oup-eume ur PHYSICS OF THE ATMOSPHERE Knowledge Requirements 8.1 - Physics of the Atmasphere International Standard Atmosphere (ISA), application to aerodynamics, Level2 [A general knowledge ofthe theoretical and practical aspects ofthe subject and an ability to apply hat knowledge. Objectives: i) ) te a ted “The applicant shoul be able ro wederstand the theoresial fandamentals of the subject. “The applicant should be able to give a general description af the subject using, as appropriate, typical examples. “The applicant should be able te use mathematbeal formula in ‘conjunction with physical laws deseribing the subject, “The applicam should be able to read and understand skerches, drawings and schematics describing the subject “The appticant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using decaled procedures,BASIC AERODYNAMICS “Three topics that are directly related to the manufacture, operation, and repair of aircraft are: aerodynamics, aircraft assembly, and rigging. Each of these subject areas, though studied separately, eventually connect to provide a scientific and physical understanding of how an aircraft is prepared for flight. A logical place to start with these three topicsis the study of basic aerodynamics. By studying aerodynamics, a person becomes farniliar with the fundamentals of aircraft Bight. Aeradynamiesis the study of the dynamics of gases, The interaction between a moving object and the atmosphere is the primary interest in this module, The movement of an object and its reaction to the air flow around it can bbe seen when watching, water passing the bow of a ship. “The major difference between water and air is that air is compressible and water is incompressible. The action ‘of the airflow over a body is a large part of the study of aerodynamics. Some common aircraft terms, such as srudder, hull, water line, and keel beam, were borrowed from nautical terms Many textbooks have been written about the aerodynamics of aircraft flight. It is not necessary for an airframe and powerplant technician to be as knowledgeable as an aeronautical design engineer PHYSICS OF THE ATMOSPHERE Before examining the fundamental laws of flight, several basic facts must be considered. An aieraft ‘operates in the air. Therefore, those properties of air that affect the control and performance of an aircraft -mnust be understood. “The air in the earth's atmosphere is composed mostly of nitrogen and oxygen. Air is considered a fluid because it fits the definition of a substance that has the ability to flow or assume the shape of the container in which it is enclosed. If the container is heated, pressure increases; if cooled, the pressure decreases. ‘The weight of air is heaviest at sea level where it has been compressed by all of the air above. This compression of air is called atmospheric pressure. about aerodynamics. The technician must be able to understand the relationships between how an aircraft performs in flight and its reaction to the forces acting on its structural parts. Understanding why aircraft are designed with particular types of primary and secondary control systems and why the surfaces must be aerodynamically smooth becomes essential when maintaining today’s complex aircraft. ‘The theory of flight should be described in terms of the laws of flight because what happens to an aircraft when it flies is not based upon assumptions, but upon a series of facts. Aerodynamics is a study of laws which have been proven to be the physical reasons why an airplane flies. The term aerodynamics is derived from the combination of two Greek words: “aero,” meaning. air, and "dyne," meaning force of power. Thus, when "aero" joins "dynamics’ the result is "serodynamici"—the study of objects in motion through the air and the forces that produce or change such motion. Acrodynamically, an aircraft can be defined as an object traveling through space that is affected by the changes in atmospheric conditions. To state it another ‘way, aerodynamics covers the relationships between the aircraft, relative wind, and atmosphere, PRESSURE Atmospheric pressure is usually defined as the force exerted against the earth's surface by the weight of the air above that surface. Weight is force applied to an area that results in pressure. Force (F) equals area (A) times pressure (P), or F= AP. Therefore, to find the amount of pressure, divide area into force (P = F/A). A column of air (one squaze inch) extending from sea level to the top of the atmosphere weighs approximately 14.7 pounds; therefore, atmospheric pressure is stated in pounds per square inch (psi). Thus, atmospheric pressure at sea level, is 14.7 psi. (Figure 1-1) Atmospheric pressure is measured with an instrument called a barometer, composed of mercury in a tube that records atmospheric pressure in inches of mercury (Hg). (Figure 1-2)an ea) Dee Ce Figure 1-1. The weight exerted by @ 1 square inch cok ofa stretcing from sea level to the top ofthe atmosphere is wtiat is measured when It is said that atmospheric pressure is equal te 147 pounds per square inch, Figure 