INTRODUCTION TO

INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION

Material Handling and Identification Technologies

1 Module 3
 Module 3
2 � Material Handling and Identification Technologies: Overview of Material
Handling Systems, Principles and Design Consideration, Material Transport
Systems, Storage Systems, Overview of Automatic Identification Methods.
� Elements of CNC systems: servomotor and servo system design trends,
stepper motors and controls, adaptive control, ball screws and guideways,
spindle, bearings and mountings. Drive systems. Automated tool changers and
pallet changers. Accessories, and selection of drives for CNC machines.
 Material Handling and Identification Technologies:
3
� Material handling is defined as “the movement, protection, storage and control
of materials and products throughout the process of manufacture and distribution,
consumption and disposal”.
� The handling of materials must be performed safely, efficiently, at low cost, in a
timely manner, accurately (the right materials in the right quantities to the right
locations), and without damage to the materials.
 Overview of Material Handling
4
� The term commonly used for the larger system is logistics, which is concerned with
the acquisition, movement, storage, and distribution of materials and products, as well
as the planning and control of these operations in order to satisfy customer demand.
� Logistics operations can be divided into two basic categories: external logistics and
internal logistics.
� External logistics is concerned with transportation and related activities that occur
outside of a facility. In general, these activities involve the movement of materials
between different geographical locations. The five traditional modes of transportation
are rail, truck, air, ship, and pipeline.
� Internal logistics, more popularly known as material handling, involves the movement
and storage of materials inside a given facility.
 Material Handling Equipment
5 � The material handling equipment can be classified into five categories : (1) transport
equipment, (2) positioning equipment, (3) unit load formation equipment, (4) storage
equipment, and (5) identification and control equipment.
� Transport Equipment. Material transport equipment is used to move materials inside
a factory, warehouse, or other facility. The five main types of equipment are (1)
industrial trucks, (2) automated guided vehicles, (3) rail-guided vehicles, (4)
conveyors, and (5) hoists and cranes.
� Positioning Equipment. This category consists of equipment used to handle parts
and other materials at a single location: for example, loading and unloading parts
from a production machine in a work cell. Positioning is accomplished by industrial
robots that perform material handling and parts feeders in automated assembly.
� Unit load formation equipment. The equipment refers to (1) containers used to hold
individual items during handling and (2) equipment used to load and package the
containers. Containers include pallets, tote pans, boxes, baskets, barrels, and drums,
 � Containers are very important for moving materials efficiently as a unit load,
6
� Pallets and other containers that can be handled by forklift equipment are widely
used in production and distribution operations.
� Most factories, warehouses, and distribution centers use forklift trucks to move unit
loads on pallets. A given facility must often standardize on a specific type and size
of container if it utilizes automatic transport and/or storage equipment to handle the
loads.
� The second category of unitizing equipment includes palletizers, which are
designed to automatically load cartons onto pallets and shrink-wrap plastic film
around them for shipping, and depalletizers, which are designed to unload cartons
from pallets.
� Storage Equipment. Although it is generally desirable to reduce the storage of
materials in manufacturing, it seems unavoidable that raw materials and
work-in-process spend some time in storage, even if only temporarily. And
finished products are likely to spend time in a warehouse or distribution center
before being delivered to the final customer.
 � Storage methods and equipment can be classified into two major categories: (1)
7 conventional storage methods and (2) automated storage systems.
� Conventional storage methods include bulk storage (storing items in an open floor
area), rack systems (for pallets), shelving and bins, and drawer storage. In general,
conventional storage methods are labor-intensive. Human workers put materials into
storage and retrieve them from storage.
� Automated storage systems are designed to reduce or eliminate the manual labor
involved in these functions.
� Identification and Control Equipment. The scope of material handling includes
keeping track of the materials being moved and stored. This is usually done by
affixing some kind of label to the item, carton, or unit load that uniquely identifies it.
� The most common label used today is a bar code that can be read quickly and
automatically by bar code readers. An alternative identification technology that is
growing in importance is RFID (for radio frequency identification).
