STH, ST-ING et S21

2023/2024

PHYSICS LAB 1

MEASUREMENT AND UNCERTAINTIES

OBJECTIVE
The objective of performing such an experiment is to:
 To perform measurements using suitable measuring instruments.
 To estimate and quantify the uncertainties associated with the measurements.

THEORY
In any experiment, there is no such thing as an exact measurement. This means that it is
impossible to measure a physical quantity and obtain its exact value. Every measurement, made
using any measuring tool, is inevitably associated with errors. These errors vary in significance
depending on the measurement method employed and the quality of the instruments used.
Therefore, the estimation of errors in measurements and their consequences is essential. Thus,
every physical measurement is always linked to an uncertainty (error or imprecision).
Uncertainty is a positive real value estimated from the result. This error results from various
errors, both systematic and random, which can originate from the experimenter's reading and
the measuring instrument.

1) Random Errors
When a measurement is repeated several times, different values are obtained. To minimize
errors of this kind, it is recommended to take multiple measurements under the same
conditions, and the average value is considered as the measurement. Random error cannot be
corrected.

2) Systematic Errors
Systematic errors arise from a constant problem. They are due to the use of imperfect methods
or instruments. This type of error can be eliminated. However, detecting systematic errors can
be challenging.

3) Expression of Uncertainties
When we measure a physical quantity A, such as the distance between two points or the mass
of an object, we do not know the exact value of that quantity. We can approach it by taking
the average of a series of measurements.
n

A
1
i
A=
n

Where Ai are the values obtained during the series of n measurements.

Every experimental result must be accompanied by an estimation of the order of magnitude of
the overall error that may have been committed, expressed in the form of:
a) Absolute Uncertainty:
The absolute uncertainty of a quantity A is denoted by ΔA.
 ΔA: is the maximum error in the evaluation of A.
The estimation of absolute uncertainty ΔA depends on the method used to determine the
quantity A.
The corrected value of A would be: The exact value of A is thus found within the range
delimited by:

A ± ΔA  Acorrigé   A - ΔA, A+ ΔA .

Note:
• Absolute uncertainty always has the same dimension as the quantity it is attached to.
• Absolute uncertainty always has the same unit as the quantity it is attached to.
• Absolute uncertainty is always a positive real number.
• Absolute uncertainty is generally expressed with a single significant figure.

b) Relative Uncertainty:
The relative uncertainty is the ratio of absolute uncertainty to the reference value (average) of
ΔA
quantity A, i.e:
A

Usually, it is expressed as a percentage. To do this, the relative uncertainty must be multiplied

by one hundred, representing the measurement's precision.

ΔA
ε( % )= 100
A

4) Uncertainty of a Direct Measurement

This involves the use of a direct measuring instrument to determine the value of a physical
quantity A.

a) Construction Uncertainty due to Instruments:

No instrument is perfect! The results it provides are associated with an error. The
manufacturer provides a manual indicating the confidence interval (precision).

b) Reading Uncertainty:
The reading uncertainty on a graduated scale (distance, angle, etc.) can be estimated by taking
it equal to the value corresponding to half a graduation (average eye sensitivity).

5) Uncertainty of an Indirect Measurement

An indirect measurement is a result obtained through calculation. For example, the area of a
surface obtained by multiplying the length of its sides is also an indirect measurement.

If the physical quantity A is a function of independent quantities A=f (B,C,…) to found its
uncertainty , we follow specific rules:
• Sum Case: If A = B + C  ΔA = ΔB + ΔC
• Difference Case: If A = B − C  ΔA = ΔB + ΔC
• Product, Ratio, or Power Case: If quantity A is determined from the following
relationship:
 B α .C β
A =k
(D + E)γ

Where B, C, D, and E are measured quantities and k, α, β, and γ are real numbers.
In this case, it is simpler to calculate relative uncertainty using the logarithmic derivative
method (or differential calculus method).

a) Logarithmic Derivative Method:

We apply the logarithmic function to both sides of the equation of A:

 B α .C β 
ln A =ln  k γ 
 lnA= ln k + α lnB + β ln C + γ ln(D+ E)
 (D+ E) 

We then take the derivative of this equation (logarithmic derivative):

dA dk dB dC (dD + dE)
= +α +β +γ
A k B C (D + E)

Finally, we replace the differential elements with uncertainties in the associated quantities and
replace all negative signs with positive signs. We obtain:

ΔA ΔB ΔC (ΔD + ΔE)
=α +β +γ
A B C (D + E)

 B C ( D + E) 
From which:  A = A α +β +γ
 B C (D + E) 

So, the relative uncertainty on the product or ratio of two quantities is equal to the sum of the
relative uncertainties of these quantities.
b) Methods of the Derivative:
For a quantity G=f(a,b,c):
G G G
The total differential of G is written as: dG  da  db  dc
a b c