1-2. Barometer used to measure atmaspherie pressure. ‘The standard measurement in aviation altimeters and U.S. weather reports has been "Hg", However, world- wide weather maps and some non-U.S., manufactured aircraft instruments indicate pressure in millibars (mb), an SI metric unit, Aviators often interchange references to atmospheric pressure between linear displacement (c.g., inches of mercury) and units of force (e.g., psi). Over the years, meteorology has shifted its use of linear displacement representation of atmospheric pressure ro units of force. The unit of force nearly universally used today to represent atmospheric pressure in meteorology is the hectopascal (hPa). A pascal is a SI metric unit that expresses force in Newtons per square meter, A hectoPascal is 100 Pascals. 1 013.2 hPs is equal to 14.7 psi which is equal ro 29.92 Hg. (Figure 7-3) ‘Atmospheric Pressure | Standard atmospheric pressure al sea tevel is also Known as 1 atmosphere, or 1 alm. The following measurements of standard stmospherfc pressure ara all equat to each other. 4atm fexmosoenes sine rag2in Hg rome ce jal wnzm | 760 re Hig, es Snenen Figure 1-3. Varo equivalent represniatonsafstmospherc pressure ats eelAtmospheric pressure decreases with increasing altitude, “The simplest explanation for this is that the column of «air that is weighed is shorter. How the pressure changes for a given altitude is shown in Figure I=4. The decrease in pressure is a rapid one and, at 50 000 feet, the ‘atmospheric pressure has dropped to almost one-tenth of the sea level value, As an aircraft ascends, atmospheric pressure drops, the quantity of oxygen decreases, and temperature drops. ‘These changes in altitude affect an aircraft's performance in such areas as lift and engine horsepower. The effects of temperature, altitude, and density of air on aircraft performance are covered in the following paragraphs. DENSITY Density is weight per unit of volume. Since air is a mixture of gases, it can be compressed, If the air in one container is under half as much pressure as an equal amount of air in an identical container, the air under greater pressure is twice as dense as that in the other container. For the equal weight of air, that which is under the greater pressure occupies only half the volume of that under half the pressure. "The density of gases is governed by the following rul 1, Density varies in direct proportion with the pressure, 2, Density varies inversely with the temperature. HUMIDITY Flemidity is the amount of water vapor in the air. The maximum amount of water vapor that air can hold varies with the temperature. The higher the temperature of the ais, the more water vapor it can absorb, 1, Absolute humidity is the weight of water vapor in a unit volume of 2. Relative humidity is the ratio, in percent, of the moisture actually in the air to the moisture it would hold if it were saturated at the same temperature and pressure. Assuming that the temperature and pressure remain the same, the density of the air varies inversely with the humidity, On damp days, the air density is less than on dry days. For this reason, am aircraft requires « longer runway for takeoff on damp days than it does on dry days. +400 000 ‘50.000 I o 2 4 6 6 ® 2 Presnur pounds per square ch) Figure T-4.Atmospheric pressure decreasing with attitude. At sta lavel the pressure is 147 ps while at 40 000 fee, asthe dated lines show, the pressures aly 2.72 psi ‘Thus, air at high altitudes is less dense than air at low altitudes, and a mass of hot air is less dense than 2 mass of cool air. Changes in density affect the aerodynamic performance of aircraft with the same horsepower, An aircraft can fly faster at a high altitude where the air density is low than at a low altitude where the density is greater, This is because air offers less resistance to the aircraft when it contains a smaller number of air particles per unit of volume, By iteelf, water vapor weighs approximately five-eighths as much as an equal amount of perfectly dry air. ‘Therefore, when air contains water vapor, it is not as heavy as dry air containing no moisture.TEMPERATURE AND ALTITUDE ‘Temperature variations in the atmosphere are of concern to aviators, Weather systems produce changes in temperature near the earth’s surface. Temperature also changes as altitude is increased, ‘The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere, On average, it ranges from the earth's surface to about 38 000 feet above it. Over the poles, the troposphere extends to only 25 000 - 30 000 fect and, at the equator, it may extend to around 60 000 feet, This oblong nature of the troposphere is illustrated in Figure 1-5. Most civilian aviation takes place in the troposphere in which temperature decreases as altitude increases. ‘The rate of change is somewhat constant at about -2 °C or 3.5 °F for every 1.000 feet of increase in altitude. ‘The upper boundary of the troposphere is the tropopause, It is characterized as a zone of relatively constant temperature of -57 °C or 69°F, Above the tropopause lies the stratosphere, Temperature