Cartography and Geographic Information Science

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Beyond mapping: extend the role of cartographers

to user interface designers in the Metaverse using
virtual reality, augmented reality, and mixed
reality

Ming-Hsiang Tsou & Christian Mejia

To cite this article: Ming-Hsiang Tsou & Christian Mejia (17 Oct 2023): Beyond mapping: extend
the role of cartographers to user interface designers in the Metaverse using virtual reality,
augmented reality, and mixed reality, Cartography and Geographic Information Science, DOI:
10.1080/15230406.2023.2264748

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Published online: 17 Oct 2023.

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CARTOGRAPHY AND GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SCIENCE
https://doi.org/10.1080/15230406.2023.2264748

Beyond mapping: extend the role of cartographers to user interface designers in

the Metaverse using virtual reality, augmented reality, and mixed reality
Ming-Hsiang Tsou and Christian Mejia
The Center for Human Dynamics in the Mobile Age, Department of Geography, San Diego State University, CA, USA

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Dr. Buttenfield led the user evaluation and user interface design/improvement tasks in the Received 11 August 2022
Alexandra Digital Library (ADL) Project from 1994 to 1998 funded by the National Science Accepted 3 July 2023
Foundation in the U.S. Her research efforts in the ADL extended the role of cartographers from KEYWORDS
traditional map designers to web-based user interface and user experiences (UI/UX) designers. This User interface design;
paper will highlight key concepts and design principles (including user center design (UCD), extended reality; virtual
usability testing, and user interface evaluation) in the ADL project and re-investigate these reality; augmented reality;
pioneering research topics in cartography with recent development of the Metaverse and human- the Metaverse
computer interaction (HCI) using Extended Reality (XR), including Virtual Reality, (VR), Augmented
Reality (AR), and Mixed Reality (MR). The new role of cartographers today includes user interface
designers and usability evaluators using XR-enabled mapping tools and technologies. This paper
will discuss cartographic research challenges and opportunities in the era of the Metaverse and
highlight some software issues for cartographers to develop 3D or 4D web GIS applications.

1. Introduction “canvas” for the next generation of cartographers.

Cartographers can utilize new visual clues, new visual
Cartographers create maps and visual graphs to repre­
variables, and new color schemes, to represent dynamic
sent our real and imagined world (Dent et al., 2009).
and immersive virtual environments (VE) (Klippel
Cartographers are early pioneers in the field of data
et al., 2019; Zhao et al., 2020). For example, a new
science and data analytics, transforming various raw
color scheme for 4D buildings (with different construc­
datasets into clear and easy-to-understand maps or
visualization graphs. Traditional cartographic research tion years) (Chen et al., 2013) can add aura (surround­
emphasizes the effectiveness of visual communication ing) lights with unique colors to specific years. These
and pattern discovery using visual clues, visual variables, 3D/4D mapping environments can facilitate the
color schemes, and change detection methods. Several explorations of hidden spatiotemporal patterns and
map design and visualization principles focus on two- associations among different objects, map layers, and
dimensional (2D) visualization, displayed on 2D papers geographic information systems (GIS) models.
or computer screens, with static snapshots from spatial Recently, another new term, the Metaverse, has inspired
datasets. In the field of multimedia cartography, some cartographers and scientists to create interactive, com­
researchers focus on three-dimensional (3D) visualiza­ munity-oriented, and multi-user web GIS applications
tion with dynamic user interactions (Edler & using XR technologies. The knowledge of user-centered
Dickmann, 2017; Horbiński & Zagata, 2022; Stock design (UCD), user experiences (UX), and usability
et al., 2013; Weber et al., 2010). testing are essential in developing effective XR-enabled
Several cartographic research projects in 3D and 4D mapping environments in the Metaverse. Users can
(adding a temporal dimension) visualization studied wear AR, MR, or VR devices to “enter” an immersive
human-computer interaction (HCI) and Extended world connected with many other users to collaborate
Reality (XR) (Çöltekin et al., 2020). XR is an umbrella together or to play games together.
technological term to include Virtual Reality (VR) One of the early pioneers studying user-centered
(Edler et al., 2019; Lee et al., 2020; Yang et al., 2018), design and usability testing in cartography is
Augmented Reality (AR) (Hedley et al., 2002), and Dr. Barbara P. Buttenfield, who led the user evaluation
Mixed Reality (MR) (Lonergan & Hedley, 2014). The and user interface design/improvement tasks in the
XR-enabled mapping environment becomes a new Alexandra Digital Library (ADL) Project from 1994 to

CONTACT Ming-Hsiang Tsou [email protected]

