CLASSIFICATION OF LIQUID LUBRICANTS

• Vegetable (Castor, Rapeseed) oils

• Less stable (rapid oxidation) than mineral oils at high temp.
• Contain more natural boundary lubricants than mineral oils
• Animal fats • Extreme pressure properties.
• Availability problem.
• Mineral oils • Synthetic lubricant
• Viscosity does not vary as much with temperature as in mineral oil
• rate of oxidation is much slower • cost

Vegetable & Animal (Fixed) oils

‰ fixed oils because they do not volatilize unless they decompose
‰ composed of fatty acids and alcohols
‰ On oxidation form a gummy substance. This process is known as drying
‰ fixed oils which are slow to dry are used for lubrication
‰ Fixed oils are usually added to mineral oils to improve film formation.
‰ Ex: Tallow, castor oil, olive oil, fish oils.

Mineral Oils
• Extracted from crude oil.
• Consists of hydrocarbons (Composed of 8387% carbon and 11-14% hydrogen by wt.)
with approximately 30 carbon atoms in each molecule (composed of straight & cyclic
carbon chains bonded together). Also contain sulphur, oxygen, nitrogen.
• Classification based on:
– Sulphur contents: Pennsylvanian oil (<0.25%), Middle east (~1%), Venezuelan (~2%),
Mexican (~5%). 0.1% to 1.0% preferred. – Chemical form: Paraffinic, naphthenic &
aromatic.

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Paraffinic Oils
• Good natural resistance to oxidation. But on oxidation it forms acids. – When burnt,
leaves a hard carbonaceous deposit.
• Good thermal stability – Low volatility – High viscosity index (VI=90-115) – High
flash point
• Pour point higher than naphthenic or aromatic

Naphthenic Oils
• Lower VI (15-75) • Less resistant to oxidation • Lower flash points than paraffinic
• Lower pour point than paraffinic therefore good for low temperature applications
• When burnt soft deposits are formed, therefore abrasive wear is lower
• Oxidation leads to undesirable sludge type deposits

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Multigrade Oils
Most oils on shelf today are MULTIGRADE oils, such as 10W30 or 20W50. Operate
tribo-systems over a wide temperature range. Ex: Aircraft hydraulic oil to be operated
from -40 0 C to +150 0 C.
• One grade at 0°F and in a higher grade at 210°F
• 10W30Æ 2100 cP at 0°F & SAE30 at 210°F
• Lower the first number, better performance in extremely cold conditions
• Higher the second number better the oil will protect at higher temperatures.
• By adding polymers in mineral oils.

Synthetic Oils
• Expensive, but applied where mineral oils are inadequate. – Oxidation & viscosity loss
at high temperature – Combustion or explosion – Solidification at low temperature
NOTE: Jet Engine. t ambient < -120ºF. 60000 shaft rpm, and 500ºF exhaust temperatures
proved too much for mineral oils.
¾ Synthetic oils are engineered specifically in uniformly shaped molecules with shorter
carbon chains which are much more resistant to heat and stress.

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There are few synthetic oils, which we are described here. However, there is a complete
subject on the synthetic oils in chemistry. First common category is a polyglycols, VI is
almost 200. And they have been utilized in brake as a brake fluids we try to utilize this
kind
• Polyglycols (Polyalkylene glycol)
Originally used as Brake fluids. VI = 200. Absorb water.
Distinct advantages as lubricants for systems operating at high temperatures such as
furnace conveyor belts, where the polyglycol burns without leaving a carbonaceous
deposit. Used in textile industry.
• Esters Reacting alcohol with inorganic acid.
Better (in reducing friction, resisting oxidation, prolong draining period, volatility) than
mineral oils.
Costs only a little more than mineral oils.

• Silicon:
VI 300. Chemical inert. Poor boundary lubricant. Low solubility. Space application,
HIGH PRODUCTION COST.
• Perfluoropolyalkylether: Good oxidation & thermal stability. VI= 200. In vacuum used
for thin film lubrication.
• Perfluoropolyethers High oxidation (320°C) & thermal (370°C) stability. Low surface
tension & chemical inert.

Few Remarks on usage of lubricants

• Grease: provides excellent protection against environmental contamination.
• restricted to a speed of 2 m/s for the reason of inadequate heat dissipation
• Liquid:
• Low viscosity oils have low fluid friction losses and consequently low heat
generation.

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• Carry away heat.
• pressure for greater dissipation of heat as well as to ensure complete separation of
surfaces.
• Under high loads and slow rubbing speed a hydrodynamic film cannot form, hence
mineral oils are combined with fatty oils to give a boundary lubrication layer.

