𝑡)𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑑𝑡
00 0
𝑡 𝑡
−3𝑡
= 5 (∫ 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 − 3 ∫ 𝑡𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑑𝑡)
0 0

1 𝑡 1 1 𝑡
= 5 [− 𝑒 −3𝑡 | − 3 ((− 𝑡𝑒 −3𝑡 ) − ( 𝑒 −3𝑡 )) | ]
3 0 3 9 0
1 1 1 1
= 5 [− 𝑒 −3𝑡 + + (𝑡𝑒 −3𝑡 − 0) + 𝑒 −3𝑡 − ]
3 3 3 3
𝑖(𝑡) = 5𝑡𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑚𝐴 𝑡 ≥ 0

𝑝(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡) ∙ 𝑖(𝑡) = 5𝑡𝑒 −3𝑡 ∙ (1 − 3𝑡)𝑒 −3𝑡 = 5𝑡(1 − 3𝑡)𝑒 −6𝑡 𝜇𝑊

65
Notice i(t) is positive for t > 0.

v(t) is positive for di/dt > 0 and negative for di/dt < 0.

i(t) positive, p(t) has the sign of v(t) starting positive (storing) and ending negative (releasing).

i(t)

time
v(t)

time
p(t)

time
Series Inductors

i(t) L1 L2 L3 LN

v1(t) v2(t) v3(t) vN(t)

v(t) +-

KVL:

𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑣1 (𝑡) + 𝑣2 (𝑡) + 𝑣3 (𝑡) + ⋯ 𝑣𝑁 (𝑡)

66
 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
= 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3 + ⋯ + 𝐿𝑁
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Since i is the same for each:
𝑁
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝑣(𝑡) = ∑ 𝐿𝑖 ∙ = 𝐿𝑆 ∙
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑖=1

Where:
𝑁

𝐿𝑆 = ∑ 𝐿𝑖
𝑖=1

Parallel Inductors

i(t)

i1(t) i2(t) i3(t) iN(t)

v(t) +- L1 L2 L3 LN

KCL: i(t) = i1(t) +i2(t)+ i3(t) + … + iN(t)

where

1 𝑡
𝑖𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝑖𝑖 (𝑡𝑜 ) + ∫ 𝑣(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝐿𝑖 𝑡 𝑜

v(t) is the same across each Li so:

𝑁 𝑁
1 𝑡
𝑖(𝑡) = ∑ 𝑖𝑖 (𝑡𝑜 ) + ∑ ∫ 𝑣(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝐿𝑖 𝑡 𝑜
𝑖=1 𝑖=1

1 𝑡
= ∫ 𝑣(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖(𝑡𝑜 )
𝐿𝑃 𝑡 𝑜

Where
𝑁

𝑖(𝑡𝑜 ) = ∑ 𝑖𝑖 (𝑡𝑜 )
𝑖=1

And
𝑁
1 1 1 1 1 1
= ∑ = + + +⋯+
𝐿𝑃 𝐿𝑖 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3 𝐿𝑁
𝑖=1

Similar to resistors.

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