increases with altitude in the stratosphere to near 0 *C before decreasing again in the mesosphere, which lies above it. The stratosphere contains the ozone layer thar protects the earth's inhabitants from harmful UV (Ultraviolet) rays. Some civilian flights and numerous military flights occur in the stratosphere. Figure 1-6 diagrams the temperature variations in different layers of the atmosphere, As stated, density varies inversely with temperature or, as temperature increases, air density decreases. This phenomenon explains why on very warm days, aircraft takeoff performance decreases, The air available for combustion is less dense. Air with low density contains Jess total oxygen to combine with the fuel. Figura 1-5. The troposphere extends higher above the earth's surface at the equator than it does atthe poles, 10-80-60 40. “10 100 - 200 2 0 Temperature ‘Figure 1-6. The atmosaharic layers with temperature changes depictet by the red fine, 100 120°FINTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE ‘The atmosphere is never at rest, Pressure, temperature, Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), International humidity, and density of the air are continuously Organization for Standardization (ISO), and various changing, Te provide abasis fortheoretical calculations, governments establish and publish the values known a: performance comparisons and instrumentation parity, the International Standard Atmosphere. (Figure 1-7) standard values for these and other characteristic of the atmosphere have been developed. International oe Feet - c psi mPa ‘siugitt® ‘kon? = 0-2. £ = = 3 1 2: = = a a 2 2 s&s ee 3000 03 ot 13.17 908.11 0.002176, 12 = = 8 a me 7 000 M2 5a (843.07 0.002049 1.06 =f 3 _ es - = 4 2 = ¢ soe & i 2 = @s = ee ee 2 3 =e F 15000 55 AAT STE 0.001496. oT 20000 12:3 24.6 M654 (0.001287 O65 = 2 2 2 we 0.000 4B dd 3013 ‘o.o0nest O48 35000 5.8 4a 238.42 0.000735 On “ - 2 — 2S 45000 687 56.5 215 147.48 0.000462, 0.24 = ££ & @ ee Figure 1-7. The International Standard Atmosphere.QUESTIONS Question: 1-3 In which layer of the atmosphere does most civilian aviation take place? Question: VA Atmospheric pressure is measured with an instrament called a Question: 1-2 An aircraft can fy ata high altitude where the air density is low than at a low altitude where the air density is greater.ANSWERS Answers 14 barometer, dnswer? 1-2 faster. dnswer: 1-3 Troposphere.Sub-Module 02 AERODYNAMICS Knowledge Requirements 8.2 - Aerodynamics Airflow around a body; Boundary layer, laminar and turbulent flow, free stream flow, relative airflow, upwash and downwash, vortiées, stagnation; ‘The terms: camber, chord, mean aerodynamic chord, profile (parasite) drag, induced drag, center of pressure, angle of attack, wash in and wash out, fineness ratio, wing shape and aspect ratio; ‘Thrust, Weight, Acrodynamic Resultant; Generation of Life and Drag: Angle of Attack, Lift coefficient, Drag coefficient, polar curve, stall; Aerofoil contamination including ice, snow, frost. Level? A general knowledge-of the theoretical and practical aspects of the eubject and an ability to apply that knowledge. Objectives: fa) The applicant should be able to understand che theoretical fundamentals of the subject Xb) “The applicant should be able to give « general descsiption of the subject using, a8 appropetate, rypical exirnples, (6) The applicant shoul be able te ase mathematica! forcmla in Conjunction with physical laws describing the subject (@_ The applicant should be able ta read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the subject (c) “The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical anne: using detailed proceduresAERODYNAMICS “The law of conservation of energy states that energy may neither be created nor destroyed. Motion is the act or process of changing place or position. An object may be in motion with respect to one object and motionless ‘with respect to another. For example, @ person sitting quietly in an aircraft flying at 200 knots is at rest or motionless with respect to the aircraft; however, the person and the aircraft are in motion with respect to the air and to the earth. Air has no force or power, except pressure, unless it is in motion, When it is moving, however, its force becomes apparent, A moving object in motionless air has a force exerted on it as a result of its own motion. It makes no difference in the effect then, whether an objectis moving with respect to the air or the air is moving with respect to the object. The flow of air around an object caused by the movement of cither the air or the object, or both, is called the relative wind. VELOGITY AND ACCELERATION ‘The terms speedand velocity are often usedinterchangeably but they do not have the same meaning, Speed is the rate of motion in relation to time, and velocity is the rate of motion in a particular direction in relation to time, ‘An aircraft starts from New York City and flies 10 hours at an average speed of 260 kilometers per hour (kph), ‘At the end of this time, the aircraft may be over the ‘Atlantic Ocean, Canada the