 Design Considerations in Material Handling
8
� Material handling equipment must be specified and configured to satisfy the
requirements of a particular application.
� Design of the system depends on the materials to be handled, quantities and distances
to be moved, type of production facility served by the handling system, and other
factors, including available budget.
� Material Characteristics: For handling purposes, materials can be classified by the
physical characteristics
 � Flow Rate, Routing, and Scheduling: In addition to material characteristics, Other
9 factors must be considered like (1) quantities and flow rates of materials to be moved,
(2) routing factors, and (3) scheduling of the moves.
� Routing factors include pickup and drop-off locations, move distances, routing
variations, and conditions that exist along the routes.
� Conditions along the route include floor surface condition, traffic congestion, whether
a portion of the move is outdoors, whether the path is straight line or involves turns
and changes in elevation, and the presence or absence of people along the path. All of
these factors affect the design of the material transport system.
� Scheduling relates to the timing of each individual delivery.
� Plant Layout. The material handling system is an important factor in plant layout
design. different material handling systems are generally required for the three layout
types.
10

� Unit Load Principle. A unit load is simply the mass that is to be moved or otherwise handled
at one time. The unit load may consist of only one part, a container loaded with multiple
parts, or a pallet loaded with multiple containers of parts.
� There are good reasons for using unit loads in material handling: (1) multiple items can be
handled simultaneously, (2) the required number of trips is reduced, (3) loading and
unloading times are reduced, and (4) product damage is decreased. Using unit loads results in
lower cost and higher operating efficiency.
� Included in the definition of unit load is the container that holds or supports the materials to
be moved. these containers are standardized in size and configuration to be compatible with
the material handling system
 Material Transport Systems
11
� The five categories of material transport equipment commonly used to move parts
and other materials in manufacturing and warehouse facilities:
1. Industrial trucks, manual and powered;
2. Automated guided vehicles;
3. Rail-guided vehicles;
4. Conveyors;
5. Cranes and hoists
Industrial Trucks
� Industrial trucks are divided into two categories: non-powered and powered.
� The non-powered types are often referred to as hand trucks because they are pushed
or pulled by human workers.
� Hand trucks are classified as either two-wheel or multiple-wheel.
12
 � Powered trucks are self-propelled and guided by a worker. Three common types are
13 used in factories and warehouses: (a) walkie trucks, (b) forklift rider trucks, and (c)
towing tractors
 Automated Guided Vehicles
14 � An automated guided vehicle system (AGVS) is a material handling system that
uses independently operated, self-propelled vehicles guided along defined pathways
� A distinguishing feature of an AGVS, compared to rail guided vehicle systems and
most conveyor systems, is that the pathways are unobtrusive.
� Automated guided vehicles can be divided into the following categories: (1) towing
vehicles for driverless trains, (2) pallet trucks, and (3) unit load carriers,
� The guidance system is the method by which AGVS pathways are defined and
vehicles are controlled to follow the pathways. The technologies used in commercial
AGV systems for vehicle guidance include (1) imbedded guide wires, (2) paint
strips, (3) magnetic tape, (4) laser-guided vehicles (LGVs), and (5) inertial
navigation.
� Vehicle Management. For the AGVS to operate efficiently, the vehicles must be
well managed. Delivery tasks must be allocated to vehicles to minimize waiting
times at load/unload stations. Traffic congestion in the guide-path network must be
minimized. Two aspects of vehicle management are considered here: (1) traffic
control and (2) vehicle dispatching.
 � Vehicle Safety. The safety of humans located along the pathway is an important
objective in AGVS operations. An inherent safety feature of an AGV is that its
15
traveling speed is slower than the normal walking pace of a human. This minimizes
the danger that it will overtake a human walking along the path in front of the vehicle.
Rail-Guided Vehicles
� The third category of material transport equipment consists of motorized vehicles that
are guided by a fixed rail system. The rail system consists of either one rail, called a
monorail, or two parallel rails. Monorails in factories and warehouses are typically
suspended overhead from the ceiling.
