Topic 2

Measurements and
Solutions

Chem 130
Analytical Methods
WMSU
Alfredo C. Santos
Instructor
1
 INTRODUCTION
In this topic, we describe several methods used to compute
the results of a quantitative analysis. We begin by presenting the SI
system of units, the distinction between mass and weight,
significant figures in measurements, expressing measurements in
scientific notation and rules in rounding off numbers.
We will also consider the nature of solutions, factors
affecting solubility, the various ways that concentrations of
solutions are expressed and how solutions are prepared

2
Topic Outline
• SI Unit • Solubility
• Distinction between mass • Concentrations of Solutions
and weight • Preparation of Solutions
• Significant Figures • Dilution
• Scientific Notation
• Rounding Off
• Properties of Solutions

3
Specific Objectives
At the end of this topic, the students can:
• Demonstrate ability to calculate measurements applying the rules
in significant figures, scientific notation, and rounding off
numbers.
• Demonstrate mastery of expressing chemical concentrations in
units of percent composition, molarity, normality, parts per
million and parts per billion.
• Solve problems involving preparation of solutions and dilution

4
Some Important Units of Measurement
To a large extent, analytical chemistry is a science of measurement.
Table 2-1. SI Base Units
SI Units: Système
QUANTITY UNIT (SYMBOL)
International d’Unités
Length Meter (m)
• a standardized system Mass Kilogram (kg)
of units adopted by Time Second (s)
scientists throughout Electric current Ampere (A)
the world
Temperature Kelvin (K)
• based on the seven
Luminous intensity Candela (cd)
fundamental base units
Amount of substance Mole (mol)
shown in Table 2-1 5
 SI-Derived Units
Table 2-2 lists some quantities that are defined in terms of the
fundamental quantities
Table 2-2. SI-derived units with special names. Harris, D.C., 2006.

6
To express small or large measured quantities in terms of a few simple
digits, prefixes from Table 2-3 are used with these base units and other
derived units.
Table 2-3. Prefixes for units. Harris, D.C.,
2006

7
Conversions to SI units
Table 2-4 lists some quantities that are frequently encountered in
analytical chemistry and their SI equivalent
Table 2-4. Quantities frequently encountered in chemistry. Harris, D.C., 2006
Quantity Unit Symbol SI equivalent
Volume liter L *10-3 m3
milliliter mL *10-6 m3
Length angstrom Å *10-10 m
inch in. *0.0254 m
Mass pound lb *0.45359237 kg
metric ton *1000 kg
Temperature Centigrade (Celsius) oC *K - 273.15
Fahrenheit oF *1.8(K – 273.15) + 32
8
The Distinction Between Mass and Weight
• Mass - invariant measure of the quantity of matter in an object
- Not synonymous with weight.
• Weight - is the force of attraction between an object and its
surroundings, principally the earth
weight = mass x acceleration due to gravity
w=mxg
- the attractive force between the crucible and the earth is
smaller at the higher altitude 9
Significant Figures
• we report experimental measurement or
computed data by rounding the result so that it
contains only significant figures
• the significant figures in a number are all of the
certain digits plus the first uncertain digit
• For example, when you read the 50-mL buret
section shown in Figure 2-1, the liquid level is
greater than 30.2 mL and less than 30.3 mL
- you should report the volume delivered as Figure 2-1. A buret section
showing the liquid level and
30.24 mL meniscus. Skoog, West. &
Holler, 2014.
10
 Counting Significant Figures
Rules for determining which digits are significant:
1. All non-zero numbers are significant.
12 – two significant figures
1985 – four significant figures
2. Zeros between non-zero numbers are significant.
505 – three significant figures
2001 – four significant figures
11
Rules for determining which digits are significant:
3. Zeros to the right of the non-zero number and to the right of the
decimal point are significant. Zeros before non-zero numbers are
not significant.
0.250 – three significant figures
0.05020 – four significant figures
4. Terminal, or final, zeros may or may not be significant. They are
significant if the number contains a decimal point
20 – one significant figure 20. – two significant figures
2.0 – two significant figures 20.0 – three significant figures
12
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
• Represents a number as a power of ten.
• Often used to represent very large or very small numbers or to
clarify the number of significant figures in a number.
• Example:
4,300 = 4.3 x 103 to two significant figures
= 4.30 x 103 to three significant figures
= 4.300 x 103 to four significant figures
13
Rules in expressing numbers in scientific notation
RULE 1:
• To convert a number greater than 1 to scientific notation, the
original decimal point is moved x places to the left, and the
resulting number is multiplied by 10x.
Example: 53,000,000
= 5.3 x 107
• What if you want to show the above number has four sig figs?
= 5.300 x 107 14
RULE 2:
• To convert a number less than than 1 to scientific notation, the
original decimal point is moved x places to the right, and the
resulting number is multiplied by 10-x.
Example: 0.000430
= 4.30 x 10-4
• What if you want to show the above number has two sig figs?
= 4.3 x 10-4
15
Significant Figures in Numerical Computations
Addition and Subtraction
For addition and subtraction, the result should have the same
number of decimal places as the number with the smallest
number of decimal places.
4.341 g
+ 302.5 g What is the smallest number of decimal places? 1
306.841 g
The answer is therefore, 306.8 g
16
Significant Figures in Numerical Computations
Multiplication and Division
For multiplication and division, the answer should be
rounded so that it contains the same number of significant
digits as the original number with the smallest number of
significant digits
4.2 ´103 (15.94) -8
-4
= 2.9688692 ´ 10 (on calculator)
2.255 ´10
Which number has the fewest significant figures? 4.2 x 103
The answer is therefore, 3.0 x 10-8 17
Rules for Rounding Off Numbers
• When the number to be dropped is less than 5 the preceding
number is not changed.
Ex. Round the following number to 3 sig figs:
2.0645 = 2.06 3.5717 = 3.57
• When the number to be dropped is 5 or larger, the preceding
number is increased by one unit.
Ex. Round the following number to 3 sig figs:
6.015 = 6.02
3.34966 x 104 = =3.35 x 104 18
Assignment 1: Answer the following problems on a yellow paper.
Submit a scanned copy or image capture of your handwritten
answers
A. How many significant figures are in the following?
1) 2000 mL 4) 1010 cc 7) 4.0 x 107 Km
2) 0.0101 g 5) 2.0570 g 8) 0.0001 g
3) 1.01 x 103 mL 6) 100. mg 9) 0.2050 g

