Evolution

What is Evolution?

➢ The formation of complex organisms through ‘change’ from simple ancestral types over the course of
geological time.
➢ “The branch of life science for the study of 'origin of life' and evolution of different forms of life on
earth was called bioevolution or evolutionary biology”- Mayer (1970).
➢ The word evolution means to unfold or unroll or to reveal hidden potentialities. Evolution simply
means an orderly change from one condition to another.
➢ Evolution is a slow but continuous process which never stops.

Origin of Life:

➢ The origin of life means the emergence of heritable and evolvable self-reproduction. We can also
explained this by- Origin of life is the process by which living organisms developed from inanimate
matter (which is generally thought to have occurred on Earth between 3800 - 4200 millions years
ago).
➢ There are several theories about the origin of life, like big bang theory, theory of special creation,
theory of eternity, cosmozoic theory etc.

Year Scientist Theory/Experiment Features & Conclusion

1927 Abbe Lemaitre Big Bang Theory ✓ The universe originated about 15
billion years ago due to a
thermonuclear explosion of a
dense entity. This thermonuclear
explosion is called Big-bang.
✓ About 4.6 billion years ago, the
origin of the solar system took
place by the gaseous clouds
formed due to this explosion.
✓ These gaseous clouds collapsed
and converted into flat disc-like
structure made up of atoms and
small particles due to their own
gravitational pull. This flat-disc
like structure is called Solar
Nebula.
✓ The very hot central part of this
solar nebula became still hotter
and converted into the sun.

1865 proposed by Richter Cosmozoic theory ✓ Life did not arise in our planet.
and supported by But life was descended from
Arrhenius other planet where life existed
previously.
✓ Protoplasm reached earth in the
form of spores or other simple
particles from some unknown
part of the universe with cosmic
dust and they gave rise to
various forms of life.
✓ Helmholtz (1884) said that
micro-organisms from space
came on earth along with
 meteorites and comets and then
evolved into higher organisms in
water
ancient Greek spontaneous generation According to this theory, life was
philosophers like originated from non-living things
Thales, Anaximander, spontaneously. They believed that the
Xenophanes, Plato, mud of the Nile river could give rise to
Empedocles, Aristotle. frogs, snakes, crocodiles.
Francisco Redi, Biogenesis theory life arose from pre existing life.
Richter, and Louis Even though biogenesis explains the
Pasteur formation of living organism from pre
existing life, it never explains the origin
of first living organism.
MODERN THEORY
1924- Oparin and Haldane Chemical evolution preceded ✓ life originated by the
1929 organic evolution ( composition of chemicals.
Chemosynthetic Theory/ ✓ At first life originated in the
artificial synthetic theory) water of oceans. So, water is
essential for the origin of life.
✓ At the time of origin of life, free
O2 was absent, so first life was
anaerobic.
✓ primitive atmosphere nitrogen,
hydrogen, ammonia, methane,
carbon mono-oxide and water
were present. Energy was
available in the form of electric
discharges by lightening and
ultraviolet rays.
✓ As soon as the earth crust was
formed, it was very much folded.
Torrential rains poured over the
earth for centuries and were
deposited in deep places.
1952 Stanley Miller and Synthesis of biomolecules by Amino acids were synthesised from
Urey creation of similar conditions ammonia, oxygen, and carbon dioxide
as primitive atmosphere on inside specialised apparatus.
laboratory scale

Modern view regarding the origin of life includes origin of earth and its primitive atmosphere; chemical
evolution (chemogeny) and biological evolution (biogeny).

Four basic requirements for life to arise are–

✓ primitive atmosphere (with little or no oxygen).

✓ right chemicals (including water, various inorganic ions and organic molecules)
✓ energy source
✓ infinite time
➢ The energy needed for the chemical evolution on primitive earth mainly came from solar radiation
and cosmic rays, electric discharges, volcanic eruptions, heat etc.
➢ The lightest atoms of nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen etc. formed the primitive atmosphere.
➢ Primitive atmosphere was reducing because hydrogen atoms combined with all available oxygen
atoms to form water and leaving no free oxygen.
 ➢ Evolution up to formation of coacervates termed is as chemical evolution, in which complex organic
compounds were formed which were essential for formation of cellular structure.

Experimental prove that organic compounds were the basis of life

Urey and Miller experiment:-

➢ Miller took a flask and filled it with ((NH4 , CH4 , H2 and H2O) methane, ammonia and hydrogen in
the proportion of 2:1:2 respectively at 0°C. This proportion of gases probably existed in the
environment at time of origin of life.
➢ This flask was connected with a smaller flask, that was filled with water, with the help of glass tubes.
In the bigger flask, two electrodes of tungsten were fitted.
➢ Then a current of 60,000 volts was passed, through gases containing bigger flask for seven days.
➢ At the end of seven days, when the vapours condensed, a red substance was found in the U-tube.
➢ When this red substance was analyzed, it was found that it contains amino acids, glycine and
nitrogenous bases which are found in the nucleus of a cell.