� rail-guided vehicles pick up electrical power from an electrified rail (similar to an
urban rapid transit rail system).
Conveyors
� A conveyor is a mechanical apparatus for moving items or bulk materials, usually
inside a facility. Conveyors are generally used when material must be moved in
relatively large quantities between specific locations over a fixed path, which may be
in the floor, above the floor, or overhead. Conveyors are either powered or non
powered
 � Assignment 1: With brief explanation list down different types of conveyors
16 commercially available. Also give a not on the features and operation of
conveyors.
Cranes and Hoists
� Cranes are used for horizontal movement of materials in a facility, and hoists are
used for vertical lifting.
� A crane invariably includes a hoist; thus, the hoist component of the crane lifts the
load, and the crane transports the load horizontally to the desired destination.
� A hoist is a mechanical device used to raise and lower loads. a hoist consists of
one or more fixed pulleys, one or more moving pulleys, and a rope, cable, or chain
strung between the pulleys.
� The number of pulleys in the hoist determines its mechanical advantage, which is
the ratio of the load weight to the driving force required to lift the weight. The
driving force to operate the hoist is usually applied by electric or pneumatic motor.
 � Cranes include a variety of material handling equipment designed for lifting and
17 moving heavy loads using one or more overhead beams for support.
� Principal types of cranes found in factories include (a) bridge cranes, (b) gantry
cranes, and (c) jib cranes.
 Storage Systems
18
 Storage System Performance
19 � The performance of a storage system in accomplishing its function must be sufficient
to justify its investment and operating expense. Various measures used to assess the
performance of a storage system include (1) storage capacity, (2) storage density,(3)
accessibility, and (4) throughput. In addition, standard measures used for mechanized
and automated systems include (5) utilization and (6) reliability
� Storage capacity can be defined and measured in two ways: (1) as the total
volumetric space available or (2) as the total number of storage compartments in the
system available to hold items or loads. In many storage systems, materials are stored
as unit loads that are held in standard-size containers (pallets, tote pans, or other
containers).
� Storage density is defined as the volumetric space available for actual storage
relative to the total volumetric space in the storage facility.
� Accessibility refers to the capability to access any desired item or load stored in the
system. In the design of a given storage system, appropriate trade-offs must be made
between storage density and accessibility.
 � System throughput is defined as the hourly rate at which the storage system (1)
20 receives and puts loads into storage and/or (2) retrieves and delivers loads to the
output station.
� System throughput is limited by the time to perform a storage or retrieval (S/R)
transaction. A typical storage transaction consists of the following elements: (1)
pick up load at input station, (2) travel to storage location, (3) place load in storage
location, and (4) travel back to input station. A retrieval transaction consists of: (1)
travel to storage location, (2) pick up item from storage, (3) travel to output station,
and (4) unload at output station.
� Utilization is defined as the proportion of time that the system is actually being
used for performing S/R operations compared with the time it is available. It is
desirable to design an automated storage system for relatively high utilization, in
the range 80–90%. If utilization is too low, then the system is probably
overdesigned. If utilization is too high, then there is no allowance for rush periods
or system breakdowns.
 � Reliability, defined as the proportion of time that the system is capable of
21 operating (not broken down) compared with the normally scheduled shift hours.
� Malfunctions and failures of the equipment cause downtime. Reasons for
downtime include computer failures, mechanical breakdowns, load jams, improper
maintenance, and incorrect procedures by personnel using the system.
� The reliability of an existing system can be improved by following good
preventive maintenance procedures and by having repair parts on hand for critical
components. Backup procedures should be devised to mitigate the effects of
system downtime.
 Storage Location Strategies
22 � Storage Location Strategies can be used to organize stock in a storage system. These
storage location strategies affect the performance measures discussed above.
� The two basic strategies applied in warehousing operations are (1) randomized storage
and (2) dedicated storage.
� Each item type stored in a warehouse is known as a stock-keeping-unit (SKU). The
SKU uniquely identifies that item type. The inventory records of the storage facility
maintain a count of the quantities of each SKU that are in storage.
