Exogenic processes

• Exogenic : Processes occuring on the Earth’s surface and that generally

reduce relief.
• Exogenic processes include geological phenomena and processes that
originate externally to the Earth’s surface. They are genetically
related to the atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere, and therefore
to processes of weathering, erosion, transportation, deposition,
denudation etc.
• The earth’s surface is composed of water and landmasses. The solid
portion is made out of rocks and minerals that could experience
changes either physically or chemically. The weathered materials are
transported by different agents from one place to another and will
settle down in a particular area. These progressions that happen are
achieved by forms called exogenic processes. It includes weathering,
erosion, and deposition.
• Weathering, mass wasting, erosion, and deposition are
the main exogenic processes.
• All the exogenic processes are covered under a general
term- denudation, which means strip off or uncovers.
WEATHERING

• Weathering is the action of elements of weather and climate over

earth material.
• It can be defined as mechanical disintegration and chemical
decomposition of rocks through the actions of various elements of
weather and climate.
• When rocks undergo weathering, some minerals are removed
through chemical/ physical leaching by groundwater and thereby
the concentration of remaining (valuable) minerals increase.
• Weathering can be classified as – physical, chemical and
biological:
1.PHYSICAL/MECHANICAL WEATHERING

• Physical or mechanical weathering processes depend on some applied

forces.
• The applied forces could be (i) gravitational forces such as overburden
pressure, load, and shearing stress; (ii) expansion force due to
temperature changes, crystal growth or animal activity; (iii) water
pressure controlled by wetting and drying cycles.
• Causes: Most of the physical weathering are caused by thermal
expansion and pressure
A) UNLOADING AND EXPANSION

• Removal of overlying rock load because of continued erosion causes vertical

pressure release.
• Thus, the upper layers of the remaining rock expand to produce disintegration of
rock masses.
• Fractures will develop roughly parallel to the ground surface.
• In areas of curved ground surfaces, arched fractures tend to produce massive sheets
or exfoliated slabs.
• Exfoliation is a result but not a process. Flaking off of more or less curved sheets of
shells from over rocks or bedrocks results in smooth and rounded surfaces.
• So, unloading and expansion create largely, smooth rounded domes called
exfoliation domes
B) TEMPERATURE CHANGES ABD EXPANSION

• With rising in temperature, every mineral expands and pushes

against its neighbour and as the temperature falls, a
corresponding contraction takes place.
• Due to differential heating and the resulting expansion and
contraction of surface layers and their subsequent exfoliation
from the surface results in smooth rounded surfaces in rocks.
• In rock like granites, smooth-surfaced and rounded small to big
boulders called tors form due to such exfoliation.
C) FREEZING,THAWING AND FROST WEDGING

• Cycles of freezing and thawing (the weather becomes warmer and

causes snow and ice to melt) cause frost weathering.
• It is most effective at high elevations in mid-latitude where freezing
and melting is often repeated.
• Rapid freezing of water causes its sudden expansion and high
pressure. The resulting expansion affects joints, cracks, and small
intergranular fractures to become wider and wider till the rock breaks
apart
D) SALT WEATHERING
• Salts in rocks expand due to thermal action, hydration and
crystallization.
• Many salts like calcium, sodium, magnesium, potassium and
barium have a tendency to expand.
• The expansion depends on temperature and thermal properties.
High temperature ranges between 30-50 0 C of surface
temperatures in desert favours such salt expansions.
• Salt crystallization is the most effective of all salt weathering
processes. It is favoured in areas of alternative wetting and drying
conditions.
2. CHEMICAL WEATHERING

• Chemical weathering can be due to solution, carbonation,

hydration or oxidation/reduction.
A) SOLUTION
• When something is dissolved in water or acids, the water or acid with dissolved
content is called a solution.
• This process involves the removal of solids in solution and depends upon the
solubility of a mineral in water or weak acids.
• When coming into contact with water, many solids disintegrate and mix up as a
suspension in water.
• Soluble rock-forming minerals like nitrates, sulphates, potassium etc are
affected by this process.
• This kind of weathering mainly occurs in a rainy
• Minerals like calcium carbonate and magnesium bicarbonate present in
limestone are soluble in water containing carbonic acid (formed with the
addition of carbon dioxide in water) and are carried away in the water as a
solution.
• Common salt is also a rock-forming mineral and is susceptible to this process of
solution.
B) CARBONATE
• Carbonation is the reaction of carbonate and bicarbonate with
minerals and is a common process helping to break down feldspar and
carbonate minerals.
• Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and soil air is absorbed by water
to form carbonic acid that acts as a weak acid.
• Calcium carbonates and magnesium carbonates are dissolved in
carbonic acid and are removed in a solution without leaving any
residue resulting in cave formation.
C) HYDRATION
• Hydration is the chemical addition of water.
• Minerals take up water and expand; this expansion causes an
increase in the volume of the material itself or rock.
• The process is reversible and long, continued repetition of this
process causes fatigue in the rocks and may lead to their
disintegration.
• G. Calcium sulphate takes in water and turns to gypsum, which is
more unstable than calcium sulphate.
D) OXIDATION AND REDUCTION
• In weathering, oxidation means a combination of a mineral with
oxygen to form oxides or hydroxides.
• Minerals most commonly involved in this are iron, manganese,
sulphur etc.
• The red colour of the iron upon oxidation turns to brown and
yellow.
• In this process of oxidation, rock breakdown occurs due to the
disturbance caused by the addition of oxygen.
• When oxidized minerals are placed in an environment where
oxygen is absent, reduction takes place.
3. BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING
• This kind of weathering is caused by several biological activities like the
growth or movements of organisms.
• They also bring conditions for physical or chemical weathering.
• Grazing of animals, ploughing by human beings etc are examples of biological
weathering.
• Biological weathering is the alteration of rock by the action of plants,
animals, and man. Burrowing and wedging by organisms like earthworms,
termites, rodents, etc., help in exposing the rock surfaces to chemical
changes with the penetration of moisture and air. Human beings by removing
vegetation for agriculture and other activities also help in mixing and
creating new contacts between air, water, and minerals in the rock materials.
Plant roots make a great pressure on the rock materials mechanically
breaking them apart.
There are mainly 4 Agents of Biological Weathering that are
responsible for the Weathering process.
1. Animals
2. Microorganisms
3. Plants
4. Humans
Some examples of biological Weathering
MASS MOVEMENTS