First stage :-

The sources of energy-ultraviolet rays or electric discharge (lightening) or heat or a combination of these
caused reactions that produced complex organic compounds (including amino acids) from a mixture of
ammonia (NH3 ), methane (CH4 ), water (H2O) and hydrogen (H2 ). (The amino acids are the building
blocks of proteins which are the main components of protoplasm).

Second Stage:-

Simple organic molecules combined to form large molecules which included peptides (leading to the
formation of proteins), sugars, starches and fat molecules.

Third stage:-

The large molecules of different kinds combined together to form multi-molecular heaps or complexes. Some
simple fat molecules arranged themselves around this molecular complex in a sort of membrane. These are
termed as coacervates .Coacervate like aggregates were probably the precursors of the first living cells.

Some of the earliest formed proteins might have acted like enzymes and would have affected the rate of
reactions. It is also believed that RNA molecules might have shown enzymatic activity in the “primordial
soup” of chemical compounds. Such molecules have been termed ribozymes.

Fourth stage :-

Some sort of nucleoproteins or nucleic acids may have evolved by random combinations which have
provided two more properties to coacervate like bodies.
This include : (i) chemical reactions from the nucleic acids, and (ii) the capacity to reproduce through
duplication of the nucleic acids
 Thus, cells were produced that could be called the simplest primordial life.The primitive “drop” like
forms of life were all heterotrophs.
As one of the innumerable changes in genetic make up of the primitive heterotrophs led to the
formation of chlorophyll molecules.
❖ Thus, the simplest form of life originated through four main stages. Thereafter, wide variety of
organisms came into existence through biological evolution.
❖ This process of slow and gradual change is called organic evolution.Thus, the theory of organic
evolution states that “All living things on earth are here as a result of descent, with modifications
from a common ancestor”.

Evidences of organic evolution:-

(i) Palaeontology (ii) Comparative anatomy and morphology
(iii) Biochemical/Physiology (iv) Biogeography
(v) Embryology

(i) Palaeontology:-

Paleontology is the study of fossils. Fossils are the remains or traces of animal and plant life of the past, found
embedded in rock either as petrified hard parts or as moulds, casts or tracks. They are written documents of
evolution.

Significance of Fossil Record:

(a) Rocks form sediments and a cross-section of earth’s crust indicates the arrangement of sediments one over
the other during the long history of earth.
(b) Different aged rock sediments contain fossils of different life forms, who died during the formation of the
particular sediment,

(c) Some organisms appear similar to modern organisms. They represent extinct organisms like dinosaurs.
(d) A study of fossils in different sedimentary layers indicates the geological period in which they existed.
(e) The study showed that life forms varied over time and certain life forms are restricted to certain geological
time-scale.

(f) To study the connecting link between two groups of organisms. E.g. Archaeopteryx.

Hence, new forms of life have evolved at different times in the history of earth.

Best example of fossil record:-

Though the fossils of horse, elephant, camel and others have been worked out, but the fossil record of the
horse is the best and complete. The fossil record of humans is fragmentary. The evolution of horse has
occurred almost in a straight line (Orthogenesis). All fossils have been traced from North America. The
earliest is of Eohippus (Hyracotherium) which was about 30cm. in height with 4-toes (digits) , i.e. 2nd, 3rd, 4th
and 5th.
In modern horse the radius and ulna are fused, and the metacarpal of 3rd digit is elongated to form Cannon-
bone. Two splint bones, closely attached to rear end of Cannon, actually represent metacarpals of 2nd and 4th
digits.

Thus the study of fossils (palaeontology) provides direct evidence in favour of organic evolution.

(ii) Comparative anatomy and morphology:-

Comparative anatomy and morphological evidences show the similarities and differences among the
organisms of today and those that existed years ago. Similarities are of 2 types