GAS Lubrication
• Gas– Air, Nitrogen, and Helium
• Temperature range– (-200°C) to (2000°C).
No vaporization, cavitation, solidification, decomposition.
• Very low viscosity (1000 times less viscous than even the thinnest mineral oil),
therefore ultra low friction. Possible high speed.
• Cleanliness.
• Seal requirement ?
• Very low load capacity. Low damping. Ultra low film thickness.
• Smooth surfaces & very low clearance (to maximize load capacity & minimize flow
rate) needs a specialist designers & manufacturer (close tolerance).
• Less forgiving of errors in estimating loads or of deviations from specifications during
manufacture and installation.

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FROM RE-REFINING OF USED LUBRICANTS

The waste lubricant, through the contamination undergone during use, has become unsuitable for
lubrication due to the presence of impurities and other products (e.g. other lubricants of mineral
and/or synthetic base, water, fuel, asphalt products, etc.) or due to the loss of its original
properties. Re-refining separates water, oil and asphalt products and through distillation it
restores the lubricating oil (distillate) as in the refining process.

The hydrotreating unit treats the lubricant (distillate) in the presence of selected catalysts in order
to clean undesirable chemical compounds that make the lubricant unsuitable for use as a base.
The result is the conversion of olefins (alkenes) and aromatic components in high quality added
value saturated (paraffinic) and/or naphthenic (cyclic) bases, which are much less toxic and more
“neutral”. More specifically, they show:

 Perfect colour
 High viscosity index
 Low volatility (variability)/high stability
 Low content in sulphur (an oxidizing and corrosive “material”), on the one hand to improve the
quality and stability of the bases, on the other hand for long-term protection, for example, of
diesel particulate filters (or DPF) and diesel engines.
 Very low acidity (TAN), which means that the produced base oil (given the removal of its
aromatic components, see below) exhibits high oxidative stability (and thus not easily oxidized).

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  Low content in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) which degrade the quality of the base
oil, as their acidity starts a chain reaction that dramatically reduces its useful life.
 Low pour point for suitability of use in formulas of final lubricant products which are expected
to yield at low temperatures (combined with the special additives of further depressant of the
pour point).

The produced base lubricant is blended with chemical additives to produce lubricants for all
uses, it is used, and at the end of its lifecycle it is collected and re-treated by the refinery and
thus the lifecycle of the lubricant starts again…

Β. SYNTHETIC BASE LUBRICANTS

Synthetic lubricants first appeared in the early 1930s, as synthetic hydrocarbon and ester
technologies were developed at the same time in Germany and the USA. The increasing demand
of lubricants to perform in ever expanding temperature function ranges (mainly driven by the
developments in the engines of the military aircrafts) marked the continuing development of
synthetic lubricant technology.

Today, there are synthetic lubricants and they are used in virtually all fields and applications that
require lubrication: automotive, shipping, industry and certainly in aviation and aerospace. A
plurality of base oils has been investigated for their use as potential synthetic base oils of final
lubricants, out of which the most prevalent ones are:

POLY-ALPHA-OLEFIN (PAO)

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Poly-alpha-olefins (English abbreviation: PAO) are produced with a process commonly termed
“synthesis”. They are completely synthetic compounds derived from the polymerization of an
alpha-olefin. It is a particular type of olefin (organic) used in the production of synthetic
lubricants. They offer a wide range of lubricating properties because they have very stable
structures and highly uniform molecular chains.

ESTERS

Esters are 100% synthetic chemical compounds resulting from the reaction of an acid with an
alcohol or a phenol. Many esters with different chemical compositions each, because of their
excellent lubricity, are used for various reasons, either as additives or as base oils for the
production of final lubricants. Due to their high cost, they are used in a small proportion in the
formula in order to improve the stability of the final product.

API (American Petroleum Institute) in the USA has categorized the base oils as for their origins
(mineral or synthetic) and their method/process of production, the range of their viscosity index
and the percentage of saturated hydrocarbons (Table 3).

SYNTHETIC OR MINERAL BASE LUBRICANTS?

The synthetic base lubricants:

 Offer better thermal and oxidative stability.

 Retain their viscosity.
 Are less mutable in different conditions.
 Exhibit improved friction properties.

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  Exhibit lower solubility to additives. The low solubility not only makes it difficult to dissolve
some important additives during the composition and production process of the final product,
but also reduces a number of key quality parameters, such as dispersancy (maintenance of
suspended acidity by-products and their demolition) and compatibility with the various
elastomers (e.g. seals which, while in contact with oil, optionally shrink or “bulge”).
 Are more costly choices.

What effect does the base have on the performance of the final lubricant?

Desirable performance characteristics:

 High thermal and oxidative stability.

 High viscosity index.
 Low volatility, which means that the lubricant resists evaporation due to high temperatures,
and thus it shows no loss of its rheological characteristics (i.e. its viscosity).
 Low pour point.
 Compatibility with elastomers (seals) (see above).
 Solubility of additives.

Therefore, the lubricant selection totally depends on the application for which it is intended.