• Mass Movements
• These movements transfer the mass of rock debris down the slope under
the direct influence of gravity.
• Mass movements are very active over weathered slopes rather than over
unweathered slopes.
• Usual geographic agents like running water, glaciers, wind, waves etc do
not have much role to play in mass movements, and it is gravity, which is
the main driving force.
• Mass movements are classified into slow movements and rapid
movements.
Types of Mass Movement
 1. SLOW MASS MOVEMENTS

A) CREEP
• It occurs on moderately steep, soil-covered
slopes (doesn’t need to be lubricated with
water as in solifluction).The movement is
extremely slow and imperceptible except
through extended observation. We might
notice that some of the electric posts in our
region which are posted in sloppy areas
deviated from their horizontal linearity. This
is an effect of creep.
• B) SOLIFLUCTION
• It is the process of slow downslope flowing of
soil mass or fine-grained rock debris saturated
or lubricated with water. It can be said as a
type of creep with lubricated water influences
the movement. It mainly occurs in permafrost
regions as the layers of groundwater are
occupied in between permanently frozen soil
and rocks.
 2) RAPID MASS MOVEMENT

• A) EARTHFLOW:
• The movement of water-saturated clayey or
silty earth materials down low angle terraces
or hillsides is called earthflow.
• B) MUDFLOW:
• In the absence of vegetation and
cover and with heavy rainfall, thick
layers of weathered materials get
saturated with water and either
slow or rapidly flow down along
definite channels is called as a
mudflow.
• C) DEBRIS AVALANCHE:
• It is more in humid regions with
or without vegetation. It occurs
in narrow tracks on steep slopes
and is similar to snow avalanche.
D) LANDSLIDE
In landslides, the materials involved are relatively dry irrespective of the
above said rapid mass movements. Landslides can be classified into a
slump, debris slide, rockslide etc
• Slump: It is a type of landslide in which the slipping of several units of
rock debris occurs with a backward rotation with respect to the slope
over which the movement takes place.
• Debris slide: In this type of landslide, there is no backward rotation.
The fall is almost vertical.
• Rockslide: It is nothing but the slide of individual rock masses.
EROSION AND DEPOSITION

• Erosion is the acquisition and transportation of rock debris by

geomorphic agents like running water, the wind, waves etc.Though
weathering aids erosion, it is not a pre-condition for erosion to
takes place. (i.e., erosion can take place in unweathered
conditions also)
• The deposition is a consequence of erosion. The erosional agents
lose their velocity and energy on gentle slopes and materials
carried by them start to settle themselves.
• Note: Deposition is not the work of any agents. It is just the end
result of erosion.
• Running water
• Running water is the dominant agent of erosion. When it
rains, loose material is picked up and carried along by
the rainwater running off the surface. As the runoff
enters streams, it carries some of the loose weathered
material along with it as mud, silt, sand, and pebbles.
• Groundwater
• Groundwater is the most valuable resource for any
country. The rain water that falls on the earth either runs
off as surface water or percolates into the ground to
recharge the groundwater. The permeable rocks that can
hold water and allow water to pass through them are
called aquifers. The upper part of the saturated zone of
the aquifer is called the water table. The level of water
table fluctuates according to seasons
• Glacier

• A glacier is a huge mass of ice that moves slowly along the mountain
slope. The term “glacier” comes from the French word glace which
means ice. Glaciers are often called “rivers of ice”. It forms where the
accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation over many years.

• Waves and Currents

• Coastal erosion is initiated by the movement of water in the form of

high waves and strong currents.
• Deposition occurs where the water motion slows.The smallest particles,
such as silt and clay, are deposited away from shore. This is where the
water is calmer. Larger particles are deposited onshore.
• Wind and Currents

• Wind erosion is a natural process that moves soil from one location to
another by wind power.
• Deposition. Like water, when wind slows down it drops the sediment it’s
carrying. This often happens when the wind has t
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