19
B. Perform the indicated mathematical operation and report
the answer to the proper significant figures:
1) 1.099 mg + 1.18 mg
2) 0.5905 g – 0.191 g
3) (1.07 x 10–5 mol/L) (2.9 x 10–6 mol/L)
4) 1095 kg ÷ 1010 L
5) 1.1 x 107 mL + 2.55 x 108 mL
20
Solutions
• Solution - is a homogenous mixture of 2 or more substances.
• Solute – the substance/s being dissolved; the substance/s
in the mixture present in lesser quantity
• Solvent - the dissolving medium; the substance present
in the largest quantity
- It can be liquid as well as solid and gas.
• Aqueous Solution - solution where the solvent is water
21
General Properties of Liquid Solutions
• Clear and may be colorless or have color
4
• Remember that electrolytes are substances that, when dissolved in
water, results in a solution that can conduct electricity.
• Nonelectrolytes are substance that, when dissolved, results in a
solution that does not conduct electricity.
• Weak electrolytes dissociate partially when they dissolve in water
and results in a solution that conducts electricity weakly.
22
 nonelectrolyte weak electrolyte strong electrolyte

Figure 2-2. An arrangement for distinguishing between electrolytes and

nonelectrolytes. (a) A nonelectrolyte solution does not contain ions, and the
lightbulb is not lit. (b) A weak electrolyte solution contains a small number of
ions, and the lightbulb is dimly lit. (c) A strong electrolyte solution contains a
large number of ions, and the lightbulb is brightly lit. 23
Conduct electricity in solution?
Presence of Cations (+) and Anions (-) in solution

Strong Electrolyte – 100% dissociated

NaCl( s ) ¾¾
¾® Na
H 2O +
( aq )
-
+ Cl ( aq )

Weak Electrolyte – not completely dissociated

- +
HC 2 H 3O 2 (aq ) + H 2 O (l ) Û C 2 H 3O 2 ( aq ) + H 3 O ( aq )
H2 O
HNO2 NO2- (aq) + H+ (aq) 24
 Ionization of acetic acid
CH3COOH CH3COO- (aq) + H+ (aq)

A reversible reaction. The reaction can occur in

both directions.