A. Homologous organs B. Analogous organs

➢ Homologous organs are the organs having ➢ These are the organs having similar function
fundamentally similar structure and origin but but different structure & origin. This
different functions. This phenomenon is phenomenon is called Analogy.
called Homology. Wings of insects (formed of a thin flap of
➢ E.g. Human hand, Whale’s flippers, Bat’s wing & chitin) and wings of birds (modified
Cheetah’s foot. These forelimbs have different forelimbs).
functions but similar anatomical structures such as § Eyes of Octopus (retina from skin)
bones (e.g. humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, and mammals (retina from embryonic brain).
metacarpals & phalanges). § Flipper of Penguins and Dolphins.
- Homology is also seen in heart, brain etc. § Sweet potato (modified root)
➢ Homology is also seen amongst the molecules. This & Potato (modified stem).
is called molecular homology. For e.g., the § Trachea of insects (from ectoderm)
proteins found in the blood of man and apes are and lungs of vertebrates (from endoderm).
similar. ➢ Origin of analogous organs is due
➢ Testes in male and ovaries in female develop from the to Convergent evolution. It is the evolution by
same embryonic tissue. which unrelated species become
➢ Pectoral fins of fish and flipper of Seal. more similar to survive and adapt in
➢ Flipper of Penguin (bird) and Dolphin (mammal). similar environmental condition. For e.g.,
Some of the marsupials of Australia resemble
➢ Homology in plants: E.g. Thorns
equivalent placental mammals that live in
of Bougainvillea and tendrils of Cucurbita.
similar habitats of other continents. When
(modification of axillary bud)
adaptive convergence is found in closely
➢ Raddish & Carrot; Potato & Ginger
related species, it is called parallel evolution.
➢ Homology found in different animals indicate their
➢ Analogous organs do not show common
evolution from common ancestors. The process in
ancestry but they show evolution.
which species which have diverged after origin
from common ancestor giving rise to new species
adapted to new habitats and ways of life is called
adaptive radiation, exhibit large number of
homologous organs.
➢ The origin of homologous organs is due
to Divergent evolution. It is the evolution by
which related species become less similar to
survive and adapt in different environmental
condition.
• For e.g., Adaptive radiation gave rise to a variety of
marsupials in Australia.
DIVERGENT EVOLUTION CONVERGENT EVOLUTION

1. Development of different functional Development of similar adaptive functional

structures from a common ancestral form is structures in unrelated groups of organisms is
called divergent evolution. called convergent evolution.

2. Homologous organs show divergent

Analogous organs show convergent evolution.
evolution.

examples. Australian Marsupials and Placental

Examples.: Darwin’s Finches, Australian
mammals, various equatic vertebrate and wings of
Marsupials, locomotion in mammals.
insect bird and bat.

C. Vestigial organs:
➢ Vestigial organ is any small degenerate or imperfectly developed (non-functional) organ or part
which may have been complete and functional in some ancestor.
➢ Some of these are - nictitating membrane; muscles of pinna (auricular muscles); vermiform appendix;
coccyx; canine teeth; third molars (wisdom teeth); segmental muscles of abdomen; caecum; body
hairs; nipples in male and ear pinna.
➢ The only rational explanation for the presence of these non-functional organs is that they have been
inherited from ancestors in which they were functional.

D. Connecting Links:
➢ The animals or plants which possess characters of two different (taxonomic) groups of organisms are
known as connecting links.
➢ The connecting links establish continuity in the series of organisms by proving that one group has
evolved from the other.
➢ A good example is that of a fossil bird Archaeopteryx, which was a connecting link between reptiles
and birds. This bird had a beak with teeth and a long tail (with bones) like the lizards. It had feathers
on the wings and on the body like the birds.

Organisms Connecting link between

1. Viruses Living and nonliving
2. Euglena (Protozoa) Plants and animals
3. Proterospongia (Protozoa) Protozoa and Porifera
4. Peripatus (Arthropoda) Annelida and Arthropoda
5. Neopilina (Mollusca) Annelida and Mollusca
6. Balanoglossus (Chordata) Nonchordata and Chordata
7. Dipnoi (Lungfish) Pisces and Amphibia
8. Archaeopteryx (Aves) Reptiles and Birds
9. Echidna Reptiles and Mammals
10. Platypus Reptiles and Mammals

Atavism/ Reversion:
Sometimes in some individuals some characters suddenly appear which were supposed to be present in third
ancestors but were lost during the course of development. This phenomenon is known as atavism or
reversion.

o E.g-

Human baby with tail

Cervical fistula - In some human babies, an aperture is present on the neck behind the ear called as
cervical fistula. It represents pharyngeal gill slits which were present in aquatic vertebrate ancestors.
Long and pointed canine teeth represents carnivorous ancestors.
Large and thick body hair reflects our relationship with apes.
Extra nipples (more than two)

(iii) Biochemical/Physiology:-
Different organism show similarities in physiology and biochemistry. Some examples are-
Protoplasm - Structure and chemical composition of protoplasm is same from protozoa to mammalia.
Enzymes - Enzymes perform same function in all animals like trypsin digests protein from Amoeba
to man. Amylase digests starch from porifera to mammalia.
Blood - Chordates show almost same composition of blood.
ATP - This energy rich molecule is formed for biological oxidation in all animals.
Hormones - Secreted in different vertebrates and performs same function.
Hereditary material - Hereditary material is DNA in all organisms and its basic structure is same in
all animals.
Cytochrome C is a respiratory protein situated in the mitochondria of all organism. In this protein,
(78-88) amino acids are identical in all organisms, which show common ancestory.
Physiology and biochemistry thus, prove that all animals have evolved from some common ancestor.