� In randomized storage, items are stored in any available location in the storage system.
� In the usual implementation of randomized storage, incoming items are placed into
storage in the nearest available open location. When an order is received for a given
SKU, the stock is retrieved from storage according to a first-in-first-out policy.
 � In dedicated storage, SKUs are assigned to specific locations in the storage facility.
23
� This means that locations are reserved for all SKUs stored in the system, and so
the number of storage locations for each SKU must be sufficient to accommodate
its maximum inventory level.
� The basis for specifying the storage locations is usually one of the following: (1)
items are stored in part number or product number sequence; (2) items are stored
according to activity level, the more active SKUs being located closer to the
input/output station; or (3) items are stored according to their activity-to-space
ratios, the higher ratios being located closer to the input/output station
24 CNC MACHINE
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 Computer numerical control (CNC) machines
26
� Efficient operation of conventional machine tools such as Lathes, milling
machines, drilling machine is dependent on operator skill and training.
� Also a lot of time is consumed in work part setting, tool setting and
controlling the process parameters viz. feed, speed, depth of cut.
� CNC means operating a machine tool by a series of coded instructions
consisting of numbers, letters of the alphabets, and symbols which the
machine control unit (MCU) can understand.
� These instructions are converted into electrical pulses of current which the
machine’s motors and controls follow to carry out machining operations
on
a work piece.
� Numbers, letters, and symbols are the coded instructions which refer to
specific distances, positions, functions or motions which the machine tool
can understand.
 � CNC automatically guides the
27 axial movements of machine
tools with the help of
computers.
� The auxiliary operations such as
coolant on-off, tool change, door
open close are automated with the
help of micro-controllers.

Manual operation of table and spindle movements is automated by using a CNC controllers
and servo motors.
The spindle speed and work feed can precisely be controlled and maintained at
programmed level by the controller. The controller has self diagnostics facility which
regularly alarms the operator in case of any safety norm violation viz. door open during
machining, tool wear/breakage etc.
 Block Diagram of CNC Machine
28 Input Devices: These devices are
used to input the part program in the
CNC machine.
Machine Control Unit (MCU):
This performs all the controlling
action of the CNC machine,
Machine Tool: The CNC machine
tool always has a sliding table and a
spindle to control the position and
speed. The machine table is
controlled in the X and Y-axis
direction and the spindle is
controlled in the Z-axis direction.
Driving System: In the driving system of CNC machine there is amplifier circuits, drive
motors and ball lead screw. In the driving system of CNC machine there is amplifier
circuits, drive motors and ball lead screw.
 How CNC Machine Works
29
� The part program is inserted into MCU of the CNC.
� MCU processes all the data and according to it the program is prepared and
prepares all motion commands and sends it to the driving system.
� Drive system works as the motion commands sent by MCU and drives
system controls the motion and velocity of a machine tool.
� The feedback system records the position and velocity measurement of the
machine tool and sends a feedback signal to MCU.
� The MCU compared the feedback signals with the reference signals and if
there are errors it corrects and sends a new signal to the machine tool for the
right operation to happen.
� The display unit is used to see the commands, programs, and other important
data and it is the eye of the machine.
 Advantages of CNC Machine
30 � This machine can make jobs with high accuracy and with precision than any other
manual machine.
� It can work for 24 hours a day.
� The parts produced by the CNC machine have the same dimension. There is no
variation in the parts manufactured in the same machine.
� There is no need for highly skilled workers to operate this machine. A semi-skilled
worker can run the machine more accurately and precisely.
 Elements of CNC machine tools
31
� Basic function of a CNC machine is to provide automatic and precise motion
control to its elements such work table, tool spindle etc. Drives are used to
provide such kinds of controlled motion to the elements of a CNC machine tool.
� A drive system consists of drive motors and ball lead-screws.
� The control unit sends the amplified control signals to actuate drive motors which
in turn rotate the ball lead-screws to position the machine table or cause rotation
of the spindle.
� Power drives: Drives used in an automated system or in CNC system are of
different types such as electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic.