G G G
The absolute uncertainty is: G  a  b  c .
a b c

6) Reporting measurements:
There are 3 parts to a measurement: The measurement (G), the uncertainty ( ΔG) and the unit.
The result of the measurement of a quantity G should be presented as:
G  ΔG (units)
7) Identify uncertainties as error bars in graphs.
When representing data as a graph, we represent uncertainty in the data points by adding error
bars. We can see the uncertainty range by checking the length of the error bars in each
direction.
 Constructing a straight line:
• Place the points Mi (xi, yi) on the graph. Each point Mi is associated with error rectangle centered
on the point and with sides of 2Δxi and 2Δyi.
• It is possible that the uncertainty on one axis is negligible.
• Draw a straight line passing through all the rectangles surrounding the points Mi.
• Generally, there is a bundle of lines passing through all the error rectangles. In this case, represent
the lines with extreme slopes.

Curve : y= k.x Curve : y= k.x+b

Variable (Unit)

Variable (Unit)
Maximum slope line
Maximum slope line
(Smax)
(Smax)

Minimum slope line

Minimum slope line
(Smin)
(Smin)
2Δy 2Δy

2Δx
2Δx

Variable (Unit) Variable (Unit)

• The slope of the straight line is then expressed as:

𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑆= ±
2 2
Note: K=S
 PROCEDURES

1) Measuring devices
a) Vernier caliper: This measuring device is used to measure more precisely. Below describes the
Vernier caliper's parts and functions.

1 3 5
6 7 1 - Inside caliper jaws
2 -Outside caliper jaws
3- Locking screw
4- Vernier scale(mm)
5- Sliding scale
6- Beam or Main bar
4
7- Depth probe
2 Vernier caliper Reading on a Vernier
caliper
b) The micrometer caliper
This measuring device consists of a screw of pitch 0.5 mm. Below describes The micrometer
caliper's parts and functions.

1 2 3

5 6 7
Reading on a Micrometer
4
Micrometer caliper

Part A : Measuring the density

Measuring the density of wood

1) Use the Vernier caliper and the ruler to measure length, Record your measurements in
Data Tables.
2) Calculate the mean, the absolute error, and the relative error. Record these results in
Data tables?
3) Determine the density value for each case (Give example for one calculation)? Record
these results in Data tables?
4) Compare the measured values of  ? What do you conclude?

Table 1: Measuring the density of wood using the ruler

Measurement Relative
Measurements Absolute Experimental
(cm) Mean error
error Value

Length: L1(m) ……..……..

Length: L2(m)
……..……..
Length: L3(m)
……..……..

Volume: V(m3) ……..……..

Mass : m(kg) ……..……..

……..……..
Density: (kg/m3)

Table 2: Measuring the density of wood using the Vernier caliper

Measurement Relative
Measurements Absolute Experimental
(cm) Mean error
error Value

Length: L1(m) ……..……..

Length: L2(m)
……..……..
Length: L3(m)
……..……..

Volume: V(m3) ……..……..

Mass : m(kg) ……..……..

Density: (kg/m3) ……..……..

Measuring the density of Steel
5) Use the Vernier caliper to measure the diameter d, the ruler to measure length, the
micrometer caliper to measure the thickness and the balance to measure the mass of
samples available (Steel cylinder or disc). Record your measurements in Data Tables.
6) Calculate the mean, the absolute error, and the relative error. Record these results in
Data table?
7) Determine the density value? Record these results in Data tables?
8) Which error in m, A, L or e contributes most to  ( give a quantitative answer)?
9) Compare the measured value of  with the theoretical value (steel= 7770 to
8080kg/m3)? What do you conclude?
Table: Measuring the density of Steel (cylinder or disc)

Measurement Relative
Measurements Absolute Experimental
(cm) Mean error
error Value
Length(cylinder): L(m)
or ……..……..
Thickness (dis): e(m
Area : A(m) ……..……..

Volume: V(m3) ……..……..

Mass : m(kg) ……..……..

Density: (kg/m3) ……..……..

Part B : Calculate the spring constant

Hang the spring on the support and measure its length when it is
unloaded, denoted as L0.
Subsequently, attach masses m to the lower end of the spring.
Measure the elongation L three times until equilibrium is reached.

1. Record your data in the following table:

m (kg)

L (m)

L average

L (m)
2. Plot the graph of L as a function of m on graph paper, and indicate the uncertainty
rectangles with error bars (Use the same absolute mass error value m as in part 1.)?
3. Calculate the slope of the graph S?
4. Calculate the uncertainty in the slope S?
5. Found the value of the spring constant K (take g=9,81 0,01 m/s2)?
6. Calculate the uncertainty in the spring constant K?
7. Express the value of K as: K = ...... ± ...... ?
8. The conclusion.