(iv) Biogeography:
Biogeography is the study of the distribution of species and ecosystems in geographic space and
through geological time. Organisms and biological communities often vary in a regular fashion along
geographic gradients of latitude, elevation, isolation and habitat area.
The species restricted to a region develop unique features. Also, species present in far separated
regions show similarity of ancestry.
Adaptive radiation (evolution by adaptation) is the evolution of different species from an ancestor in a
geographical area starting from a point. It is a type of divergent evolution.
E/g
Darwin’s finches in Galapagos Islands.
Australian Marsupials
Placental mammals in Australia

When more than one adaptive radiation is appeared in an isolated geographical area, it results
in convergent evolution.
E.g. Australian Marsupials and Placental mammals.
(v) Embryology:
Embryology is the study of development of an organism. The aspects of embryology which support the
doctrine of organic evolution are :
similar stages of early development (morula, blastula or gastrula) in all the animals;
the embryos of all vertebrates are similar in shape and structure in their early stages.
All the vertebrates start their life from a single cell, the zygote. .
 All of them during their life history, pass through two-layered blastula and three layered gastrula
stage and then through fish like stage with gill-slits.
Baer's law: an organism show its ancestral stages in embryonic development. In embryo stage,
general characters appear first then specialised characters appear.
Recapitulation theory: 'ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny'. Muller proposed this theory.
It means any organism shows its ancestral adult stages during its embryonic development. It shows that all
organisms evolved from a common ancestor.
Biogenetic law: Ernest Haeckel explained it in detail with examples.
Examples
✓ The zygotes from which the development of all metazoan bodies start are single-celled and are quite
comparable with the bodies of simple protozoans.
✓ This indicates the origin of metazoans from protozoan ancestors.
✓ The early stages of embryonic development, viz, morula, blastula and gastrula are basically similar in
all metazoans, indicating a monophyletic origin of the latter.
✓ The phylogenetically earliest metazoans i.e., sponges and cnidarians have retained early gastrula like
double - layered (diploblastic) structure of body of metazoans.
✓ In fishes, the young individuals, developing from gastrula, is almost-like an adult, but the tadpole
larvae of amphibians bear more resemblance to the young ones of fishes than to their own adults. This
indicates origin of amphibians from fish.
✓ Even after gastrulation in vertebrates, the early post gastrula stages are quite similar in members of all
the different classes, viz, fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals.
✓ The differentiation of class characters appear in the later stages, moreover, the embryo of
phylogenetically higher vertebrates pass through the adult stages of lower vertebrates before attaining
the characteristics of their own classes.
E.g. in all birds and mammals including man, the embryo's pass through stages resembling the adult stage of
fishes, amphibians and reptiles before finally attaining the characters of their respective classes.

Theories of Organic Evolution:

A. Lamarck’s Theory of inheritance of Acquired Characters (Lamarckism)
❖ This theory of evolution was published in the book ‘Philosphic Zoologique’ by French scientist Jean
Lamarck.
❖ His theory was based on the study of fossils of the organisms of the past with their present relatives
including the homologous, analogous and vestigial organs.
❖ He believed that an organ or structure got modified in the current animal from its ancestor due to the
change in the environment and the utility of that particular organ.
❖ His theory contained below postulates:
 ➢ Effect of environment and new needs:- Changing environment gives rise to new needs. New needs or
desires produce new structures and change the habits of the organisms.
➢ Use and disuse of organs : If an organ is constantly used, it would be better developed whereas
disuse of an organ results in its degeneration.
➢ Inheritance of acquired character : During the lifetime of an organism, new characters develop due
to internal vital forces, effect of environment, new needs and use and disuse of organs.
These acquired characters are inherited from one generation to another. By continuous inheritance through
many generations, these acquired characters tend to make new generation quite different from its ancestors
resulting in the formation of new species.
Example- The giraffe originally did not have its long neck. But, the trees were very tall and it could not feed
on the minimal number of short trees. So, as an adaptive measure to be able to eat leaves on the tall trees, the
giraffe’s neck started growing longer. This was a way of adaptive mechanism due to new needs.
Criticism:
❖ Weismann and Payne criticized the theory of inheritance of acquired characters. Weismann cut off the
tails of rats for about 22 generations but there was no reduction in the size of the tail. On the basis of
this experiment, Weismann proposed the theory of continuity of germplasm.
❖ Second concept was totally not correct. But this concept also have many objections like the eyes of a
student/reader do not increase in size and power with increasing age, the constantly beating heart
maintains a constant size through generations.