� Electrical drives:
These are direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC) servo motors. They are
small in size and are easy to control
 � The various drives used in CNC machines can be classified as:
32
� Spindle drives to provide the main spindle power for cutting action
� Feed drives to drive the axis
Spindle drives
 � The spindle drives are used to provide angular motion to the workpiece or a cutting
33 tool.
� These drives are essentially required to maintain the speed accurately within a power
band.
� The machine tools mostly employ DC spindle drives. But as of late, the AC drives
are preferred to DC drives due to the advent of microprocessor based AC frequency
inverter.
Feed Drives
 � These are used to drive the slide or a table
34 � The feed motor needs to operate with constant torque characteristics to overcome
friction and working forces.
� The drive speed should be extremely variable with a speed range of about 1: 20000
� The feed motor must run smoothly.
� The drive should have extremely small positioning resolution.
� Variable speed DC drives are used as feed drives in CNC machine tools. However
now a-days AC feed drives are being used.
 Electrical drives
35

� Electric drives are mostly used in position and speed control systems.
� The motors can be classified into two groups namely DC motors and AC motors
 DC motors
36
� A DC motor is a device that converts direct current (electrical energy) into rotation
of an element (mechanical energy). These motors can further be classified into
brushed DC motor and brushless DC motors.
Brush type DC motor
� A typical brushed motor consists of an armature coil, slip rings divided into two
parts, a pair of brushes and horse shoes electromagnet
� The magnetic lines of force extend across the opening between the poles from north
to south. The coil is wound around a soft iron core and is placed in between the
magnet poles. These electromagnets receive electricity from an outside power
source.
� The carbon brushes are in contact with the split rings. Here the split rings rotate with
the coil while the brushes remain stationary.
37

Once aligned the direction of the current in the windings on the armature reverses,
thereby reversing the polarity of the rotor's electromagnetic field. A torque is once again
exerted on the rotor, and it continues spinning.
The change in direction of current is facilitated by the split ring commutator. The main
purpose of the commutator is to overturn the direction of the electric current in the
armature. The brushes remain stationary.
 Brushless DC motor
38 � A brushless DC motor has a rotor with permanent magnets and a stator with
windings.
� The brushes and commutator are eliminated and the windings are connected to the
control electronics. The control electronics replace the commutator and brushes and
energize the stator sequentially. Here the conductor is fixed and the magnet moves.
� The current supplied to the stator is based on the position of rotor. It is switched in
sequence using transistors. The position of the rotor is sensed by Hall effect sensors.
Thus a continuous rotation is obtained.
 AC motors
39
� AC motors convert AC current into the rotation of a mechanical element (mechanical
energy).
� The armature of rotor is a magnet unlike DC motors and the stator is formed by
electromagnets similar to DC motors.
� The main limitation of AC motors over DC motors is that speed is more difficult
to control in AC motors. To overcome this limitation, AC motors are equipped with
variable frequency drives but the improved speed control comes together with a
reduced power quality.
 � Consider the rotor to be a permanent magnet. Current flowing through conductors
40 energizes the magnets and develops N and S poles. The strength of electromagnets
depends on current. First half cycle current flows in one direction and in the second
half cycle it flows in opposite direction. As AC voltage changes the poles alternate.
� AC motors can be classified into synchronous motors and induction motors.
Synchronous motor
� A synchronous motor is an AC motor which runs at constant speed fixed by
frequency of the system.
� It requires direct current (DC) for excitation and has low starting torque, and hence
is suited for applications that start with a low load.
� The stator consists of a group of individual wounded electro-magnets arranged in
such a way that they form a hollow cylinder. The stator produces a rotating magnetic
field that is proportional to the frequency supplied. The rotor is the rotating electrical
component. It also consists of a group of permanent magnets arranged around a
cylinder, with the poles facing toward the stator poles.
 �
41
 Induction motor
42 � In case of induction motor, the stator is similar to synchronous motor with windings
but the rotors’ construction can be of two types:
1. A squirrel-cage rotor consists of thick conducting bars embedded in parallel slots.
The bars can be of copper or aluminum. These bars are fitted at both ends by
means end rings.