Acetic acid is a weak electrolyte because its ionization in water

is incomplete.

25
Nonelectrolyte does not conduct electricity?
No cations (+) and anions (-) in solution

H2 O
C6H12O6 (s) C6H12O6 (aq)

H2 O
CH3CH2OH (l) CH3CH2OH (aq)

26
 Strong Weak Electrolyte Nonelectrolyte
Electrolyte
Strong Acids Weak Acids Molecular
Compounds
Strong Bases Weak Bases
Ionic Compounds
1. Aqueous Acid; H+ and (–) ion dissolved in water.
Generally (–) ion is nonmetal
2. Bases; (+) ion; (–) ion is hydroxide (OH–)
3. Ionic; Made of (+) and (–) ion.
Generally (+) ion is from metal and (–) ion from nonmetal.
4. Molecular; Made of 2 or more Nonmetals 27
Some examples of strong, weak, and nonelectrolytes are listed in Table 2-1.

Table 2-5. Classification of Solutes in Aqueous Solution. Chang, R., 2010.

28
Solubility
• Solubility refers to the amount of solute that can dissolve in a
given amount of solvent at a specified temperature.

Solubility of NaCl Solubility of Sucrose

= 35.89 g/100 mL H2O at 20oC = 201.9 g/100 mL H2O at 20oC
= 36.09 g/100 mL H2O at 30oC = 216.7 g/100 mL H2O at 30oC
= 36.37 g/100 mL H2O at 40oC = 235.6 g/100 mL H2O at 40oC
29
Factors affecting solubility:
1. Nature of solute and solvent - “Like dissolves Like”
• non-polar molecules are soluble in non-polar solvents:
Ex. CCl4 in C6H6
• polar molecules are soluble in polar solvents:
Ex. C2H5OH in H2O
• ionic compounds are more soluble in polar solvents:
Ex. NaCl in H2O or NH3 (l)
The solubility rule for common ionic compounds in water is
given in Table 2-5 30
Table 2-6. Solubility Rules for Common Ionic Compounds In water at 250C. Chang, R., 2010.

Soluble Compounds Exceptions

Compounds containing alkali metal
ions and NH4+
NO3-, HCO3-, ClO3-
Cl-, Br-, I- Halides of Ag+, Hg22+, Pb2+
Sulfates of Ag+, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+,
SO4 2-
Hg2+, Pb2+
Insoluble Compounds Exceptions
Compounds containing alkali metal
CO32-, PO43-, CrO42-, S2-
ions and NH4+
Compounds containing alkali metal
OH -
ions and Ba2+
31
2. Temperature
• Solid solutes: increase in
temp. usually increases
solubility.
• A few salts have negative
heat of solution,
(exothermic process) and
they become less soluble
with increasing
temperature.
Figure 2-3.Solubility graph of ionic salts in water.
https://www.sciencegeek.net/Chemistry/taters/solubility.htm 32
• The solubility of
gases DECREASES
at higher
temperatures

Figure 2-4. Solubilty graph of gases in water.

https://www.slideshare.net/entranceisolutions/solutions-and-solubility-
ok1294992931
33
3. Pressure
• Solids/Liquids - very little effect
- Solids and Liquids are already close together, extra
pressure will not increase solubility.
• for gas solutes, increased pressure of gas increases solubility

• Henry’s Law - the number of moles of a gas dissolved in a

liquid is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas above
the liquid (at constant temperature)

34
 Henry’s Law & Soft Drinks
• Soft drinks contain “carbonated water” –
water with dissolved carbon dioxide gas.
• The drinks are bottled with a CO2
pressure greater than 1 atm.
• When the bottle is opened, the pressure of
CO2 decreases and the solubility of CO2
also decreases, according to Henry’s Law.
Figure 2-5. The effervescence of a soft • Therefore, bubbles of CO2 escape from
drink. The bottle was shaken before being
opened to dramatize the escape of CO2. solution called effervescence.
Chang, R., 2010 35
 Qualitative Ways of Expressing Concentration
• Saturated solution - contains the maximum amount of a solute
that will dissolve in a given solvent at a specific temperature.
• Unsaturated solution - contains less solute than the solvent has
the capacity to dissolve at a specific temperature.
• Supersaturated solution - contains more solute than is present in
a saturated solution at a specific temperature.
• How is a supersaturated solution produced?
- Heat solvent, saturate it with solute then cool slowly.
- Sometimes the excess will precipitate out (saturated).
- If it doesn’t precipitate, the solution will be supersaturated. 36
 Sodium acetate crystals rapidly form when a seed crystal is added
to a supersaturated solution of sodium acetate (Figure 2-5).