Gulf of Mexico, or, if its flight were in a circular path, it may even be back over New York City. If this same aircraft flew at a velocity of NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION "The fundamental laws governing the action of air about ‘a. wing are known as Newton's laws of motion. Newton’s first law is normally referred to as the law of inertia, It simply states that a body at rest does not mave unless force is applied to it. Ifa body is moving at uniform speed in a straight line, force must be applied to increase or decrease the speed. According to Newton’s law, since air has mass, it is a body, When an aircraft is on the ground with its engines off, inertia keeps the aircraft at cest. An aircraft is moved from its state of resthy the thrust force created by propeller, or by the expanding exhaust, ot both. When an aircraft is flying at uniform speed in a straight line, inertia tends to keep the aircraft moving. Some external force is required to change the aircraft from its path of light. Newton's second law states that if a body moving with uniform speed is acted upon by an external 260 kph in a squthwestward direction, it would arrive in Dallas, TX in about 10 hours. Only the rate of motion is indicated in the first example and denotes the speed of the aircraft, In the lastexample, the particular direction is included with the rate of motion, thus, denoting the velocity of the aircraft. Auseeration's defined as the rate of change of velocity. An aircraft increasing in velocity is an example of positive acceleration, while another aircraft reducing its velocity is an example of negative acceleration, or deceleration, force, the change of motion is proportional to the amount of the force, and motion takes place in the direction in which the force acts. This law may be stated mathematically as follows: Force = muss * acceleration (F = ma) Lf an aircraft is flying against a headwind, it is slowed down, If the wind is coming from either side of the aircraft's heading, the aircraft is pushed off course unless the plot takes corrective action against the wind direction. Newton's third law is the law of action and reaction. “This law states that for every action (force) there is an equal and opposite reaction (forse). This law can be illustrated by the example of firing a gun. The action is the forward movement of the bullet while the reaction is the backward recoil of the pun. The three laws of motion ‘that have been discussed apply to the theory of flight. In many cases, all three laws may be operating on an aiscraft at the same time.Bemoulli’s principle states that when a fluid (ais) lowing ‘through a tube reaches a constriction, of narrowing, of the tube, the speed of the fluid flowing through that constriction increases and its pressure decreases. The cambered (curved) surface of an airfoil (wing) affects the airflow exactly as a constriction in a tube affects airflow. (Figure 2-2) Diagram A of Figure 2-1 illustrates the ‘effect of air passing through @ constriction in a tube, In B, air is flowing past a cambesed surface, such as an airfoil, and the effect is similar to that of air passing through a restriction. ‘An airfoil ig a surface designed to obtain lift from the air through which it maves. As the air flows over the curved “upper surface of an airfoil, its velocity increases and its pressure decreases; an area of low pressure is formed. ‘There is an arca of greater pressure on the lower surface of the airfoil, and this greater pressure tends to move the wing upward. The difference in pressure between the upper and lower surfaces of the wing is called Aft ‘Three-fourths of the total lift of an airfoil is the result of the decrease in pressure over the upper surface. The ‘impact of air on the lower surface of an airfoil produces the other one-fourth of the total lift. Note that in order to fit the model of Bernoulli's Principle, the airflow over the wing surfaces must be Jaminar, Laminar air flow refers to airflow that is flowing Bo teotae in a consistent smooth stream. Turbulent flow is also possible. This is where the air flowing over the surface ro longer so closely adheres to it. The flow is thicker and faster, however, some lift is produced, When the airflow actually separates from the surfice of a wing, a different type of turbulence occurs. This type of turbulence docs not produce lift and Bernoulli's Principle does not apply. ‘More discussion of these phenomena accur below in the section entitled Boundary Layer and Friction Effects. Free stream airflow is air flowing without obstruction before it engages the aircraft structure. ‘The velocity of the free stream flow is equal to the speed aircraft. The pressure of the free stream airflow is static pressure. When the free stream flow arrives at the aircraft structure, sich as the wing, it must flow around the surface areas, As it does so, the pressure and velocity of the air change depending on the shape of the wing. ‘There is a point in front of the structure, however, where the velocity of the air is zero. This is known as the point