© 2023 Cartography and Geographic Information Society
2 M.-H. TSOU AND C. MEJIA

1998, funded by the National Science Foundation in the the system. Knowledge gained from these evaluation
U.S (Buttenfield & Kumler, 1996). Her research efforts activities is used to inform the design and implementa­
in the ADL extended the role of cartographers from tion of ADL, and to document in detail the effectiveness of
traditional map designers to user interface designers, ADL and areas calling for improvement, both in the
focusing on web-based user interfaces and user experi­ interface design and in the underlying system function­
ences (UI/UX). This paper will highlight the key con­ ality and content.” (Cited from the archived ADL web­
cepts and design principles (including user center site: https://nideffer.net/proj/ADL/frames2.html). More
design, usability testing, and user interface evaluation) detailed research findings from the ADL evaluation
in the ADL project (Buttenfield, 1999) and re- team are highlighted in Section 4.
investigate these pioneering research topics today in The Alexandria Digital Library (ADL) project focused
the new 3D/4D environments using XR technologies on creating a distributed, web-based digital library for
(such as VR, AR, and MR). accessing georeferenced maps, images, aerial photos, text,
With the new development of XR-enabled technolo­ and other materials. The ADL project illustrated a digital
gies, cartographers are equipped with new tools and new library framework for heterogeneous spatial referenced
data sources (via wireless sensors, smart phones, and information, which can be accessed via web browsers.
unmanned aerial vehicles) to represent our real or ima­ Back in 1994, many important collections of geospatial
gined world. The role of cartographers has extended to information, such as maps, photographs, atlases, and
user interface designers and usability evaluators, who gazetteers, were stored in a non-digital form and difficult
could re-invent cartographic design principles for XR- to access. The ADL project provided a new web-based
enabled GIS applications, such as dynamic 3D informa­ framework for uploading these collections on-line. It also
tion portals, interactive visual communication maps, provided information indexing, searching, retrieving,
and augmented street navigation systems. and accessing services to researchers and the public
This paper will first introduce the major research (Buttenfield, 1998; Buttenfield & Goodchild, 1996).
contributions from Dr. Buttenfield and then focus on The major scientific contribution of the ADL project
the introduction of XR technologies and the Metaverse. is the development of geospatial-oriented online infor­
The later sections will provide updates about the state-of mation retrieval (IR) research framework using a digital
-the-art VR and AR software commonly adopted in library service metaphor, including the design of meta­
cartography and discuss cartographic research opportu­ data, distributed information services, and user inter­
nities and challenges in XR-enabled environments. faces designed for gazetteer searching, metadata
indexing, and geodata downloading. In addition, the
ADL project also provided a good example of user-
2. User interface design and user evaluation for
centered design (UCD) and user evaluation processes.
the Alexandra digital library (ADL)
The ADL utilized three different web technologies for
The National Science Foundation in the U.S. started the the actual user interface implementation. The first ver­
Phase 1 of the Digital Libraries Initiative from 1994 to sion of the ADL utilized a customized GIS software
1998, with total $30 million funding. The Phase 1 initia­ (ArcView) interface. The second version was based on
tive funded six large-size digital library projects, includ­ HTML web documents and common gateway interface
ing Alexandria Digital Library (UC Santa Barbara), (CGI) programs. The final version was created by using
Electronic Environmental Library Project (UC Java applets (client-side) and Java applications (server-
Berkeley), Stanford Digital Library Project (Stanford side). The ADL project explored three different types of
University), Informedia Digital Video Library web technologies and frameworks, identified major
(Carnegie Mellon University), University of Illinois tasks of geospatial digital libraries, and became the
Digital Library Initiative (University of Illinois), and first online geospatial data service example. It can pro­
University of Michigan Digital Library Project vide comprehensive metadata browsing, displaying, and
(University of Michigan) (National Science querying functions for geospatial information. The
Foundation, 2002). Each digital library focused on Alexandria Digital Earth Prototype (ADEPT) is
a special type of information collections, such as video, a follow-on project of the ADL project (as the Phase 2
geo-referenced data, and academic publications. of the Digital Library Initiative funded by NSF from
Dr. Barbara P. Buttenfield was the leader of the 1999 to 2005). The ADEPT project aimed to use the
evaluation team in the Alexandria Digital Library digital earth metaphor for organizing and presenting
(ADL) Project from 1994 to 1998. The major tasks of information at multiple scales of spatial and temporal
the evaluation team were to “evaluate the effectiveness of resolution focusing on georeferenced data, maps, and
the ADL system from the perspective of potential user of images in California (Smith et al., 2001).
 CARTOGRAPHY AND GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SCIENCE 3