Figure 2-6. In a supersaturated sodium acetate solution (left), sodium acetate crystals rapidly form when a small seed crystal is added.
Chang, R., 2010
37
 Quantitative Ways of Expressing Concentration
• Concentration - amount of solute dissolved in a
6
given amount of solution or solvent.
amount of solute
concentration =
amount of solution or solvent

Percentage by mass or weight

!"## %& #%'()*
%(m/m) = x 100%
!"## %& #%'()+%,

mass of solution = mass of solute + mass of solvent

• Note – use the same unit for the mass 38
Example:
What is the percent-by-mass, %(m/m), concentration of sucrose
(table sugar) in a solution made by dissolving 7.6 g of sucrose in
83.4 g of water?
Solution
Both the mass of solute and the mass of solvent are known.
Substituting these numbers into the percent-by-mass equation gives
-./ 0
% (m/m) = x 100%
-./ 0123.4 0
% (m/m) = 8.4%
39
Example
Describe the preparation of 50.0 g of 5% (m/m) aqueous glucose
solution
Solution
Calculate the mass of glucose needed to prepare the solution
% (#$%% '( %')*+,'-) 1% (102)
mass of glucose = =
/00% /00%
= 2.5 g glucose
mass of water = 50.0 g– 2.5 g = 47.5 g
Preparation: dissolve 2.5 g glucose in 47.5 g (or 47.5mL) water 40
• For very low concentration: ppt, ppm, ppb multiply by 1000 ;
1,000,000 ; and 1,000,000,000 respectively

mass of solute
ppm = ´106
mass of solution

A solution contains 11 mg of sulfuric acid in 2,000 grams of

water What is the concentration of sulfuric acid in ppm?
0.011 g
ppm = ´10 6

2000.011 g
= 5.5 ppm 41
Assignment 2
1. Calculate the %(m/m) of copper in an alloy containing 15.0 g
copper and 10.0 g nickel.
/1.04
%Cu = x 100 % = 60.0 % Cu
/1.04 5/0.04

2. A sample of silver and gold is 35.0%(w/w) of silver. If the

sample has a mass of 13.5 g, what is the mass of silver?
(%)(6788 89:;<=9>) (?1.0%)(/?.14)
Mass Ag = = = 4.725 g Ag
/00% /00%
= 4.73 g Ag
42
Assignment 2
3. What is the percent-by-mass concentration of glucose in a
solution made my dissolving 5.5 g of glucose in 78.2 g of water?
1.14
% glucose = x 100 % = 6.57 % glucose
1.14 [email protected]
= 6.6 % glucose

43
Percent by Volume
5%'(!* %& #%'()*
% v/v = X 100%
5%'(!* %& #%'()+%,

volume of solution = volume of solute + volume of solution

• Note – use the same unit for the volume

• Volumes are not always additive.

– 1 L ethanol + 1 L water does not give 2 L of solution.

44
Example
What volume of pure ethanol is needed to prepare 250.0 mL of
50.0 % (v/v) ethanol solution in water? How will you prepare
the solution?
Solution
% (5%'(!* %& #%'()+%,) ;:.:% (<;:.:!=)
volume of ethanol = =
9::% 9::%

= 125 mL
Preparation: Dilute 125 mL of ethanol with water to 250 mL
45
Preparing the Solution
• A volumetric flask is used in
the preparation of solutions.
250 mL
• 125 mL of ethanol is placed mark

in a 250 mL volumetric flask. + H2 O

Rinse the container used to
measure the ethanol and add
250 mL
the rinsing to the flask Water ethanol
125 mL
is added until the volume of solution
ethanol
the solution reaches the 250 Figure 2-7. Dilution of 125 mL ethanol to 250 mL with water.
mL mark at the neck of flask. 46
Mass-Volume Percent

