A strong believer in nature would claim that all normal children achieve the same developmental

milestones at similar times .a strong believer in nurture would emphasize environment—the range of
influences outside the person,not only of the physical environment such as crowding and pollution,
but also of the social environment.
Activity- Passivity: Some theorists believe that humans are curious, active creatures who orchestrate
their own development by exploring the world around them and shaping their environment.Other
theorists view humans as passive beings shaped largely by forces beyond their control—usually
environmental
infl uences but possibly strong biological forces.
continuity–discontinuity issue focuses on whether the changes people undergo over the life span
are gradual or abrupt. Continuity theorists view human develop ment as a process that occurs in
small steps, without sudden changes.discontinuity theorists picture the course of development as
more like a series of stair steps, each of which elevates the individual to a new level of functioning.
A second aspect of the continuity–discontinuity issue focuses on whether changes are quantitative or
qualitative in nature. Quantitative changes are changes in degree and indicate continuity and
qualitative changes are changes in kind and suggest discontinuity. They are changes that make the
individual fundamentally different in some way.
continuity theorists typically hold that developmental changes are gradual and quantitative, whereas
discontinuity theorists hold that they are more abrupt and qualitative.
developmental theorists often disagree on the
universality–context-specificity issue—on the extent to which developmental changes are common
to all humans (universal) or different from person to person.

Psychoanalytic theory suggests that people are primarily motivated by unconscious emotional
conflicts and shaped by their early life experiences. At its core, this theory posits that humans have
innate biological urges that drive their behavior. These instincts serve as a source of psychic energy,
which evolves and directs behavior throughout human development. Central to Freud's theory is the
concept of unconscious motivation, wherein inner forces and instincts have a profound influence on
behavior.

Freud believed that each person has a set amount of mental energy, which is divided into three parts:
the id (impulsive), the ego (rational), and the superego (moral). Initially, all this energy is in the
impulsive id, which seeks immediate satisfaction. As children grow, the rational ego develops to find
practical ways to meet these needs, fostering patience and problem-solving. The superego, an
internal moral guide, forms as kids adopt parental values, impacting their behavior and causing guilt
for wrongdoing. Imbalances in this mental energy among these components can result in various
psychological issues.

According to Freud, psychosexual development involves the shifting of libido, or sexual energy,
from one body part to another in five distinct stages: oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital. Nature
plays a significant role, with inborn biological instincts driving behavior, but nurture, particularly
early family experiences, contributes to individual differences in personality.

At each stage, the id's impulses clash with social demands, leading to potential conflicts and anxiety
in children. The ego employs defense mechanisms to cope with this anxiety. Fixation, where libido
remains tied to an earlier stage, may occur. For example, someone fixated at the oral stage may seek
to satisfy unmet oral needs, possibly through habits like thumb-sucking or excessive talking.

Harsh punishment during the anal stage can result in fixation or other defense mechanisms. The
phallic stage (age 3-6) is a crucial period, marked by incestuous desires towards the opposite-sex
parent, resolved by identification with the same-sex parent. Adolescents face new conflicts in the
genital stage, struggling with sexuality and parental relationships. Freud believed that psychosexual
development ceased in adolescence, with the individual remaining in the genital stage throughout
adulthood.

Many experts find fault with Freud's theory because it's hard to understand, test, and prove wrong.
Freud didn't offer much solid proof for his ideas. When people did test his theory, a lot of his specific
ideas didn't hold up. Some even called it "a theory looking for evidence."

Freud once said that many of his patients were sexually or physically hurt when they were young.
But people still argue about whether this was true. Even though some of the details of Freud's theory
have problems, his general ideas about hidden thoughts, early family experiences, and emotions in
our development are still important in psychology and therapy.

Erik Erickson
• Focused on social influences over sexual urges
• Emphasized the rational ego's adaptive abilities over the impulsive id
• Viewed humans as active, rational, and capable of overcoming early setbacks
• Highlighted development beyond adolescence.

Erikson proposed that all humans go through eight key stages of psychosocial development. Success
in each stage depends on how individuals resolve specific conflicts. Failure to resolve a conflict in
one stage can affect the subsequent ones.

For example: In the first stage, trust versus mistrust, infants must rely on caregivers to meet their
needs. Trust develops when caregivers consistently respond to the infant's needs. A balanced
outcome is crucial; too much trust can lead to gullibility, while mistrust can result in skepticism.

**Subsequent Stages**
As individuals progress through the stages, successful resolution leads to self-identity, autonomy,
initiative, and industry. Adolescence brings the identity crisis, where people seek to define
themselves. Adult stages involve resolving conflicts related to intimacy, generativity, and integrity.

**Erikson's Unique Perspective**

Unlike Freud, Erikson believed that development continues into adulthood. He emphasized that both
biological maturation and social factors influence development. His theory provides valuable insights
into identity formation, especially in adolescence and issues faced in adulthood.

**Strengths and Weaknesses**

Erikson's theory is more relatable than Freud's, focusing on rational, adaptive traits influenced by
biology and society. However, like Freud, it can be vague and challenging to test. While it describes
personality development well, it lacks a precise explanation of the developmental process.

**The Learning Theory Perspective**

Watson and other behaviorists argue that development is a continuous process of behavior change
influenced by environmental factors. This perspective contrasts with stage theories like Freud's and
Erikson's, which emphasize biological maturation.

**Watson: Classical Conditioning**

John B. Watson, a behaviorist, rejected the emphasis on unobservable cognitive and emotional
processes, advocating that human development should be studied through observations of overt
behavior. Watson attempted to explain Freud's findings through basic learning principles. He
asserted that learned associations between external stimuli and observable responses are the
foundation of normal and abnormal development.