Neo- Lamarckism:

➢ Although Lamarckism remained controversial but some scientists gave the following evidence in
favour of Lamarckism. They are known as Neo-lamarckians like Summer, Krammer. Mac Dugal.
➢ According to Neo-lamarckism, environment affected the inheritance of acquired characters.
According to it, changing environment gives rise to some physical and chemical changes in
organisms, which effect their germplasm, and these acquired characters are definitely inherited.
➢ Mac Dugal's Experiment : Mac Dugal trained white rats to cross a tank of water following definite
route. These trained rats were mated and their offspring were again trained. It was observed that there
was a decrease in the number of errors by offsprings of white rats.

B. Darwinism (Theory of Natural Selection):

Charles Darwin along with Wallace postulated this theory of evolution. Darwin believed that life thrives and
multiplies by the principle of natural selection.

Wallace presented a chart to explain the main points of the theory of Darwin
Natural Selection is based on the following facts:
❖ Overproduction : He said that each and every organism or species tend to reproduce to the
maximum to let its species live and multiply. He said that populations of all organisms multiply
geometrically..
Example:
(i) Plants produce thousands of seeds.
(ii) Insects lay hundreds of eggs.
(iii) One pair of elephant gives rise to about six offsprings and if all survived in 750 years a single pair would
produce about 19 million elephants. Thus, some organisms produce more offsprings and other produce fewer
offsprings. This is called differential reproduction.

❖ Limited Natural resources:

Natural sources are limited. Resources not increased in accordance with growing population. Though the
organism and their species multiply geometrically, food multiplies only arithmetically and the space available
remains a constant. With both these restrictions to the growing population of different species puts a tab on
the population growth.
❖ Struggle for existence:
With the limited resources individual competes with each other for basic necessities like food, shelter and
space. This is called Struggle for existence. It is of 3 types:
➢ Intraspecific struggle: It is the competition between the individuals of the same species for same
needs like food, shelter and breeding (most acute type of struggle).
➢ Interspecific struggle: It is the struggle between the individuals of different species for food and
shelter.
➢ Environmental struggle: This struggle is between the organisms and their environment. All
organisms struggle with cold, heat, wind, rain, drought and flood etc.

❖ Variations:
➢ Due to this struggle for food and space, each organism or species tend to get an advantage over the
other. In order to do so, they tend to develop certain features or structures that give them that added
advantage to succeed in the struggle of life. So, this struggle brings about variations. Due to
variations, some individuals would be better adjusted towards the surroundings than the others.
➢ According to Darwin, the variations are continuous and those which are helpful in the adaptation of
an organism towards its surroundings would be passed on to the next generation, while the others will
disappear.

❖ Survival of the fittest or natural selection:

➢ According to Darwin, most suitable and fit individuals are successful in the struggle for existence.
➢ In the struggle for existence, only those members survive which possess useful variations (means
nature selects fit individuals). This was called as natural selection. This was termed by Darwin &
Survival of the fittest was termed by Spencer
➢ Fitness is the end result of the ability to adapt and get selected by nature.

❖ Origin of new species :

Darwin explained that variations appearing due to environmental changes are transmitted to the next
generation. So offsprings become different from ancestors. In next generation, process of natural selection
repeats, so after many generations, a new species is formed.
Drawback or criticism of Darwinism:

➢ Darwin does not explain the development of vestigial organs.

➢ This theory has no satisfactory explanation for the cause, origin and inheritance of variations.
➢ Darwin is unable to explain why in a population only a few individuals develop useful variation and
others have harmful variations.
➢ Darwin was unable to differentiate between somatic and germinal variations.
➢ This theory was unable to explain over-specialization of some organs like tusk of elephants, antlers of
deer.
➢ The main drawback of Darwinism was lack of the knowledge of heredity.
In the light of these objections or criticism various workers modify his theory. Most of the work done after
Mendel’s work. This modified theory of Darwin is known as Neo- Dawinism.

Neo-darwinism:
➢ It is a modified form of Darwinism along with recent researches of Weismann, Mendel, De Vries,
Huxley, Gates, Stebbins etc. They establish Neo-Darwinism in respect of- genetic research, causes of
variation, Natural selection is referred as differential reproduction, leading to change in the gene
frequency, reproductive isolation.
➢ According to Neo-darwinism, both mutation and natural selection are responsible for evolution.
➢ Unit of evolution is population.