of stagnation. ‘Typical airflow patterns show the relationship between static pressure and velocity defined by Bernoulli. In aemdynamics, when positive pressure is mentioned, it refers to pressures above atmospheric pressure, Neg: pressure or suction pressure is lower than atmospheric pressure, Any object placed in an airstream will have Figure 2-1, Bernoull’s Principle.the air impact or stagnate at some point near the leading edge. The pressure at this point of stagnation will be an absolute static pressure equal to the total pressure of the airstream, In other words, the static pressure at the stagnation point will be greater than the atmospheric pressure by the amount of the dynamic pressure of the airstream. As the flow divides and proceeds around the object, the increases in local velocity produce decreases in static pressure. This procedure of flow is best illustrated by the flow patterns and pressure distributions of Figure 2-2. Note that the 'streamlines’ in the diagram show the velocity of the airflow. When they are close together, high velocity exists at that point and when they are far apart, low velocity exists at that point. The vector acrows in the diagram show the magnitude and direction of the low pressure caused by the increased velocity of the airflow. Because the object in Figure 2-2 is a symmetrical airfoil, the selative airflow stziking it flows above and below the airfoil in the same manner. The pressures are the same and no lift is produced. By reshaping the airfoil or by tilting it in relation to the relative airflow, uneven flow over the upper and lower surfaces oecurs. This causes uneven pressure above and below the airfoil which results in the creation of lift. Simply by tilting the same symmetrical airfoil, an inerease in upper surface suction ‘occurs and the decreased in velocity on the lower surface causes a decrease in lower surface suction. Also, upwash is generated ahead of the airfoil, the forward stagnation point moves under the leading edge, and a downwash is evident aft of the airfoil. (Upwash and downwash are the deflection directions of the air as it negotiates its path around the airfoil.) The pressuze distribution on the airfoil now provides a net force perpendicular to the airstream in the upward direct. ‘This is lift. (Figure 2-3) ‘The creation of lift is discussed in greater detail below. Figure 2-2: Velocty distribution of allow over asymmetrical all op; ‘and the resting pressure (bottom), Figure 2:3, Uneven aio, uneven pressure, up-wash and down-wash are all caused by titing the aro in relation tothe free steam alow. BOUNDARY LAYER AND FRICTION EFFECTS In the study of physics and fluid mechanies, a boundary layer is that layer of fluid in the immediate ¥: of a bounding surface. In relation to an aireraft, the boundary layer is the part of the airflow closest to the surface of the aircraft. In designing high-performance aircraft, considerable attention is paid to controlling the behavior of the boundary layer to minimize pressure drag and skin friction drag. Because air has viscosity (internal resistance to flow), air encounters resistance to flow over a surface, The viscous mature of airflow reduces the local velocities on a surface and aceounts for the drag of skin friction. The retardation of air particles due to viscosity is greatest immediately adjacent to the surface. At the very surface of an object, the air particles are slowed to a relative velocity of near zero. Above this area other particles experience successively smaller retardation until finally, ‘at some distance abave surface, the local velocity reaches the full value of the airstream above the surface.This layer of air over the surface which shows local retardation of airflow from viscosity is the boundary layer, The characteristics of this boundary layer are illustrated in Figure 2-4 with the flow of air over a smooth flat plate. ‘The beginning flow on a smooth surface gives evidence of a very thin boundary layer with the flow occurring in smooth laminations. The boundary layer flow near the lending edge is similar to layers or laminations of air sliding smoothly over one another. The term for this type of flow is the "laminar" boundary layer as mentioned previously. This smooth laminar flow exists without the air particles moving from a given elevation above the surface. ‘As the flow continues back from the leading edge, friction forces in the boundary layer continue to dissipate energy of the airstream and the laminar boundary layer increases in thickness with distance from the leading edge. After some distance back from the leading edge, the laminar boundary layer begins an oscillatory disturbance which is unstable. A waviness occurs in the laminar boundary layer which ultimately grows larger and more severe and destroys the smooth laminar flow, Thus, transition takes place in which the laminar boundary layer decays into a "turbulent" boundary layer. The same sort of transition can be noticed in the smoke from a cigarette in still air. At, first, the smoke ribbon is smooth and laminar, then it