!"## %& #%'()*

% (m/v) = x 100%
5%'(!* %& #%'()+%,

• Units – g/mL, Kg/L

- unit of % (m/v) is usually not shown

• Note - milligrams per liter, or mg/L, can be

used to denote concentration in ppm.
47
Example: What mass of glucose is needed to prepare 500.0 mL of
45.0 % (m/v) aqueous glucose solution? How will you prepare
the solution?
Solution
% (5%'(!* %& #%'()+%,) 4;.:0/!=% (;::.:!=)
mass of glucose = =
9::% 9::%
= 225 g
Preparation: (a) Place 225 g of glucose in a 500 mL volumetric
flask, (b) half-fill the flask with water and swirl the flask to
dissolve the glucose completely, (c) rinse the container used to
measure glucose and add the rinsing to the flask and (d) dilute to
500 mL with water. 48
 Preparing the Solution

500 mL
225 g glucose
glucose solution

Figure 2-8. Preparation of 500 mL 45% glucose solution. Chang, R. 2010. 49

Assignment 3
1. Calculate the %(m/v) of 2.00 x 102 mL solution containing 20.0 g NaCl.
!"." %
%(m/v) NaCl = x 100% = 10.0 %(m/v) NaCl
!"".&'

2. What volume is required to make 15.0%(m/v) glucose solution containing

10.0 g glucose
9:.:?
volume solution = x 100% = 66.7 mL
9;.:%?/@A

3. What is the concentration, in ppm, of the salt in a 2 L solution that

contains 1 mg salt?
9@?
ppm salt = = 0.5 ppm salt
<A 50
Molarity, M - is the moles of solute in a solution divided by the
liters of solution. The mathematical equation or molarity is
moles of solute mass of solute
M= moles =
liter of solution formula mass

mass of solute
M=
formula mass x liter of solution

Note: that the unit for molarity is moles per liter, mol/L.
51
Example
A solution was prepared by dissolving 20.0 g of NaOH in enough
water to give 1.50 L of solution. What is the molarity of the
solution?
Solution
Determine the formula mass of NaOH (40.0 g/mol) and use this
together with the mass of NaOH and volume of solution to
compute for molarity:
(!"## %& B"CD) <:.:?
M= =
(&%E!('" !"## %& B"CD)(= #%'()+%,) (4:.: 0/!%')(9.;:=)

M = 0.333 mol/L 52
Representation of Concentration of Ions in Solution
• Let’s look at Na3PO4.
• If we dissolved 1 mol of sodium phosphate into 1 L of water,
what would be the concentration (M) of the solution?
• 1M
• Now let’s consider the individual ions. Na3PO4 is an ionic
compound (strong electrolyte) that dissociates completely in
water:
Na3PO4 (s) H2O 3 Na+(aq) + PO43– (aq) 53
 1M Na3PO4
• What would the concentration of Na+ be?
• 3M
• What would the concentration of PO43- ions be?
• 1M
• Therefore, a 1 M solution of Na3PO4
• 3 mol/L Na+
• 1 mol/L PO43- 54
Assignment 4:

1. You have 1.00 mol of sugar in 125.0 mL of solution. Calculate the

concentration in units of molarity.
9.:: @FG
M= = 8.00 mol/L or 8.00 M
:.9<;: A

2. A solution was made by dissolving 100.0 g of KCl in 250.0 mL of

solution. Calculate the concentration of the solution in units of molarity.
9::.: ?
M= = 5.365 mol/L or 5.365 M
(-4.;; ?/@FG)(:.<;:: A)

55
Normality, N

equivalents of solute
N=
liter of solution
weight of solute
equivalents =
equivalent weight

formula weight
equivalent weight =
valence of solute
56
 weight solute x valence
N=
formula weight x liter of solution
Unit: equivalents of solute per liter of solution (eq/L)

Valence ® is the amount of a species that reacts (unit: eq/mol)

- depends on the reaction the species participates:
1. Precipitation and complexation reactions
valence = total positive charge or total negative charge
for NaCl = 1eq/mole ; for BaCl2 = 2 eq/mol 57
2. Neutralization reactions
valence = number of protons (H+) or hydroxide(OH–) that react
Ex. HCl = 1 eq/mol NaOH = 1 eq/mol
H2SO4 = 2 eq/mol Ba(OH)2 = 2 eq/mol
3. Reduction-Oxidation (Redox) Reactions
MnO4- + 1e D MnO42- 1 eq/mol
MnO4- + 3e D MnO2 + 2H2O 3 eq/mol
MnO4- + 4e D Mn3+ + 4H2O 4 eq/mol
MnO4- + 5e D Mn2+ + 4H2O 5 eq/mol
58
Example
How many grams of sodium hydroxide is needed to prepare a liter
of 1N NaOH solution?
weight of NaOH x 1 eq/mol
1 eq/L =
40 g/mol x 1 L
weight of NaOH = 40 g NaOH
• If you know the Molarity of the solution, you can easily
convert it to Normality by multiplying Molarity by the number
of valence.
N = (M)(number of valence)
59
• For example, a 2 M H2SO4 solution will have
a Normality of 4 N (2 M x 2 valence).