The Alexandria Digital Library project introduced dynamic spatial pattern discovery. The following sec­
new types of distributed GIServices, using a digital tions will briefly introduce the Metaverse environment,
library metaphor, and provided sophisticated digital digital representation frameworks (VR, AR, and MR),
library functions, including collections holding, catalog and related cartographic research projects.
searching, and metadata indexing. Figure 1 illustrates
two early examples of ADL user interfaces at different
3. Introducing the metaverse and extended
development stages. The first example of ADL interface
reality (XR) (virtual reality, augmented reality,
is the 1998 CGI/TclTk version (left) using the HTML
and mixed reality)
language with the extension functions provided by Tck/
Tk (an open-source, event-driven widget toolkit for XR is a technology-oriented term often used by
creating graphical user interfaces). This early ADL user researchers and application developers in interdisciplin­
interface used colorful buttons at the top to highlight ary contexts. Çöltekin et al. (2020) provided
major ADL functions, including maps, gazetteers, cata­ a comprehensive explanation of Extended Reality (XR)
logs, and setup. The map engine was derived from the and its subfields, including VR, AR, and MR, and high­
Xerox PARC Map Viewer (Putz, 1994). The 2007 lighted their research challenges and future directions in
Google Map version (right) is the new interface devel­ spatial science. Recently, a new term, “the Metaverse,”
oped in the Phase 2: the Alexandria Digital Earth started to be used by technology companies, entrepre­
Prototype (ADEPT), using Google Map APIs for the neurs, and start-ups, as a marketing keyword to describe
map engine. Since they are using very different Web a promising future development platform for the
GIS technologies, the design principles and usability Internet and web applications. In October 2021,
evaluation of the two examples are also very different. Facebook rebranded itself as “Meta Platforms,” Inc.
Later sections in this paper will highlight key design and focused on the development of the Metaverse
issues and evaluation methods for the ADL user using VR technologies. Originally, “the Metaverse”
interfaces. derived from a cyberpunk sci-fi novel, Snow Crash
Although the web technologies used in the (written by Neal Stephenson in 1992). One famous
Alexandria Digital Library were 24 years ago, many quote of the Metaverse from the book is “By drawing
innovative information design concepts and user testing the moving three-dimensional image at a resolution of 2K
methods in ADL can still be applied today in the context pixels on a side, it can be as sharp as the eye can perceive,
of the Metaverse, including interactive visual commu­ and by pumping stereo digital sound through the little
nication, user-centered design, usability evaluation, and earphones, the moving 3-D pictures can have a perfectly

Figure 1. The 1998 CGI/TclTk version (left) and the 2007 Google map version (right) of the Alexandria digital Library user interfaces.
(source: https://map.sdsu.edu/geog583/lecture/Unit-2.htm last access on 6 September 2022).
4 M.-H. TSOU AND C. MEJIA

realistic soundtrack. . . . He’s in a computer-generated prototypes, such as the GIS2Ve prototype (van der
universe that his computer is drawing onto his goggles Schee & Jense, 1995), the VRML Prism Map (Swanson,
and pumping into his earphones. In the lingo, this ima­ 1999), Geo-Referenced VRML applications with Java
ginary place is known as the Metaverse” (Stephenson, (Moore, 1999), and QuickTime Virtual Reality Maps
1992, p. 24). for the Web (Schwertley, 2003). One of the early
Although there are several similar concepts linking VRML cartographers, James Swanson, mentioned that
XR and the Metaverse, XR mainly emphasizes the “3D representation stimulates still more neurons; invol­
implementation technologies (including mobile display ving a larger portion of the brain in the problem solving
devices, wearable sensors, 3D computer graphs, etc.). process. . . . .Effective 3D interactive cartography
The Metaverse emphasizes the creation of online com­ demands that the map maker is an architect. . . . . The
munities (linking multiple users together to create cartographer working in 3D must likewise be conscious of
online groups or multi-users games) and the interaction volume and lighting” (Swanson, 1999, pp. 184, 193).
among participating avatars (the graphic representation Major information technology (IT) companies were
of users). We may say that the Metaverse can be created developing VR or VE frameworks in the early 2000s
by XR-enabled technologies and high-speed networks. with 3D buildings and the concept of digital earth,
In this paper, the discussion about user interfaces/user such as Google Earth SketchUp and Microsoft Virtual
experiences will focus on both XR-enabled technologies Earth 3D. One cartographic research challenge for
and online user interactions in the Metaverse. The fol­ developing VR applications is how to display the
lowing paragraphs will provide a brief overview of three dynamic interactions of 3D geo-referenced objects,
XR subtopics (VR, AR, MR) and their related carto­ which will be discussed in the later sections.
graphic research projects.

3.2. Mixed reality

3.1. Virtual reality
Mixed Reality (MR) refers to a digital representation
Virtual Reality (VR) can refer to any virtual world system with visual interfaces to combine elements of
represented in a computer environment. The most com­ virtual environments and the real physical world
monly accepted definition of VR is to combine compu­ (Cheok et al., 2002). The term was defined by Milgram
ter generated 3D images with multi-sensory experiences and Kishino (1994) with the introduction of the “vir­
(such as sounds, force-feedback, etc.) (Cartwright, tuality continuum.” The virtuality continuum illustrates
1999). In the field of cartography, many researchers a spectrum of digital representation frameworks
prefer to use the term, Virtual Environment (VE) (Figure 2), “where real environments, are shown at one
(MacEachren et al., 1999), rather than VR to avoid end of the continuum, and virtual environments, at the
ambiguous meanings. Virtual Environments are created opposite extremum. The former case, at the left, defines
by a 3D or 4D graphic display framework, which can environments consisting solely of real objects . . . . . . . .
enable dynamic user interactions with 3D objects or 3D The latter case, at the right, defines environments con­
landscapes. In the late 1990s, one popular web-based VR sisting solely of virtual objects. . .. the most straightfor­
tool for 3D maps is “Virtual Reality Mark Up Language ward way to view a Mixed Reality environment,
(VRML).” VRML is a web-based language for displaying therefore, is one in which real world and virtual world
three-dimensional objects and their interaction in web objects are presented together within a single display, that
pages. Many cartographers utilized VRML to create 3D is, anywhere between the extrema of the virtuality con­
maps, georeferenced buildings, and visualization tinuum” (Milgram & Kishino, 1994, p. 3).