Mutation Theory:
➢ The mutation theory was put forward in 1901 by Hugo de Vries.
➢ Role of mutations in evolution is genetic variations.
➢ Mutations are discontinuous variations called sports by Darwin and saltatory variation by Bateson.
➢ It forms the raw material for mutation.
➢ It appears suddenly and produces effect immediately.
➢ Mutations are markedly different from the parents and there are no intermediate stages between the
two.
➢ Mutations can appear in all directions.
➢ All mutations have a genetic basis and are therefore, inheritable.
➢ A single mutation may produce a new species.

Synthetic Theory:
Dobzhansky (1937) in his book 'Genetics and the Origin of Species' provided the initial basis of synthetic
theory.
'Modern synthetic theory of evolution' was designated by Huxley in 1942.
Some of the important workers who have contributed to the modern synthetic theory are : Th. Dobzhansky,
R.A. Fisher, J.B.S. Haldane, Sewall Wright, Ernst Mayr and G.L. Stebbins.
According to synthetic theory, there are five basic factors involved in the process of organic evolution.
➢ Gene mutations
➢ Changes in the chromosome structure and number
➢ Genetic recombinations
➢ Natural selection
➢ Reproductive isolation.
➢ The first three factors (a, b, c) are responsible for providing genetic variability; the last two (d, e) are
responsible for giving direction to the evolution process.
➢ The most accepted and recent theory of organic evolution is the synthetic theory.
Mechanism of Evolution:
Various theories about the mechanism of evolution have been proposed. Darwin’s theory of Natural selection
still holds ground but was modified with progress in genetics and developed into the Modern synthetic theory
which is regarded as the most valid theory of evolution.

According to this theory :

➢ The unit of evolution is ‘population’ which has its own gene pool. Gene pool is the group of all
different genes of a population.
➢ Heritable genetic changes appear in the individuals of a population.These heritable changes or
variations occur due to small mutations in the genes or in the chromosomes and their recombinations.
➢ Natural selection selects the variations which helps in adapting to the environment.
➢ A change in the genetic constitution of a population selected by natural selection is responsible for
evolution of a new species, since through interaction of variation and Natural Selection more
offsprings with favourable genetic changes are born. This is called ‘differential reproduction’.
➢ Once evolved, Reproductive Isolation helps in keeping species distinct.

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

Forces of Organic Evolution:

Evolution is caused by action of forces on Natural Selection of Variation. Reproductive Isolation keeps the
species distinct therefore the elemental forces of Organic Evolution are: (A) Variation (B) Natural Selection
(C) Isolation.
(A) Variation:
Variation arises in an individual member of a population, and if favourable, spreads into the population
through “differential reproduction” by the action of natural selection. Variations may occur by the followings
➢ Mutation:- which is a sudden genetic change. It may be a change in a single gene (genic mutation or
point mutation) or may affect many genes (chromosomal mutation).
➢ Genetic recombination:- which occurs in sexually reproducing organisms at every reproduction.
The chromosomes and thus genes of the parents mix at random during zygote formation. That is why
offspring of same parents are different from each other as they have different combinations of
parental genes. Variation is also brought about when crossing over occurs during gamete formation.
➢ Gene flow: It is when there is chance mixing of genes of closely related species through sexual
reproduction.
➢ Genetic drift: It occurs in small populations when a part breaks off from a large population. Only
representative genes of the large population are present which undergo change at a right time and the
small population may evolve into a new subspecies or species. The theory of genetic drift was
developed by Sewell Wright in 1930. It is the elimination or addition of the genes of certain
characters when some animals in a population migrate or die or immigrate. It changes the gene
frequency of the remaining population. Genetic drift operates only in a small population. Changes in
the frequency of genes in a gene pool is called genetic drift.
Genetic drift in a new colony is called founder effect because only a few founders carrying a small
fraction of genetic variability of the parent population begin the colony.
➢ Bottleneck effect : Death of several members of a population due to natural calamities (earthquake,
storm, flood) also leads to genetic drift. The original size of population is then restored by mating
among the survivors. The new population may lack the genes of certain traits. This may produce a
new species after some time. The loss of a section of population by death and after sometime a new
species is formed. This effect is known as bottleneck effect.
 (B) Natural Selection:
Natural selection considered to be responsible for “differential reproduction of genes” which means that more
of favourable genes get reproduced in a population. If differential reproduction (some individuals produce
more, some only a few and still others none) is continuous for many generations, genes of the individuals
which produce more offspring will become predominant in the gene pool of the population. Thus, natural
selection occurs through differential reproduction in successive generations.
Biologists recognize three major categories of natural selection based on its effect on the population over
time:
➢ Stabilising selection: It favours individuals possessing an average value for a trait and are selected
against individuals with extreme values.
➢ Directional selection: It tends to favour phenotypes at one extreme of the range of variation.
➢ Disruptive selection: It favours individuals at both extremes of variation. Selection is against the
middle of curve.