C. CHEMICAL ADDITIVES

Additives are chemical compounds used to affect the performance characteristics and the
required properties by the lubricant. The categories of additives are the following:

 Antioxidants: They constrain the “attack” of oxygen to the oil, and reduce its fatting, especially
at high temperatures.
 Detergents: Metal compounds which control deposits and keep the engine clean.
 Dispersants: Non-metallic (ash-free) organic compounds that keep deposits and by-products
suspended in the lubricant and prevent their creation.
 Against wear: They prevent wear. They are usually based on zinc, phosphate or other organic-
metallic substances.
 Inhibitors of rust and acidity: They prevent the “attack” of acids on metal surfaces.
 Modifiers of friction: They reduce friction and vary in chemical composition, depending on the
lubricant type.
 Additives of extreme pressure: It is usually about additives based on sulphur-phosphorus. They
are mainly found in transmission lubricants but also in the lubricants of air compressors,
hydraulic systems and machine tools (slides and anchor chains/chains).
 Anti-foaming agents: They prevent the foaming of the lubricant due to presence of air and thus
help maintain the lubricant film and the pumping of oil.
 Viscosity index improvers: They change the thinning rate (as well as the viscosity index) as the
temperature increases. They are polymer components varying in chemical composition,
depending on the lubricant type.

Degradation of pour point: They improve the property of lubricant to flow at low temperatures.

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Types of Lubrication

Considering the nature of motion between moving or sliding surfaces, there are different types of
mechanisms by which the lubrication is done. They are:

 Hydrodynamic lubrication or thick film lubrication

 Hydrostatic lubrication
 Boundary lubrication or thin film lubrication
 Extreme pressure lubrication
Hydrodynamic Lubrication or Thick Film Lubrication

Hydrodynamic lubrication is said to exist when the moving surfaces are separated by the
pressure of a continuous unbroken film or layer of lubrication. In this type of lubrication, the
load is taken completely by the oil film.

The basis of hydrodynamic lubrication is the formation of an oil wedge. When the journal
rotates, it creates an oil taper or wedge between the two surfaces, and the pressure build up with
the oil film supports the load.

Hydrodynamic lubrication depends on the relative speed between the surfaces, oil viscosity,
load, and clearance between the moving or sliding surfaces.

In hydrodynamic lubrication the lube oil film thickness is greater than outlet, pressure at the inlet
increases quickly, remains fairly steady having a maximum value a little to the outside of the
bearing center line, and then decreases quickly to zero at the outlet.

Application of hydrodynamic lubrication

 Delicate instruments.
 Light machines like watches, clocks, guns, sewing machines.
 Scientific instruments.
 Large plain bearings like pedestal bearings, main bearing of diesel engines.

Hydrocarbon oils are considered to be satisfactory lubrication for fluid film lubrication. In order
to maintain the viscosity of the oil in all seasons of the year, ordinary hydrocarbon lubricants are
blended with selected long chain polymers.

Hydrostatic Lubrication

Hydrostatic lubrication is essentially a form of hydrodynamic lubrication in which the metal

surfaces are separated by a complete film of oil, but instead of being self-generated, the
separating pressure is supplied by an external oil pump. Hydrostatic lubrication depends on the
inlet pressure of lube oil and clearance between the metal surfaces, whereas in hydrodynamic
lubrication it depends on the relative speed between the surfaces, oil viscosity, load on the
surfaces, and clearance between the moving surfaces.

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Example: the cross head pin bearing or gudgeon pin bearing in two stroke engines employs this
hydrostatic lubrication mechanism. In the cross head bearing, the load is very high and the
motion is not continuous as the bearing oscillation is fairly short. Thus hydrodynamic lubrication
cannot be achieved. Under such conditions, hydrostatic lubrication offers the advantage. The oil
is supplied under pressure at the bottom of bearing. The lube oil pump pressure is related to the
load, bearing clearance, and thickness of the oil film required, but is usually in the order of 35-
140 kg/cm2 .

Boundary Lubrication or Thin Film Lubrication

Boundary lubrication exists when the operating condition are such that it is not possible to
establish a full fluid condition, particularly at low relative speeds between the moving or sliding
surfaces.

The oil film thickness may be reduced to such a degree that metal to metal contact occurs
between the moving surfaces. The oil film thickness is so small that oiliness becomes
predominant for boundary lubrication.

Boundary lubrication happens when

 A shaft starts moving from rest.

 The speed is very low.
 The load is very high.
 Viscosity of the lubricant is too low.

Examples for boundary lubrication:

 Guide and guide shoe in two stroke engine.

 Lubrication of the journal bearing in diesel engines (mainly during starting and stopping
of engine).
 Piston rings and when cylinder liner is at TDC and BDC position when the piston
direction changes and if the relative speed is very slow.

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