Figure 2. “Virtuality continuum” representation (redrawn) by Milgram and Kishino (1994), p. 3.

 CARTOGRAPHY AND GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SCIENCE 5

The Aspen Movie Map project created by Andrew Figure 3 illustrated a popular example of mobile aug­
Lippman in 1978 at MIT is one of the earliest examples mented reality games, PokemonGO. The mobile phone
of mixed reality in cartography, which represented an screenshot in the left displayed the real-world environ­
immersive walkable environment to allow users to visit ment, San Diego State University (SDSU) campus, with
the city of Aspen and to walk on the streets (using a virtual object (a digital monster, called “Larvitar”).
a series of photos stored on Video Disks) (Cartwright, Users can physically walk on the SDSU campus to
1999). Some examples of recent cartographic research
capture these digital monsters and visited real-world
projects in MR include indoor navigation with visual
landmarks (such as Hepner Hall). The base map dis­
semantic landmarks (Liu et al., 2021), and mixed reality
played in the PokemonGO was using real-world Google
emergency management and evacuation simulations
(Lochhead & Hedley, 2019). Maps and OpenStreet Maps.
There are several cartographic research projects
focusing on AR and mobile AR, such as empirical
assessment of tangible AR for geovisualization (Hedley
3.3. Augmented reality
et al. 2002), AR PRISM software (Hedley et al., 2002),
Augmented Reality (AR) is one type of mixed reality augmented reality for teaching Earth-Sun relationships
platforms (Figure 2). An operational definition of (Shelton & Hedley, 2002), dynamic tangible game
Augmented Reality refers to any real-world environ­ spaces (Cheok et al., 2002), AR as a medium for carto­
ment “augmented” by means of virtual (computer gra­ graphy (Schmalstieg & Reitmayr, 2007), pattern recog­
phic) objects with real world locations (Milgram & nition techniques for topographic maps (Bobrich &
Otto, 2002), visual variables in mobile Augmented rea­
Kishino, 1994). AR can allow users to track and register
lity applications (Halik, 2012), AR interfaces for static
virtual objects with real world coordinates or geospatial
spatial information overlays (Veas et al., 2013), and
locations (Van Krevelen & Poelman, 2010). Users can spatial knowledge acquisition (Pedestrian Navigation)
interact with the combined virtual and physical objects with mobile maps, augmented reality and voice (Huang
in the same interaction 3D space (Azuma, 1997). Mobile et al., 2012). Dr. Nick Hedley (the founding director of
augmented reality (MAR) is a fast-growing field to use Spatial Interface Research Lab, the Department of
mobile phones with built-in cameras to combine virtual Geography at Simon Fraser University, Canada) has
and real worlds (Azuma et al., 2001). For example, developed several innovative VR systems and AR

Figure 3. An example of augmented reality user interfaces: Pokemon GO, displaying the campus of San Diego State University (SDSU).
6 M.-H. TSOU AND C. MEJIA