Fig: Diagrammatic representation of the operation of natural selection on different traits : (a)
Stabilising (b) Directional and (c) Disruptive

Example 1 : DDT resistant mosquitoes

About 50 years back, the mosquito population had been kept in control with the help of DDT. Thereafter, it
was found that mosquitoes could not be killed with DDT any longer. There appeared DDT-resistant
mosquitoes. What had happened was that a gene mutation (variation) had conferred (given) on the mosquito,
the ability to
resist the effect of DDT. While DDT killed other mosquitoes, those with the gene mutation survived and
slowly within a few generations DDT resistant mosquitoes replaced the DDT-sensitive ones. In other words,
the DDT resistant mosquitoes ‘reproduced differentially’ by the action of natural selection.

Example 2 : Industrial melanism

A commonly quoted example of natural selection in action is that of the peppered moth, Biston betularia. The
moth with its light coloured wings dotted with spots blended well with the lichens growing on the houses and
trees on which it rested. Once in a while if a mutated form of the moth which was black in colour appeared,
it was eaten up by birds as it was conspicuous because of its black wings. This was observed in the British
Isles before the industrial revolution. After the industrial revolution, the genes for black wings proved
favourable on the soot covered lichens growing on the walls of houses. Natural selection acted through the
agency of the
birds which now ate up the conspicuous light coloured winged peppered moth. These were therefore, soon
replaced by the black variety
Example 3: Sickle cell anaemia and malaria
Individuals homozygous for sickle cell anaemia die at an early age. In heterozygous individuals, the cells
containing abnormal haemoglobin become sickle shaped. In fact, when an RBC becomes sickle-shaped, it
kills malarial parasite effectively so that these individuals are able to cope with malaria infection much better
than normal persons. The process of natural selection thus maintains the abnormal form of haemoglobin along
with the normal form in a region where malaria is common.
Example 4: Malaria and G-6-PD deficiency
Glucose- 6-Phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency is a common abnormality in Negroids. Haemoglobin gets
denatured and is deposited on cell membrane. The disease is called favism. In these RBCs, the malarial
parasite cannot complete its life cycle. Such persons are protected from malaria.

(C) Reproductive Isolation:

Once new species arise from the parental species due to the effect of variation and natural selection,
reproductive barriers prevent the two species from exchanging genes through reproduction. Thus two related
species cannot mate with each other and remain distinct. Isolation means separation and reproductive isolation
simply means that the two species are prevented from successful reproduction and kept genetically distinct
from each other. The mechanism of reproductive isolation is explained by Stebbins in his book 'Process of
Organic Evolution'.

Difference Amongst Lamarckism, Darwinism and Mutation Theory

Properties Lamarckism Darwinism Mutation Theory

The theory believes that every

Darwinism does not
organism has an internal vital No internal vital force is
Vital force believe in internal vital
force that tends to increase its involved.
force.
size upto a certain limit.

Animals with well-developed

Darwinism does not No conscious reaction is
Conscious nervous system react
involve any conscious believed to take part in the
Reaction consciously to any change in
reaction. process of evolution.
environments

The theory considers appetency

or desires on the part of animals It is not a constituent of
Appetency Appetency in not involved.
an important force in the the theory.
development of modifications.

The organs put to more use are

Use and believed to develop more while The theory is silent about
The theory is silent about it.
Disuse organs not used begin to use and disuse of organs.
degenerate.
 According to Darwin, all
the living cells produce Only those variations are
The characters acquired by an
Inheritance of minute particles or transferred to the offspring
organism during its life are
Acquired pangenesis, which pass which originate in germ cells
believed to get transferred the
Characters into germ cells for or in the cells which form germ
next generation.
transmission to the cells.
offspring.

Organisms produce more

offspring than the
The theory does not clearly spell
Struggle for available food and space The theory believes in the
out struggle for existence in
Existence so that a struggle for struggle for existence.
relation to high biotic potential.
existence ensues amongst
them.

Variations appear in organisms

Origin of in response to change in Variations appear Variations appear due to
Variations environment, conscious reaction, automatically. change in genetic make up.
desire r use and disuse of organs.

The theory is silent about them

It is based on the origin The theory is based on
Continuous though it believes in a
and selection of discontinuous variations or
Variations continuous modification of
continuous variations. mutations.
organs in a particular direction.

The theory does not take into Darwinism is based on Mutations theory believes in
Natural
account natural selection or natural selection or natural selection or survival of
Selection
survival of the fittest. survival of the fittest. the fittest.