Watson's famous "Little Albert" experiment, which used classical conditioning, demonstrated that
fears are learned and not necessarily inborn. By pairing a neutral stimulus (a white rat) with a loud
noise (an unconditioned stimulus for fear), Albert learned to fear the rat alone, illustrating how
emotional responses can be learned. However, today, this experiment would be considered unethical.

Watson's theory stands in contrast to stage theorists like Freud and Erikson, viewing development as
a continuous process of behavior change influenced by the environment.

**Skinner: Operant Conditioning**

B. F. Skinner's operant conditioning theory focused on operant learning, emphasizing how behavior
is influenced by consequences. In operant conditioning, behaviors are strengthened (reinforced) by
positive or negative consequences and weakened (punished) by negative outcomes.

Reinforcement, either positive (adding a pleasant event) or negative (removing an unpleasant event),
increases the likelihood of behavior repetition. Skinner recommended continuous reinforcement for
initial learning and then transitioning to a partial reinforcement schedule to maintain behavior.
Negative reinforcement, not punishment, is about removing unpleasant situations after behavior.

Contrastingly, punishment, either positive (adding an unpleasant event) or negative (removing a

pleasant event), decreases the likelihood of behavior repetition. Extinction occurs when a behavior
no longer gets reinforced and diminishes.

While positive reinforcement and non-physical punishment are often recommended, research
suggests that frequent physical punishment can lead to negative effects, such as resentment, anxiety,
and increased aggression. Skinner's operant conditioning principles are valuable for understanding
human development but may overlook cognitive aspects, making Albert Bandura's cognitive learning
theory more appealing to contemporary developmental scholars.

Albert Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory emphasizes the role of cognitive processes in human
learning and development. Bandura recognizes that humans are different from rats due to their
advanced cognitive capabilities. He agrees with Skinner that operant conditioning is significant but
highlights how people consider the connections between their behavior and its consequences,
anticipate future outcomes, and are influenced by their beliefs. Individuals can reinforce or punish
themselves through self-criticism and self-praise, impacting their behavior. Bandura prefers the term
"social cognitive theory" over "social learning theory" to emphasize the motivating and self-
regulating role of cognition in human behavior.

Bandura emphasizes observational learning, where individuals learn by observing models (other
people). This form of learning is more cognitive than conditioning because it requires attention,
mental representation, memory, and guided behavior. It is vital in less industrialized societies where
children actively observe and learn through everyday activities.

Furthermore, Bandura introduces the concept of human agency, focusing on how people consciously
control themselves, their environments, and their lives. This cognitive control affects their behavior
and the belief in their self-efficacy to produce desired outcomes in specific areas of life. Bandura's
theory emphasizes reciprocal determinism, emphasizing the continuous, context-specific nature of
development, influenced by the interaction between personal characteristics, behavior, and the
environment.

While learning theories offer precise, testable explanations, their limitations include a lack of
comprehensive descriptions of normal human development and a neglect of biological influences.
Learning is only shown to be a possible cause of developmental change, and factors like genetics,
maturation, and previous learning history also play crucial roles in development.

Jean Piaget's constructivism theory posits that children actively construct their understanding of the
world based on their experiences. This perspective contrasts with the idea of innate ideas or passive
learning from adults. Children, according to Piaget, engage in curiosity and active exploration by
observing their surroundings, experimenting with objects, and adapting their understandings based
on their experiences. Cognitive development is a dynamic process driven by the interaction of
biological maturation and experience, particularly when there are discrepancies between the child's
understanding and reality.

Piaget proposed four major stages of cognitive development,Sensorimotor stage,Preoperational

stage,Concrete operations stage and Formal operations stage ,with each stage characterized by
unique cognitive abilities:

Despite its influence and pioneering nature, Piaget's theory has faced criticism for neglecting the role
of motivation, emotion, and the influence of more knowledgeable individuals. While Piaget's stages
are supported to some extent, the critique led to the exploration of alternative perspectives in
cognitive development, such as Vygotsky's sociocultural perspective and the information-processing
approach.
In the sociocultural perspective, Lev Vygotsky emphasized the role of culture, language, and
interactions with knowledgeable individuals in shaping cognitive development. This perspective
diverged from Piaget's notion of universal stages of cognitive development.

Systems theories of development, also known as contextual or dynamic systems theories,state that
changes throughout one's life result from the constant interactions between an evolving individual
and a changing environment. These theories emphasize that alterations in a person influence their
surroundings, and conversely, environmental changes affect the individual. In this perspective, an
individual and the physical and social contexts they engage with are interconnected parts of a larger
system. Development is not a one-way journey towards a predefined endpoint, but a process that can
follow various directions, molded by the complex interplay between biological and environmental
influences.

One proponent of this view is Urie Bronfenbrenner, whose bioecological model illustrates this
systems approach. Another key figure in this domain, Gilbert Gottlieb, a developmental
psychobiologist, underscored the significance of ongoing interactions between biological and
environmental influences. He proposed an epigenetic psychobiological systems perspective,
emphasizing that development results from the interplay of biological and environmental forces
within a broader system. This perspective challenges deterministic views by highlighting the mutual
influences of genes, neural activity, behavior, and the environment on each other.

While systems theories are valuable for appreciating the intricacies of development, they can be
critiqued for lacking a clear and universally applicable developmental framework. Some suggest a
hybrid approach that combines system perspectives with elements of stage theories to account for
both predictability and diversity in human development.