projects in GIScience for public engagement/science evaluation processes, focusing on two design perspec­
communication (Hedley, 2017). tives: map content design and mapping function
design. The adoption of UCD approaches in web
mapping services can improve the quality of web
4. Adopting user centered design for
mapping services and generate more useful geospatial
presenting geospatial information in the
information services for users (Tsou, 2011). User-
XR-enabled Metaverse
centered design are essential for developing VR, AR,
There are many research challenges and opportunities and MR in the Metaverse today. The following para­
in developing VR, AR, and MR applications for present­ graphs will highlight important lessons and sugges­
ing 3D/4D geospatial information today, which are very tions learned from the ADL evaluation team based on
similar to the development experiences of the their previous publications. We identified these
Alexandria Digital Library project in 1994. One com­ important lessons based on the key concepts in user-
mon problem is that information technologies and centered design (Gabbard et al., 1999; International
Internet-based software frameworks are changing Organization for Standardization [ISO], 1999), which
rapidly during the development period. “There are the are still applicable today to the design of the
so-called”moving target” issues that distinguish evalua­ Metaverse and XR-enabled user interfaces.
tion of a digital library. Particularly for Internet-based The first lesson from the ADL evaluation team is to
document delivery, one can predict with confidence that clearly define different types of targeted users, “targeted
technology will change rapidly” (Buttenfield, 1999, p. 42). users . . . including those familiar with the testbed con­
Therefore, one suggestion for the ADL interface design tents . . . .and those familiar with library cataloging and
is to adopt user-centered design (UCD). “The interface indexing systems . . . .” (Buttenfield, 1995, p. 210).
under development is unstable, due in part to ongoing Different types of digital library users required different
development and in part to technology migration; thus evaluation approaches and different design of user
each cycle of usability evaluation is performed essentially interfaces. This guidance is also essential for the devel­
on a new product. As a consequence, the effectiveness of opment of XR-enabled applications and the Metaverse
usability inspection and usability testing methods at par­ platform. For example, in a climate-change simulation
ticular phases in the software life cycle are difficult to VR environment, high school students will need simpli­
determine. Moreover, technological changes can render fied user interfaces to match with their video-gaming
knowledge gained from previous evaluations obsolete. experiences. Scientific researchers will need more
The situation cries out for evaluators to keep an open menu-based user interfaces and complicated control
mind, to explore their data rather than rely upon con­ buttons to set up different parameters in their scientific
ventions established within much more stable con­ models.
straints” (Buttenfield, 1999, p. 54). The second lesson is to adopt an iterative process for
Buttenfield indicated that user-centered design and user interface design. Interface design and evaluation
usability evaluation must be carried out as early as processes are very dynamic and complicated in the
possible during the prototype development. “The Metaverse platform. Iterative testing and revising pro­
dynamic tension between system design, usability evalua­ cedures are essential for creating effective user experi­
tion, and system revision must be maintained through all ences and useful final products. The ADL user interface
phases of the digital library life cycle, if the priority of team indicated that it is impossible to design a perfect
responding to user needs is to be maintained. The eva­ user interface after the first round of prototyping. The
luators elicit user confusion, frustration, or recurring initial and iterative prototype designs should be evalu­
problems. The developers acknowledge the problems, ated by both targeted users and domain experts. “Results
and recognize that a number of additional problems of the first round of evaluation will be returned to system
will emerge as a consequence of fixing them.” designers to guide refinement and revision of the inter­
(Buttenfield, 1999, p. 55). face. As each version of the revised interface is completed,
The key concepts of user-centered design have been its components will undergo empirical evaluation, with
introduced in early GIS and cartography research results of the analysis informing subsequent revision.
(Medyckyj-Scott & Hearnshaw, 1993; Tsou & Three or four cycles of evaluation are planned through
Buttenfield, 1998). Garrett (2002) introduced a five the course of the project” (Buttenfield, 1995, p. 211). The
stage of UCD framework, including strategy, scope, same iterative process is very important for designing
structure, skeleton, and surface stages (Garrett, 2002). VR, AR, or MR applications today. Iterative design
Tsou (2011) also proposed a similar UCD framework processes are adopted by mainstream game designers
for the designs of web mapping services and and game development companies to ensure high
 CARTOGRAPHY AND GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SCIENCE 7

quality of user experiences in their final releases of video perspectives based on users’ positions or moving paths
game software. in a 3D platform. DoF is the number of ways (direc­
The third lesson is to observe user behaviors and user tions) that a user can move freely in a 3D platform.
reactions systematically. The ADL team used “videotap­ Traditional cartographic design mainly focuses on 2D
ing,” “interactive logging of keystrokes and response representation of map layers or images on papers or
times,” and “semi-structured interviews,” to analyze computer screens (Dent et al., 2009). In a 3D/4D plat­
user behaviors and their reactions using ADL. form, user Interface designers need to select appropriate
“Videotaping (direct observation) is intended to capture PoV for targeted users to navigate information land­
nonverbal responses and to provide insights about user scapes or to control 3D objects effectively. Figure 4
learning styles, frustration and fatigue, for example. illustrates two types of PoV commonly used in the VR
Interactive logging will provide quantitative data mea­ platforms: Street Views versus Sky Views. Street Views
suring response times, keystrokes and mouse activity, and are commonly used in video games to mimic the real-
indicate aspects of user and system performance. Semi- world experiences, such as walking on the streets and
structured interviewing will provide information on user driving a car, etc. Sky Views are used to provide an
requirements and on user confidence and satisfaction overall (top-down) perspective for users to examine
levels” (Buttenfield, 1995, p. 211). Today we have more the whole information landscape. In GIS applications,
advanced tools to observe user behaviors and reaction different users will need different types of POV settings.
systematically, including eye-movement (eye-tracking) For example, transportation experts and civil engineers
analysis (Çöltekin et al., 2009), user surveys, focus can use Sky Views to design appropriate traffic signals
groups, online A/B testing (Kohavi & Longbotham, and marked crosswalks. Elementary school teachers can
2017), etc. use Street Views to teach their students about traffic
One unique concern of evaluating XR-enabled user safety issues when children need to cross the streets
interfaces is the novelty effect (Koch et al., 2018). near schools (Figure 4).
Novelty effect is the tendency for human users (testers) The degree of freedom (DoF) is another important
to increase engagement and performance at the begin­ 3D design issue in the Metaverse platform. Traditional
ning when they encounter a novel platform (or a new VR design has two types of DoF: 3DoF (three degrees
technology), such as a new video game or a new AR with a fixed user location: Up/Down, Left/Right,
display device. We need to consider the novelty effect Tilting) and 6DoF (six degrees: users can change their
when we compare the usability between traditional 2D own locations and perspectives in six different direc­
GIS user interface and new XR-enabled 3D GIS user tions and positions) (Van Krevelen & Poelman, 2010).
interfaces/experiences. The novelty effect might cause Most of simple VR headset devices can only allow 3DoF
biased user interface evaluation results. On the other since 6DoF will require intensive computing powers to
hand, it could also have a positive impact since users re-draw 3D environment when users move their posi­
could be more motivated to learn the new user tions. 3DoF can be used in watching interactive movies/
interfaces. scenes or talking to another person in the metaverse.
To summarize these lessons, analyzing user profiles, 6DoF will allow users to move their positions freely (up/
iterating design and testing processes, and evaluating down, forward/backward, and left/right), and change
usability systematically are essential tasks for cartogra­ their PoV along with their new positions (Ismail et al.
phers to develop successful XR-enabled Metaverse 2019). Some VR games and skill trainings applications
applications. The following sections will discuss the (such as driving tests) can use 6DoF to provide more
major research challenges and opportunities in the immersive interactions between users and the 3D envir­
Metaverse platforms from a cartographer’s perspective. onment, such as flying, driving, jumping, or diving in
the Metaverse. For example, GIS users can use the 6DoF
avatars to inspect the condition of 3D houses and the
5. New cartographic research challenges and pipelines connected to multiple buildings.
opportunities in the era of the metaverse There are great research opportunities for carto­
graphers (as 3D information interface designers) to
5.1. Designing point-of-view and degree-of-
create innovative VR and AR user experiences (UX)
freedom for 3D GIS applications
using unique PoV and DoF. Cartographers can uti­
The first design challenge of building cartographic or lize their visualization knowledge to design appro­
GIS applications in the XR-enabled 3D platform is how priate “movement paths” for different types of users
to design appropriate point-of-view (PoV) and degree- with filtered information (map) layers. For example,
of-freedom (DoF) for targeted users. PoV is the 3D user VR tourists (visitors) can follow the pre-defined
8 M.-H. TSOU AND C. MEJIA