develops a definite waviness and decays into a random turbulent smoke pattern, As soon as the transition to the turbulent boundary layer takes place, the boundary layer thickens and grows at a more rapid rate, (The small scale, turbulent flow within the boundary layer should not be confused ‘with the large scale turbulence associated with airflow separation.) The flow in the turbulent boundary layer allows the air particles to travel trom one layer to another producing an enesgy exchange. However, some small laminar flow continues to exist in the very lower Jevels of the turbulent boundary layer and is referred to as the “laminar sub-layes." ‘The turbulence which exists in the turbulent boundary layer allows determination of the point of transition, by several means. Since the turbulent boundary layer transfers heat more easily than the laminar layer, frost, ‘water, and oil films will be removed more rapidly from Turboian Boundary Layer Comparison of Velocity Profiles for Laminar and Turbulent Boundary Layers: Laminar Profile Turoant Profle Low Thickness: Low Velocities Neat to Surface + Gradual Velocity Change ~ Low Sn Friction ~GrenterThickness ~ Higher Velocities Nex to Surface ~Sharpeloaty Change Higher Sin Friction Figure 2-4, Boundary Layer Characteristics.the area aft of the éransition point. Also, a small probe As a result of these differences, a comparison shows: may be attached to a stethoscope-and positioned at 1, The turbulent boundary layer has a fuller various points along a surface. When the probe is in the laminar area, a low "hiss' will be heard. When the probe is in the turbulent area, a sharp "crackling" will ‘be audible. In order to compare the characteristics of the laminar and turbulent boundary layers, the velocity profiles (the variation of boundary layer velocity with height above the surface) should be compared under conditions which could produce either laminar or turbulent Aow. The typical laminacand turbulent profiles are shown in Figure 2-4, The velacity profile of the turbulent boundary layer shows a much sharper initial change of velocity buta greater height (or boundary layer thickness) required to reach the free stream velocity. Tapered Leecing Eas, ‘epered Leading and ‘Straight Trang Ege Taling Edges p Rectanguar Wing velocity profile and has higher local velocities immediately adjacent to the surface, The turbulent boundary layer has higher kinctic energy in the airflow next to the surface. . At the surface, the laminar boundary layer has the less rapid change of velocity with distance above the surface. Since the shearing stress is proportiona to the velocity gradient, the lower velocity gradient of the laminar boundary layer is evidence of a lowe: friction drag on the surface. In conditions of flow where a turbulent and a laminar boundary layer ear exist, the laminar skin frietion is about one-third that for turbulent flow. And while the low friction drag of the laminar boundary layer is desirable, the transition to turbulent boundary layer flow is natural and largely inevitable. atta Wing =— Straight Luading Edge, Tapaeed Traling Eage Figure 2-5, Various. wing planforms.PLANFORM AND VORTICES ‘The previous discussion of aerodynamic forces concerned the properties of airfoil sections in two-dimensional flow with no consideration given to the influence of the planform. ‘The planform is the shape or outline of an aircraft wing as projected onto a horizontal plane, (Figure 2-5} When the effects of wing planform are introduced, attention must be directed to the existence of flow components in the span-wise direction. In other words, the airfoil section properties considered thus far deal with flow in two dimensions. Planform properties consider flow in three dimensions. The pressure above the wing is less than atmospheric pressure, and the pressure below the wing is equal to or greater than atmospheric pressure. Since fluids always move from high pressure toward low pressure, in addition to the movement of air over the wing from front to rear, there is also a spanwise movement of air from the bottom of the wing outward from the fuselage and upward around the wing tip. This flow of air results in spillage over the wing tip, thereby setting up a whirlpool of air called a "vortex." (Figure 2-6) The plural of vortex is vortices. As the difference in the pressure between the air on the bottom and top of the wing increases, more lift is generated. This increased pressure differential also causes more violent vortices. Small aircraft pilots must be especially vigilant when ying behind large aircraft. The vortices coming off the wingtips of a transport euregory aircraft could cause loss of control if encountered before they have had time to dissipate into the atmosphere. Note that the air on the upper surface of the wing planform has a tendency to move in toward the fuselage and off the trailing edge as shown by the blue arrows in Figure 2-6. “This air current forms a similar vortex to a wingtip vortex but at the inner portion of the trailing edge of the wing. All vortices increase drag