2. A wound rotor has a three-phase, double-layer, distributed winding. The rotor is
wound for as many numbers of poles as the stator. The three phases are wired
internally and the other ends are connected to slip-rings mounted on a shaft with
brushes resting on them.
 � Induction motors can be classified into two types:
43 1. Single-phase induction motor: It has one stator winding and a squirrel cage rotor.
It operates with a single-phase power supply and requires a device to start the motor.
2. Three-phase induction motor: The rotating magnetic field is produced by the balanced
three-phase power supply. These motors can have squirrel cage or wound rotors and are
self-starting.
� In an induction motor there is no external power supply to rotor. It works on the
principle of induction. When a conductor is moved through an existing magnetic field
the relative motion of the two causes an electric current to flow in the conductor.
� In an induction motor the current flow in the rotor is not caused by any direct
connection of the conductors to a voltage source, but rather by the influence of the
rotor conductors cutting across the lines of flux produced by the stator magnetic fields.
The induced current which is produced in the rotor results in a magnetic field around
the rotor. The magnetic field around each rotor conductor will cause the rotor
conductor to act like the permanent magnet.
� As the magnetic field of the stator rotates, due to the effect of the three-phase AC
power supply, the induced magnetic field of the rotor will be attracted and will follow
the rotation.
 Stepper motors and Servo motors
44
Stepper motor
� A stepper motor is a pulse-driven motor that changes the angular position of the
rotor in steps. Due to this nature of a stepper motor, it is widely used in low cost,
open loop position control systems
� Types of stepper motors:
� Permanent Magnet
� Employ permanent magnet
� Low speed, relatively high torque
� Variable Reluctance
� Does not have permanent magnet
� Low torque
 Variable Reluctance Motor
45 � The cylindrical rotor is made of soft steel and has poles, if it has four rotor teeth, 90⁰
apart and six stator poles, 60⁰ apart.
� Electromagnetic field is produced by activating the stator coils in sequence. It
attracts the metal rotor. When the windings are energized in a reoccurring sequence,
the motor will rotate in a 30⁰ step angle.
� In the non-energized condition, there is no magnetic flux in the air gap, as the stator
is an electromagnet and the rotor is a piece of soft iron; hence, there is no detent
torque. This type of stepper motor is called a variable reluctance stepper.
 Permanent magnet (PM) stepper motor
46
� In this type of motor, the rotor is a permanent magnet.
� Unlike the other stepping motors, the PM motor rotor has no teeth and is designed to
be magnetized at a right angle to its axis.
� Applying current to each phase in sequence will cause the rotor to rotate by adjusting
to the changing magnetic fields. Although it operates at fairly low speed, the PM
motor has a relatively high torque characteristic. These are low cost motors with
typical step angle ranging between 7.5⁰ to 15⁰.
 Hybrid Stepper motor
47 � Hybrid stepping motors combine a permanent magnet and a rotor with metal teeth to
provide features of the variable reluctance and permanent magnet motors together.
� The number of rotor pole pairs is equal to the number of teeth on one of the rotor’s
parts. The hybrid motor stator has teeth creating more poles than the main poles
windings.
 �
48
 Servomotor
49
� Servomotors are special electromechanical devices that produce precise degrees of
rotation. A servo motor is a DC or AC or brushless DC motor combined with a
position sensing device. Servomotors are also called control motors as they are
involved in controlling a mechanical system.
� The servomotors are used in a closed-loop servo system. A reference input is sent to
the servo amplifier, which controls the speed of the servomotor. A feedback device
is mounted on the machine, which is either an encoder or resolver.
 � This device changes mechanical motion into electrical signals and is used as a
50 feedback. This feedback is sent to the error detector, which compares the actual
operation with that of the reference input. If there is an error, that error is fed
directly to the amplifier, which will be used to make necessary corrections in
control action.
� In many servo systems, both velocity and position are monitored. Servomotors
provide accurate speed, torque, and have ability of direction control
DC servomotors
� DC operated servomotors are usually respond to error signal abruptly and
accelerate the load quickly.
