Outline

■ The Need for Databases and DBMS

■ Data Models
■ Relational Databases
■ Storage Manager
■ Query Processing
Chapter 1: Introduction ■ Transaction Manager
■ Database users
■ Database architecture

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Database Management System (DBMS) University Database Example

■ DBMS contains information about a particular enterprise ■ Application program examples
● Collection of interrelated data (database) ● Add new students, instructors, and courses
● Set of programs to access the data ● Register students for courses, and generate class rosters
● An environment that is both convenient and efficient to use ● Assign grades to students, compute grade point averages
■ Database Applications: (GPA) and generate transcripts

● Banking: transactions ■ In the early days, database applications were built directly on
top of file systems
● Airlines: reservations, schedules
● Universities: registration, grades
● Sales: customers, products, purchases
● Online retailers: order tracking, customized recommendations
● Manufacturing: production, inventory, orders, supply chain
● Human resources: employee records, salaries, tax deductions
■ Databases can be very large.
■ Databases touch all aspects of our lives

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 Drawbacks of using file systems to store data Drawbacks of using file systems to store data (Cont.)

■ Data redundancy and inconsistency ■ Atomicity of updates

● Multiple file formats, duplication of information in different files ● Failures may leave database in an inconsistent state with partial
■ Difficulty in accessing data updates carried out

● Need to write a new program to carry out each new task ● Example: Transfer of funds from one account to another should
either complete or not happen at all
■ Data isolation
■ Concurrent access by multiple users
● Multiple files and formats
● Concurrent access needed for performance
■ Integrity problems
● Uncontrolled concurrent accesses can lead to inconsistencies
● Integrity constraints (e.g., account balance > 0) become “buried”
in program code rather than being stated explicitly 4 Example: Two people reading a balance (say 100) and
updating it by withdrawing money (say 50 each) at the same
● Hard to add new constraints or change existing ones time
■ Security problems
● Hard to provide user access to some, but not all, data

Database systems offer solutions to all the above problems

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Levels of Abstraction View of Data

■ Physical level: describes how a record (e.g., instructor) is stored.
An architecture for a database system
■ Logical level: describes data stored in database, and the relationships
among the data.
type instructor = record
ID : string;
name : string;
dept_name : string;
salary : integer;
end;
■ View level: application programs hide details of data types. Views can
also hide information (such as an employee’s salary) for security
purposes.

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 Instances and Schemas Data Models
■ Similar to types and variables in programming languages ■ A collection of tools for describing

■ Logical Schema – the overall logical structure of the database

● Data
● Data relationships
● Example: The database consists of information about a set of
● Data semantics
customers and accounts in a bank and the relationship between them
● Data constraints
4 Analogous to type information of a variable in a program
■ Relational model
■ Physical schema– the overall physical structure of the database
■ Entity-Relationship data model (mainly for database design)
■ Instance – the actual content of the database at a particular point in time
■ Object-based data models (Object-oriented and Object-relational)
● Analogous to the value of a variable
■ Semistructured data model (XML)
■ Physical Data Independence – the ability to modify the physical schema
without changing the logical schema ■ Other older models:
● Network model
● Applications depend on the logical schema ● Hierarchical model
● In general, the interfaces between the various levels and components
should be well defined so that changes in some parts do not seriously
influence others.

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Relational Model A Sample Relational Database

■ All the data is stored in various tables.
■ Example of tabular data in the relational model Columns

Rows

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 Data Definition Language (DDL) Data Manipulation Language (DML)
■ Specification notation for defining the database schema ■ Language for accessing and manipulating the data organized
by the appropriate data model
Example: create table instructor (
ID char(5), ● DML also known as query language (technically incorrect)
name varchar(20),
■ Two classes of languages
dept_name varchar(20),
salary numeric(8,2)) ● Pure – used for proving properties about computational
■ DDL compiler generates a set of table templates stored in a data dictionary power and for optimization
■ Data dictionary contains metadata (i.e., data about data) 4 Relational Algebra
● Database schema 4 Tuple relational calculus
● Integrity constraints 4 Domain relational calculus
4 Primary key (ID uniquely identifies instructors) ● Commercial – used in commercial systems
● Authorization
4 SQL is the most widely used commercial language
4 Who can access what

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Object-Relational Data Models Object-Relational Data Models

■ Relational model: flat, “atomic” values ■ An Object Type and Object Instances
■ Object Relational Data Models
● Extend the relational data model by including object orientation
and constructs to deal with added data types.
● Allow attributes of tuples to have complex types, including non-
atomic values such as nested relations.
● Preserve relational foundations, in particular the declarative
access to data, while extending modeling power.
● Provide upward compatibility with existing relational languages.

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 Database Engine Storage Management
■ Storage manager ■ Storage manager is a program module that provides the interface
■ Query processing between the low-level data stored in the database and the application
programs and queries submitted to the system.
■ Transaction manager
■ The storage manager is responsible to the following tasks:
● Interaction with the OS file manager
● Efficient storing, retrieving and updating of data
■ Issues:
● Storage access
● File organization
● Indexing and hashing

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Query Processing Query Processing (Cont.)

1. Parsing and translation ■ Alternative ways of evaluating a given query
2. Optimization ● Equivalent expressions
3. Evaluation ● Different algorithms for each operation
■ Cost difference between a good and a bad way of evaluating a
query can be enormous
■ Need to estimate the cost of operations
● Depends critically on statistical information about relations
which the database must maintain
● Need to estimate statistics for intermediate results to compute
cost of complex expressions

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 Transaction Management Database Users and Administrators
■ What if the system fails?
■ What if more than one user is concurrently updating the same
data?
■ A transaction is a collection of operations that performs a single
logical function in a database application
■ Transaction-management component ensures that the
database remains in a consistent (correct) state despite system
failures (e.g., power failures and operating system crashes) and
transaction failures.
■ Concurrency-control manager controls the interaction among
the concurrent transactions, to ensure the consistency of the
database. Database

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Database System Internals Database Architecture

The architecture of a database systems is greatly influenced by

the underlying computer system on which the database is running:
■ Centralized
■ Client-server
■ Parallel (multi-processor)
■ Distributed

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 History of Database Systems History (cont.)
■ 1950s and early 1960s: ■ 1980s:
● Data processing using magnetic tapes for storage ● Research relational prototypes evolve into commercial systems
4 Tapes provided only sequential access SQL becomes industrial standard
4
● Parallel and distributed database systems
● Punched cards for input
● Object-oriented database systems
■ Late 1960s and 1970s:
■ 1990s:
● Hard disks allowed direct access to data
● Large decision support and data-mining applications
● Network and hierarchical data models in widespread use
● Large multi-terabyte data warehouses
● Ted Codd defines the relational data model
● Emergence of Web commerce
4 Would win the ACM Turing Award for this work ■ Early 2000s:
4 IBM Research begins System R prototype ● XML and XQuery standards
4 UC Berkeley begins Ingres prototype ● Automated database administration
● High-performance (for the era) transaction processing ■ Later 2000s:
● Giant data storage systems
4 Google BigTable, Yahoo PNuts, Amazon, ..

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End of Chapter 1

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