Figure 4. Two different point of view (POV) examples in the VR environment: Street views (top) versus sky views (bottom), created by
using the unity engine.

movement paths to visit a beautiful virtual city or 5.2. Creating dynamic movement or interaction
a landmark in a guided tour. Hydrologists can create rules for avatars and 3D object models
a VR environment to estimate the impacts of land­
The second design challenge in XR-enabled GIS appli­
slide disasters in a 3D watershed region by turning
cations is to create dynamic movements or interaction
on or off historical remote sensed images and the
rules for avatars (users) and 3D object models (such as
volume of precipitation (to facilitate change detec­
tion tasks). One note is that the traditional Zoom-In cars, rain drops, trees, etc.). Usually, object movement
and Zoom-Out functions in GIS applications are still algorithms in VR or AR need not only to mimic the real-
very important in the VR environment, which can­ world phenomena, but also to be generalized in com­
not be replaced by the “move-forward” and “move- puter algorithms to fit the targeted 3D platforms. For
backward” functions in a 6DOF VR platform. To example, a GIS developer can use a 3D gaming engine
select the best movement paths and information (Unity) and its built-in function, “Unity Machine
layers, cartographers need to conduct iterative Learning Agents” (Urmanov et al., 2019) to create navi­
usability testing and user-centered design methods gational rules for multiple 3D pedestrians and cars
(similar to the lesson learned from the ADL evalua­ (Figure 4). Developers can define the AI navigation
tion team) in order to create best XR-enabled GIS methods by drawing lines of travel examples and
applications. adopt reinforcement learning functions to train agents
 CARTOGRAPHY AND GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SCIENCE 9

(objects) with previous examples. GIS developers could games, such as Elden Ring and Fortnite. Designing easy-
build a full vehicle movement control system (traffic to-follow and interesting tutorials for beginning users is
control) in the Metaverse by defining the movement both a research opportunity and challenge for 3D GIS
for cars, bikes, and pedestrians based on previous exam­ application designers.
ples and machine learning algorithms. Designing new types of intuitive user interfaces and
The major concern of designing 3D object move­ input devices to facilitate spatial thinking and spatial
ments/interactions is how to generalize real-world inter­ pattern discovering are exciting research opportunities
actions and movements into computer algorithms. for cartographers. For example, we can utilize various
Cartographers need to balance the computation needs hand gestures or body languages (nodding or shaking
between fast animation performance of 3D objects and heads) to change the 3D objects movement (stop or
the realistic object representation with complicated continue) or Zoom-In/Zoom-Out. Voice commands
behaviors. In traditional cartographic research, general­ are another popular user interface method today
ization is an important topic, which can be defined as (Tsou, 2011) to turn on or turn off specific map layers
the set of procedures for inclusion/omission of map or images in GIS applications. Other innovative inter­
details in order to improve communication and read­ face design examples include “linking eye-tracking
ability of maps. The new research opportunity in the devices with gaze-based interaction” (Kassner et al.,
Metaverse for cartographers is to extend the general­ 2014) and brain-computer interfaces (Wolpaw, 2007).
ization concept from 2D graphs (points, lines, polygons) The advent of the XR-enabled Metaverse platform in
to dynamic 3D movement paths and object interactions cartography will facilitate innovative research agenda
in the XR-enabled platform. Moreover, cartographers and the development of new GIS applications.
can invent new interaction rules or movement paths Cartographer will need to collaborate with other
beyond the real-world examples, such as creating flying domain experts in video game design, XR technologies,
cars or floating islands in the Metaverse. However, these and human-computer interactions, to learn their key
exceptional rules must fit the real needs of specific GIS concepts and techniques for creating the Metaverse
tasks and mapping applications. Iterative usability test­ with effective user interfaces, new object interaction
ing and user experience evaluation are also required for rules, and new targeted users. The next section will
validating these innovative design concepts. introduce popular tools and software for cartographers
to develop XR-enabled applications in the 3D platform.