� A DC servo motor is actually an assembly of four separate components, namely:
• DC motor
• gear assembly
• position-sensing device
• control circuit
 AC servo motor
51
� In this type of motor, the magnetic force is generated by a permanent magnet and
current which further produce the torque.
� It has no brushes so there is little noise/vibration. This motor provides high
precision control with the help of high resolution encoder. The stator is composed of
a core and a winding. The rotor part comprises of shaft, rotor core and a permanent
magnet.
� Digital encoder can be of optical or magnetic type. It gives digital signals, which are
in proportion of rotation of the shaft.
 Ball screw
� A ball screw is a mechanical linear actuator that translates rotational motion to
52
linear motion with little friction.
� A threaded shaft provides a helical raceway for ball bearings which act as a
precision screw. As well as being able to apply or withstand high thrust loads, they
can do so with minimum internal friction.
� The ball roll between the nut screw, and groves when either of the crew or the nut
rotates. Balls are continuously rotated using a ball return system and ball travels
through a continuous path fro the starting point to the end.
The ball assembly acts as the nut while the
threaded shaft is the screw. In contrast to
conventional leadscrews, ballscrews tend to
be rather bulky, due to the need to have a
mechanism to re-circulate the balls. Cost
more than lead screw and need frequent
lubrication, but provide better accuracy and
efficiency.
53
54
 GUIDEWAYS
� Guide ways (slide ways) are linear bearings for translatory motion between two
55
members of a machine tool such as carriage and bed in lathe.
� Guide ways are used in machine tools to;
� Control the direction or line of action of the carriage or the table on which a tool
or a work piece is held.
� To absorb all the static and dynamic forces.
� The shape and size of the work produced depends on the accuracy of the movement
and on the geometric and kinematic accuracy of the guideway.
� The geometric relationship of the slide (moving part) and the guideway (stationary
part) to the machine base determines the geometric accuracy of the machine.
� Kinematic accuracy depends up on the straightness, flatness and parallelism errors in
guide ways.
� Guide ways are primarily of two types;
� Friction guide ways
� Antifriction linear motion (LM) guide ways
 ANTIFRICTION LINEAR MOTION (LM) GUIDEWAYS
56 � These are used on CNC machine tools too
� Reduce the amount of wear
� Improve the smoothness of the movement
� Reduce friction
� Reduce heat generation
� Antifriction guideways are used to overcome the relatively high coefficient of
friction in metal to metal contacts and the resulting limitations addressed in the above
list.
� They use rolling elements in between the moving and stationary elements of the
machine.
TYPES OF ANTIFRICTION GUIDEWAYS
� Linear bearing with balls.
� Linear bearing with rollers
 Linear bearing with balls:
57 � A linear ball bush uses recirculating balls within a bush type of bearing.
� These are designed to run along precision ground shafts and offer frictionless
movement over varying strokes of length with high linear precision
Linear bearing with rollers:
� The recirculating linear roller bearings are used for movement along a flat plane.
� Their main characteristic feature is that there is continuous roller circulation which
allows unlimited linear movement.
� It consists of hardened and precision ground supporting elements and a number of
cylindrical rollers. As in the case of roller bearings, the rollers are guided between
shoulders of the supporting elements with very close tolerances.
� The grinding element prevents the rollers from falling out and sliding against each
other. Also the guiding element assists in smooth return of the rollers to the loading
zone.
58
 FRICTION GUIDEWAYS
59 � Friction guideways are most widely used because of their low manufacturing cost and
good damping properties.
� These guideways operate under conditions of sliding friction and do not have a
constant coefficient of friction.
� The coefficient of friction is very high when the movement commences and as the
speed of the slide increases, it rapidly falls and beyond a certain critical velocity it
remains almost constant.
� Stick – slip phenomenon – To start the movement, the force to overcome friction has
to be correspondingly high. This force results in the drive mechanism, such as a screw,
being elastically deformed. The energy thus stored in the screw, together with the
applied force, causes the carriage to slip and move at a faster rate.