• 2.4 M CaCl2 = 4.8 N CaCl2

• 1 M AlCl3 = 3 N AlCl3

• 2 M H3PO4 = 6 N H3PO4

60
Assignment 5:
1. Calculate the normality of a 250.0 mL solution containing 10.0 g
NaOH.
9:.: 0 (9 *H/!%')
N= = 1.00 eq/L or 1.00 N
4:.: 0/!%' (:.<;::=)

2. A solution was made by dissolving 100.0 g of CuSO4 in 250.0

mL of solution. Calculate the concentration of the solution in
units of normality.
9::.: 0 (< *H/!%')
N= = 5.013 eq/L or 5.013 N
9;I./ 0/!%' (:.<;::=)
61
p-function or p-value
- the negative logarithm (to the base 10) of the molar concentration
of that species. Thus, for the species X,
pX = –log [X] Note: [ ] is molar concentration.

Example 1: Calculate the p-value for each ion in a solution that is 5.4
x 10–4 M in HCl.
Solution: Since HCl is a strong electrolyte,
[H+] = 5.4 x 10–4 M and [Cl–] = 5.4 x 10–4 M
pH = –log [H+] pCl = –log [Cl–]
pH = –log (5.4 x 10–4) pCl = –log (5.4 x 10–4)
pH = 3.27 pCl = 3.27 62
Example 2: Calculate the molar concentration of Ag+ in a
solution that has a pAg of 6.372.

Solution
pAg = –log [Ag+] = 6.372
log [Ag+] = –6.372
[Ag+] = 4.246 x 10–7 M

63
Dilution
• A dilution is required if..
– you have a solution in stock and
– wish to make a solution of less concentration.
– Simply add the correct amount of water.
• Since:
moles solute
M=
L solution
• Then: M x V = moles of solute 64
• In a dilution will the moles of solute change? No
- adding more solvent to a given amount of the stock solution
decreases the concentration of the solution without changing the
number of moles of solute present in the solution ( Figure 2-8 ). In
other words,

Moles of solute = Moles of solute

before dilution (1) after dilution (2)
M1V1 = M2V2

• In general, C 1 V1 = C 2 V2
65
 Dilution
Add Solvent

Figure 2-9. The dilution of a more concentrated solution (a) to a less concentrated one (b) does not change
the total number of solute particles. Chang, R., 2010.
66
How would you prepare 60.0 mL of 0.2 M
HNO3 from a stock solution of 4.00 M HNO3?
M1V1 = M2V2
M2V2 0.200 M x 60.0 mL
V1 = = = 3 mL
M1 4.00M

3 mL of acid+ 57 mL of water = 60 mL of solution

67
Assignment 6:
1. Calculate the molarity of a solution made by diluting 25.0 mL of
6.0 M HCl with enough water to make 500 mL of solution.
C! D! (E.0C)(B1.0#F)
M2 = = = 0.3 M
D" 100 #F

2. Calculate the amount of 6.00 M HCl needed to make 1.00 L of

0.100 M HCl. How will you prepare the solution
C" D" (0./00C)(/.00F)
V1 = = = 0.0167 L = 16.7 mL
C! E.00C
volume of water = 1000 mL – 16.7 mL = 983.3 mL water
68
REFERENCES
1. Skoog, D.A., West, D.M., Holler F.J. and Crouch, S.R. (2014)
Fundamental of Analytical Chemistry, 9th edition. United States of
America, Brooks Cole.
2. Harris, D.C. (2006) Quantitative Chemical Analysis, 8th edition. New
York, W.H. Freeman and Co.
3. Harvey, D. (2000) Modern Analytical Chemistry. McGraw-Hill, USA.
4. Denniston, K.J., Topping, J.J. and Caret, R.L. (2008) General, Organic
and Biochemsitry, 6th edition. Mc-Graw Hill, USA

Thank you
69