because of the turbulence produced, and constitute induced drag, Vortices increase as lift (and drag) increase. Drag will be discussed in farther detail later in this module Just as lift increases by increasing of the angle of the airfoil into the wind, drag also increases as the angle becomes greater. This occurs because, within limits, as the angle is increased, the pressure difference between the top and bottom of the wing becomes greater. This causes more violent vortices to be set up, resulting in more turbulence and more induced drag. Figure 2-6, Wingtip vertices, AERODYNAMIC TERMS Before continuing the discussion on aerodynamics, some terms are defined and illustrations considered. “The chord of a wing is the width of the wing from the leading edge apex ta the trailing edge. A chord line is aline depicting the chord which extends forward of the leading edge. Tt is used for angular reference to the chord. (Figure 2-9) The average chord is the area of the wing divided by the wing span. The mean aerodynamic chord is the average distance from the leading edge to the trailing edge of the wing. Due to the many wing planform designs, the mean aerodynamic chord is not necessarily half way from the fuselage tothe wing tip as it is on a perfectly rectangular wing. However, the mean aerodynamic chord has half of the surface areaFigure 2-7, Mean aerodynamic chord (MAC), of the wing on each side of it. (Figure 2-7) The mean aerodynamic chord is used by aerodynamicists when calculating stability and other design factors. The acute angle the wing chord makes with the Jongitudinal axis of the aircraft is called the angle of incidence, or the angle of wing setting. (Figure 2-8) ‘The angle of incidence in most cases is a fixed, built-in angle. When the leading edge of the wing is higher than the trailing edge, the angle of incidence is said to be positive, The angle of incidence is negative when Leading the leading edge is lower than EE: the trailing edge of the wing, _crmatine Leong Ene Other unique features of wings include wash in and wash out. A wing does not have to be constructed at in a single plain, A wing may be twisted from root to tip AIRFOILS Since an airfoil is a surface designed to obtain lift from the air through which it moves, it can be stated that any past of the aireraft that converts air resistance into Lift is an airfoil. The profile of a conventional wing is an excellent example of an airfoil. (Figure 2-10) Notice that the top surface of the wing profile has greater curvature than the lower surface. Figure 2-8, Angle of incidence. in order to provide better aerodynamic characteristics especially stall characteristics. When a wing is twisted down at the tip so that the angle of incidence is less at the wingtip than it is at the wing root, it is called washout. If the wing is twisted in the opposite dizeetion so that the wing tip angle of incidence is greater than at the wing root, it's called wash in. Refer to Figure 2-9 to. clarify the following terms. The camber of a wing is the curve of the upper wing surface. ‘The lower surface of the wing also has camber. The mean camber line lies within the wing half way between the upper camber and the lower camber. Maximum camber is located where the mean camber line is the greatest distance from the chord line. = Maximum Thickness Upper Surface | Lnoation ot —| ‘Max Tickness_| |-—_ Location of Maximum Camber Figure 2-9, Chord and camber ofa wing, The difference in curvature of the upper and lower surfaces of the wing creates the lifting force. Air flowing over the top surface of the wing must reach the trailing edge of the wing in the same amount of time as the air flowing under the wing, To do this, the air passing over the top surface moves at a greater velocity than the air passing below the wing because of the greater distance it must travel along the top surface. This increased velocity, according to Bernoulli’s Principle, means a corsesponding decrease in pressure on the upper surface.135mph 1454 ee 400 mph 14.7 ne 105mpn 1467 tone Figure 2-10. Allow aver a wing section, ‘Thus, a pressure differential is created between the upper and lower surfaces of the wing, forcing the wing upward in the direction of the lower pressure, ‘SHAPE OF THE AIRFOIL Individual airfoil section properties ditter trom those properties of the entire wing or aircraft as a whole ‘because of the effect of the wing planform. A wing may have various airfoil sections from root to tip, with taper, twist, and sweepback. The resulting aerodynamic properties of the wing are determined by the action. of each section along the span. The shape of the airfoil determines the amount of turbulence of skin friction that it produces, consequently. affecting the efficiency of the wing. Turbulence and skin Friction axe controlled mainly by the jfneness ratic, which is defined as the ratio of the chord of the airfoil to its maximum thickness, If the wing has a high fineness ratio, it is a very thin wing. A thick wing has a low fineness ratio, A wing with a high fineness ratio produces a large amount