Evolution is a jerky process,

Evolution is a continuous Evolution is a continuous
the direction of which is
Progress of process which moves in a process, the direction of
unpredictable though
Evolution direction governed by which is governed by
ultimately it is governed by
environment and appentency. nature.
nature.
Human Evolution:

Human Evolution is a very lengthy process and humans originated from ape-like ancestors. Ape-like
ancestors evolved about 6 million years ago in Africa. Humans are primates. The modern man Homo sapiens
are similar to another primate group, that is, apes. Modern man and apes have common ancestor. The
scientific study of human evolution is known as Paleoanthropology.
Organism When organism Fossil site Discovered by Characteristics
existed
Parapithecus 30-35 mya Egypt The animal of the size of a
squirrel.
The animal was adapted to
running and leaping.
Ancestors of old world monkeys.
Oligocene epoch in Egypt, so
called as Oligocene apes.
Aegyptopithecus Egypt Origin and evolution in late
Oligocene and Miocene epoch so
called as Miocene apes.
It was of larger size, canopy
dwellers and had tail.
Fore- runners of Dryopithecus.
Dryopithecus 15-20 mya It is a common ancestor of
humans and apes.
It had semi erect postures with
same sized hind limbs and
forelimbs.
Hands and skull were monkey-
flower like, fore- head like
humans.
Ramapithecus 14-15 mya shivalik hills of Edward Lewis It is the earliest man-made like
India. primates.Walked on legs.
Australopithecus 3-2 mya Taung Raymond Dart Brain size: 428-625 ml
Sterkfontein Forward position of foramen
fossil of skull of magnum
(5 - 6) year old Teeth large; canines not long
baby from the Long arms
old pliocene No cranial ridge
rocks of Tuang Cranial capacity 400-600 cubic
region (S. cm.
Africa). He Brain was larger size compared
named it Tuang to body .
baby, later on he Incisors are vertical and canines
renamed it or A. spatulate.
africanus. Ilium was broad and foot arched
indicating bipedalism and
running.
Homo habilis 2.2-1.6 mya Tanzania Louis and Mary This early true man had perfect
Leakey bipedal locomotion, height -
150cm, weight 40- 50 kg.
Cranial capacity 680 cubic cm.
Used chipped stone tools.
Carnivorous- omnivorus who
hunted small animals.
Male to female ratio 1:2.
first fossil man who used tools of
chipped stones extensively.
Homo erectus 2-0.4 mya Java in Indonesia Eugene Dubois It walked erect over long legs,
and then height 150cm.
Swartkrans Brain size is 775 to 1225 cubic
cm.
Prognathism face with prominent
brow ridges.
No chin, massive jaws and large
teeth.
First homonid to move out of
Africa.
Homo sapiens 200 000 years Makapansgat in Tim White It is parent species to which
ago - present Limpopo modern man belongs.
Border Cave in It evolved from H. erectus in
KZN Africa.
Blombos Cave in It developed 3 sub- species :-
the Western Cape a) Neanderthal Man
b) Cro- magnon Man
c) Modern Man.
Modern man evolved 25000
years back.
Moved to different parts of the
world about 10000 to 11000
years ago.
cranial capacity of about 1300-
1600 cc.
Man undergone culture evolution
- palaeolithic age, mesolithic age,
bronze age, iron age etc.

Is Man becoming less well adapted to nature?

The physical environment has become far less severe a selective factor than in any other animal behavior is a
strong selective pressure in the animal kingdom ability to learn to overcome obstacles parental care and
protection.

This behavioral shift initiates new selective pressures: 1. we are constantly finding more genetic links to
behaviors and psychological factors 2. the conquest of disease and mitigation of the effects of aging have
achieved spectacular results ! new medical procedures may prevent weeding out of physically defective
humans eg. genetic diseases such things actually counteract natural selection ! may produce an increase in
deleterious phenotypes.

while modern humans have largely mastered their environment and communication and interactions are
tending to normalize our gene pool still.
 ~50% of human race live in poor conditions, shortages of food & water, disease is common, poor health ! still
very subject to natural selection.

Geological Time Scale:

➢ In geological time scale the biggest and the smallest time units are ‘Eras’ and ‘Epochs’.
➢ The geological time scale has been divided into 5-eras, Archaeozoic (most ancient), Proterozoic,
Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Coenozoic.
➢ Archaeozoic and proterozoic eras, also known as ‘Pre-Cambrian era’, covered about 4 billion years.
Palaeozoic era consisted of 300 million years.
➢ The Mesozoic and Coenozoic era covered 180 million years and 65 million years respectively.