� As the speed increases the friction decreases and a greater amount of movement than
that intended for the slide takes place. There is a possibility of this cycle of events
repeating itself and resulting in errors in positioning and consequently in jerky motion.
This phenomenon is known as stick – slip phenomenon.
 SPINDLE BEARINGS
60 � The rotational accuracy of the spindle is dependent on the quality and design of the
bearing used and the preloading.
� The bearings should support the spindle radially and axially.
� The accuracy and the quality of the work produced depends directly on the
geometrical accuracy, running accuracy and stiffness of the spindle assembly.
� Various types of spindle bearings used in the design of a spindle for machine tools are;
� Hydrodynamic bearings
� Hydrostatic bearings
� Antifriction bearings
HYDRODYNAMIC BEARINGS
� Hydrodynamic bearings are journal bearings with a thin
film of oil between the spindle and journal.
 � These are used where the load carrying capacities are low and frequent starting and
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stopping of the spindle is not required.
� The pressure of the oil is created within the bearings by the rotation of the spindle. As the
spindle rotates, the oil in contact with the spindle is carried into wedge shaped cavities
between the spindle and the bearing . the oil pressure is increased as the oil is forced
through the small clearances between the bearing and the spindle.
� The main limitation of hydrodynamic bearing is that a definite clearance (50μm to
200μm) must be provided for the oil film to be maintained between the spindle and the
bearing. This clearance may result in the centre of a spindle in the bearing to change its
position owing to variation in the applied force.
HYDROSTATIC BEARINGS
The spindle is supported by a relatively thick film of oil
supplied under pressure.
The oil is pressurized by a pump external to the bearing.
The load carrying capacity of this type of bearing is
independent of the rotational speed.
 ANTIFRICTION BEARINGS
� These are suitable for high speeds and high loads.
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� For efficient service, it is essential that all the components of the ball and roller
bearings, particularly the rolling elements, and the inner and outer bearing tracks are of
the highest accuracy. An error in one component can affect the quality of the work
produced.
� The selection of a particular type of bearing for the spindle depends on the requirements
of the particular machines like speed of operation, accuracy of the spindle and stiffness
of the spindle.
Different types of ball and roller bearings used in CNC machines
are;
Ball bearings
Deep groove ball bearings
Angular contact ball bearings
Roller bearings
Cylindrical roller bearings
 Auto Tool Changer (ATC ) & Automatic Pallet Changer (APC)
63 � ATC ( Auto Tool Changer ) is a device which can automatically change the tool from
the tool magazine to the machine spindle as per the CNC programme
� Tool Magazine is a device which holds number of tools and can automatically index to
enable ATC to pick the right tool and to replace the used tool.
� Automatic Pallet Changer (APC) is a device which can automatically change the pallet
to/from machine to pallet stand.
� By this Mechanism the pallet with the finished component and the pallet with a raw
component could be exchanged automatically.
� Pallet is a transferable work table having `T’ slots or tapped holes for component/fixture
clamping.
� Used to avoid the machine waiting time during loading & unloading of component.
� Pallet is held on the machine table by locating pins and clamping mechanism to ensure
repeatability and accuracy.
 Adaptive control of machining tools
64 � Improvements in CNC machine tools depend on the refinement of adaptive control,
which is the automatic monitoring and adjustment of machining conditions in
response to variations in operation performance.
� With a manually controlled machine tool, the operator watches for changes in
machining performance and makes the necessary mechanical adjustments. An
essential element of CNC machining, adaptive control is needed to protect the tool,
the workpiece, and the machine from damage caused by malfunctions or by
unexpected changes in machine behaviour.
� One example of adaptive control is the monitoring of torque to a machine tool’s
spindle and servomotors. The control unit of the machine tool is programmed with
data defining the minimum and maximum values of torque allowed for the machining
operation. If, for example, a blunt tool causes the maximum torque, a signal is sent to
the control unit, which corrects the situation by reducing the feed rate or altering the
spindle speed.
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