of skin friction. A wing with a low fineness ratio produces a large amount of turbulence. The best wing is a compromise between these two extremes to hold both turbulence and skin friction to a minimum. Figure 2-11 illustrates a wide variety of airfoil shapes. High-lift wings and high-lift devices for wings have been developed by shaping the airfoils to produce the desired effect. The amount of lift produced by an aicfoil increases with an increase in wing camber. As stated, camber refers to the curvature of an airfoil surface above and below the chord line. Upper camber refers to the upper surface, lower camber to the lower surface, and mean camber to the mean line of the section. Camber is positive when departure from the chord line is outward and negative when itis inward. Thus, high-lift wings have a large positive camber on the upper surface and a slightly negative camber on the lower surface, ssl Ato Aster atoll ‘ark Air (Susonie) Laminar Flow Aitoa ‘Gubsoeie) ‘irate a Ar (Supersonic) Dowas wes i Sunersania SS Figure 2-11, Ato designs, Wing flaps cause an ordinary wing to approximate this same condition by increasing the upper camber and by creating a negative lower camber, It is also known that the larger the wingspan, as compared to the chord, the greater the lift obtained, This comparison is called aspect ratio, The higher the aspect ratio, the greater the lift. In spite of the benefits from an increase in aspect ratio, there are definite limitations defined by structural and drag considerations. On the other hand, an airfoil that is perfectly streamlined and offers little wind resistance sometimes does not have enough lifting power to take the aircraft off the ground. Thus, modem aircraft have airfoils which strike a medium between extremes, the shape depending on the purposes of the aircraft for which it is designed. AIRFOIL CONTAMINATION Alldiscussion of erodynamicbehaviorofairfoils assures that the aircraft airfoils are free of contamination. Some of the most common forms of contamination are ice, snow and frost. Each of these, if accumulated on the aircraft, will reduce its capacity to develop lift. Tce commonly changes the shape of the airfoil which disrupts airflow and make it less efficient. Snow, ice, and especially frost, alter the smooth even surface that normally promotes laminar airflow, Laminar airflow is required to set up the pressure differential between the lower and upper wing surfaces that creates Iift, All snow and ice must be completely removed from. any aircraft before flight. Frost must also be removed. While it appears insignificant, the disruption to airflow caused by frost is possibly the most dangerous.If ice is allowed to accumulate on the aircraft during, Aight (Figare2-12), the weight of the aircraftisinereased while the ability to generate lift is decreased. As litte as 0.8 millimeter of ice on the upper wing surface increases drag and reduces aircraft lift by 25 percent. THRUST, WEIGHT, LIFT AND DRAG There are four forces that act upon an aircraft in flight: thrust, weight, lift and drag. A brief description of each is given, A discussion of angle of attack, lift and drag, follows, Further exploration of the relationship between the four forces of flight occurs in Sub-Medule 03. 1. Thrust—the force that moves the aircraft forward. ‘Thrustis the forward force produced by the powerplant that overcomes the force of drag. 2. Gravity or weight—the force that pulls the aireraft toward the earth. Weight is the force of geavity acting downward upon everything that goes into the aircraft, such as the aircraft itself, crew, fuel, and cargo. 3, Liftthe force that pushes the aircraft upward. Lift acts vertically and counteracts the effects of weight. 4, Drag—the force that exerts a braking aetion to hold the airoraft back, Drag is a backward deterrent force and is caused by the disruption of the airflow by the wings, fuselage, and protruding objects. Figure 2-13 illustrates the vectors of these four forces. ‘Lhey are in pertect balance only when the aircraft is in straight-and-level unaccelerated fight. AERODYNAMIC RESULTANT An aircraft in Aight is continuously affected by thrust, weight, life and drag. The directions in which the forces act is known. The magnitude of the forces can be calculated. When the forces are not in balance, a resultant or resulting force will exist. This is the combined force of all of the forces acting on the aircraft. In all types of flying, flight calculations are based on the magnitude and direction of the four forces. ‘The forces of lift and drag are the direct result of the relationship between the relative wind and the aircraft. “The force of lift always acts perpendicular to the relative wind, and the force of drag always acts parallel to and in the same direction as the relative wind. These forces a Figure 2-12. In-ight ice formation adds weight, increases drag and reduces lit are actually the components that produce a resultant lift force on the wing. (Figure 2-14) > Figure 2-13, Forces in action during flight. Figure 214. Resultant of lit and drag.