5.3. Discovering dynamic spatial pattern and 6. New tools and software platforms for
spatial associations developing XR applications
The third design challenges and opportunities of adopting Cartographers can develop XR-enabled applications
VR and AR for GIS applications is how to facilitate using various 3D software engines, such as Unity,
dynamic discovery of spatial patterns (Guo et al., 2005) BlenderGIS, Unreal, Spark AR, and ArcGIS 360 VR.
and how to enable spatial thinking (Carbonell Carrera & Most of them are targeting the development of 3D
Bermejo Asensio, 2017) in the 3D Metaverse platform. video games rather than GIS applications. Some GIS
Traditional cartographic research projects emphasize the companies and researchers had developed VR platforms
use of visual variables, map compositions, classifications, or plug-ins specifically for GIS applications or web
and color schemes to visualize spatial patterns and spatial mapping services (Çöltekin et al., 2020). The following
associations (MacEachren, 2004). In a 3D XR-enabled plat­ sections will provide a brief overview of some VR and
form, user interface designers will use 3D dynamic visual AR development tools suitable for GIS applications.
variables (flowing lines, 3D textures, etc.), dynamic classi­ Unity (https://unity.com/) was the second most pop­
fication methods (3D/4D classification and clustering algo­ ular 3D game engines (11% share) in 2019 for develop­
rithms), and 3D/4D color schemes, and surface texture to ing VR applications and video games (Ciekanowska
help users discover unknown spatial patterns and spatial et al., 2021) based on WebGIS and HTML5 technolo­
associations in the Metaverse. gies. The most popular game engines were Unreal
Many users have difficulty handling 3D/4D interfaces Engine (23%) which will be mentioned next. Unity has
and interactions at the beginning of their learning pro­ free and paid licensing options for developers. It is easy
cess. It will be ideal to create a tutorial (or a walk- to learn and cross-platform with some commercial use
through guide) to introduce key interactive functions limitations. The free version of Unity is suitable for
and major movement paths for users. This tutorial cartographers with limited budgets. While not specifi­
method has been adopted by many popular 3D video cally designed for GIS work, the adaptability of the
10 M.-H. TSOU AND C. MEJIA

Unity program allows GIS professionals to add GIS The strength of the Unreal Engine is its extremely
data, maps, and remote sensed imagery into their 3D powerful graphic rendering capabilities and object
engine (Buyuksalih et al., 2017). For example, the recent details. Unreal Engine is more powerful and more com­
deployment of the ArcGIS Map SDK for Unity is a plug- plicated compared to Unity 3D engine. One carto­
in to visualize GIS data inside a Unity scene. Blender graphic project has used Unreal Engine 4 (UE4) and
(https://www.blender.org/) (with BlenderGIS add-on) is panorama photographs to develop an immersive virtual
another popular 3D GIS development toolbox for Unity. reality application for the Imperial Cathedral in
Blender is an open-source 3D software. GIS developers Königslutter (Walmsley & Kersten, 2020). Recently
can use the BlenderGIS add-on to convert Google map ESRI also released its first public version of the ArcGIS
layers (using RenderDoc), digital elevation models, and Maps SDK for Unreal Engine. ArcGIS 360 VR is
3D building objects into the Blender platform first. a lightweight VR application platform developed
Then the Blender objects and 3D terrain layers can be directly by ESRI using its own CityEngine and 3D
imported into the Unity 3D Engine for VR applications Web Scenes. ArcGIS 360 VR provides a very easy data
(Figure 5). Figure 5 illustrated an example of 3D GIS flow to add GIS datasets and map layers directly into the
terrains in Unity using the 30 meters Digital Elevation VR platform.
Model from the NASA Shuttle Radar Topography Spark AR Studio is a simplified augmented reality
Mission (SRTM) and the imagery from Google Map (AR) development platform developed by Facebook/
services (Mejia, 2021). Some cartographic researchers Meta, Inc. for creating and sharing AR templates and
have used Unity to create virtual environments from objects via mobile phones for social media users. It is an
3D point-cloud data with laser scanning (Bolkas et al., easy-to-learn platform and commonly used to create
2020). Another example is the generation of a virtual 3D social interactions between avatars (users). Another
model of the İnceğiz caves in Istanbul, Turkey popular AR development platform is “echo3D.”
(Büyüksalih et al., 2020). echo3D is a cloud-based platform for developing 3D/
Unreal Engine is the most popular 3D Game Engine VR/AR objects and applications. It is a cross-platform
(23%) in 2019 developed by Epic Games (Ciekanowska cloud-based framework to provide easy-to-learn tools
et al., 2021). It also provides free license options for for developers to create interesting 3D objects, interac­
nonprofessional users with commercial use restrictions. tive content, and animations.

Figure 5. A screenshot of the unity editor view for developing a 3D alpine glacier VR application (Mejia, 2021).
 CARTOGRAPHY AND GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SCIENCE 11

To summarize, Unity is the most suitable 3D game scientists, educators, electronic engineers, user interface
engine today for cartographers because of free cost, designers, and art studio members) (Buttenfield, 1999).
easy-to-learn user interface, and the free GIS layer con­ Transdisciplinary collaborations are essential today for
verting tool (BlenderGIS). Other 3D engines are more building user-friendly and effective 3D GIS applications
expensive and require longer learning curves. There are and multi-user mapping services. The role of cartogra­
some technical limitations of using these 3D game phers has extended to user interface designers and data
engines to create GIS applications or mapping services. scientists in the era of the Metaverse. The fundamental
Many 3D game engines can only provide small numbers concepts of user-center design, usability testing proce­
of 3D objects with simplified models. It is very difficult dures, and iterative design processes are still important
to create a very large city-level digital twin with very for XR-enabled cartographic research. We must work
detailed building models and infrastructures in a 3D together with other experts together to tackle carto­
video game platform. Most current 3D applications for graphic research problems in 3D/4D and to develop
GIS projects can only represent a corner of streets or new methods, new theories, and new rules for the
one single street block due to the limitation of comput­ Metaverse platform.
ing power and memories (Buyuksalih et al., 2017). One technical limitation of XR-enabled GIS and
mapping applications is that most VR and AR display
devices are very expensive for end-users. Recently, the
7. Conclusion
price of high-performance VR headset systems has
Dr. Barbara P. Buttenfield is one of the early pioneers to decreased significantly. The commercial VR headset
extend cartographic research fields to user interface systems, such as 2022 Oculus Quest 2 and PlayStation
design and digital library services. The important les­ VR, cost around $300 to $600. Google developed a very
sons we learned from her previous literatures are: 1). we affordable VR platform device, called “Google
need to adopt user-centered design (UCD) to identify Cardboard,” using smartphones and customized card­
different types of users and specific user tasks for devel­ board devices (Figure 6). The cost of each Google
oping web-based mapping services; 2). user tests and Cardboard device is under 10 dollars. With these low-
usability evaluation tasks must be carried out as early as cost VR devices, more users can use GIS applications
possible during an iterative prototype development pro­ and 3D mapping services in the domains of business
cess; and 3). we should develop systematic approaches analysis, education, and scientific discovery.
to collect and monitor users’ behaviors and reactions to The development of the 3D Metaverse platform has
provide meaningful feedback for revising and improv­ a great potential for creating new GIS applications and
ing user interface prototypes. new cartographic knowledge. However, the Metaverse is
These lessons can help cartographers to design more a marketing-oriented term mixed with ambiguous meta­
effective GIS application in a 3D/4D Metaverse platform phors and concepts. Researchers must be aware of some
using XR-enabled technologies (VR, AR, and MR). In limitations and problems in this term. First, we need to
the ADL projects, cartographers were collaborating with avoid the hype of “the Metaverse” (such as telling that the
over 20 experts from multiple disciplines (including Metaverse is the “killer” app for every web application in
computer scientists, librarians, cognitive science the future). Overstating and exaggerating the importance
researchers, GIScientists, cartographers, management of the Metaverse will not help the advancement of science
information systems (MIS) experts, environmental and technologies but create pitfalls and dangers in the

Figure 6. Using Google cardboard (right) with smartphones to create a low-cost virtual reality (VR) experience (left).
12 M.-H. TSOU AND C. MEJIA

long run. All Metaverse applications must be assessed Funding

and validated systematically by rigid user-centered design
This work was supported by the National University
methods and usability tests. Second, researchers need to Transportation Center (UTC) [Safe-D: Evaluating the Safe
study the potential ethical and cybersecurity problems in Routes to School (SR2S)].
developing the Metaverse applications, such as identity
theft, fake accounts/avatars, and cyberbullying. Third,
key technologies for building the Metaverse are beyond ORCID
collaborative XR technologies discussed in this paper.
Ming-Hsiang Tsou http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3421-486X
There are other important technologies required for the
Metaverse platform, such as blockchains, artificial intelli­
gence (AI), 5 G or 6 G networks. Cartographers need to Data availability statement
collaborate with other domain experts to create new GIS
applications. Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data
were created or analyzed in this study.
Finally, the user behavior guidance and community
rules are currently controlled by different platform own­
ers/companies without clear legal guidelines or cross- References
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