Memory

WHAT IS MEMORY?
By- Avleen(036)

Memory is an active system that receives information from

the senses, puts that information into a usable form,
organizes it as it stores it away, and then retrieves the
information from storage. (Baddeley, 1996, 2003)
THE THREE PROCESSES OF MEMORY
 PUTTING IT IN:
ENCODING
The first process in the memory system is to get sensory
information (sight, sound, etc.) into a form that the brain can
use. This is called encoding.
Encoding is the set of mental operations that people perform on
sensory information to convert that information into a form that
is usable in the brain’s storage systems.
For example, when people hear a sound, their ears turn the
vibrations in the air into neural messages from the auditory
nerve (transduction), which make it possible for the brain to
interpret that sound.
 KEEPING IT IN:
STORAGE
The next step in memory is to hold on to the information for
some period of time in a process called storage. The period of
time will actually be of different lengths, depending on the
system of memory being used.

For example, in one system of memory, people hold on to

information just long enough to work with it, about 20 seconds
or so. In another system of memory, people hold on to
information more or less permanently.
 GETTING IT OUT:
RETRIEVAL
The biggest problem many people have is retrieval, that is, getting the
information they know they have out of storage.
MODELS OF
MEMORY
 LEVELS OF PROCESSING MODEL
The levels of
processing model was
defined by Robert
Lockhart and Fergus
Craik in the early 1970s.
In the
levels-of-processing
model of memory,
information that gets
more deeply processed
is more likely to be
remembered.
PARALLEL DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING
MODEL
In 1990, American
Psychologist David
Rumelhart proposed the
model of parallel distributed
processing (PDP)
In the parallel distributed
processing model of
memory, information is
simultaneously stored
across an interconnected
neural network that
stretches across the brain.
 The Information-Processing Model:
Three Memory Systems
(Atkinson & Shiffrin)
Information-processing theory, which looks at how memory and
other thought processes work, bases its model for human thought
on the way that a computer functions (Massaro & Cowan, 1993).
Data are encoded in a manner that the computer can understand
and use.
It was also information-processing theorists who first proposed
that there are three stages or types of memory systems: sensory
memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory (Atkinson &
Shiffrin, 1968)
 SENSORY MEMORY
Sensory memory is the first stage of memory, the
point at which information enters the nervous
system through the sensory systems—eyes, ears,
and so on.

Information is encoded into sensory memory as

neural messages in the nervous system. As long as
those neural messages are traveling through the
system, it can be said that people have a “memory”
for that information that can be accessed if needed.

There are two kinds of sensory memory that have

been studied extensively. They are the iconic
(visual) and echoic (auditory) sensory memories
 ICONIC MEMORY
Visual sensory memory is
often called iconic memory,
and only lasts for a fraction
of a second.

Icon is the Greek word for

“image.”

Iconic memory was studied in

several classic experiments by
George Sperling (1960).
 ICONIC MEMORY
The capacity of iconic memory is
everything that can be seen at one
time.

In real life, information that has just

entered iconic memory will be
pushed out very quickly by new
information, in a process called
masking (Cowan, 1988).

Research suggests that after only a

quarter of a second, old
information is replaced by new
information.
 EIDETIC IMAGERY
Although it is rare, some people do have what is properly called eidetic imagery,
or the ability to access a visual sensory memory over a long period of time.

Although the popular term photographic memory is often used to mean this rare
ability, some people claiming to have photographic memory actually mean that
they have an extremely good memory.

Having a very good memory and having eidetic imagery ability are two very
different things. People with eidetic imagery ability might be able to look quickly
at a page in a book, then by focusing on a blank wall or piece of paper, “read” the
words from the image that still lingers in their sensory memory.

It is unknown why some people have this ability, but it is more common in
children and tends to diminish by adolescence or young adulthood.
Function of iconic memory

Iconic memory actually serves a very important function in

the visual system. Iconic memory helps the visual system
to view surroundings as continuous and stable.

It also allows enough time for the brain stem to decide if

the information is important enough to be brought into
consciousness.
 ECHOIC MEMORY
Another type of sensory memory is
echoic memory, or the brief memory
of something a person has heard.

CAPACITY
Echoic memory’s capacity is limited to
what can be heard at any one
moment and is smaller than the
capacity of iconic memory

DURATION
it lasts longer than iconic
memory—about 2 to 4 seconds
 ECHOIC MEMORY
A good example of echoic memory is the “What?” phenomenon. You might be
reading or concentrating on the television, and your parent, roommate, or friend
walks up and says something to you. You sit there for a second or two, and
then say “What? Oh—yes, I’m ready to eat now,” or whatever comment is
appropriate. You didn’t really process the statement from the other person as
he or she said it. You heard it, but your brain didn’t interpret it immediately.
Instead, it took several seconds for you to realize that (1) something was said,
(2) it may have been important, and (3) you’d better try to remember what it
was. If you realize all this within about 4 seconds (the duration of echoic
memory), you will more than likely be able to “hear” an echo of the statement
in your head, a kind of “instant replay.”
 Function of echoic memory
- Echoic memory is very useful when a person
wants to have meaningful conversations with
others. It allows the person to remember
what someone said just long enough to
recognize the meaning of a phrase.
- As with iconic memory, it also allows people
to hold on to incoming auditory information
long enough for the lower brain centers to
determine whether or not processing by
higher brain centers is needed.
- It is echoic memory that allows a musician to
tune a musical instrument, for example. The
memory of the tuning fork’s tone lingers in
echoic memory long enough for the person
doing the tuning to match that tone on the
instrument.
 SHORT-TERM MEMORY
By- PALAK (073)
● If an incoming sensory message is important enough to enter
consciousness, that message will move from sensory memory to the
next stage of memory, called short-term memory (STM).

DURATION

● Unlike sensory memory, short-term memories are held for up to 30

seconds or more.

SELECTIVE ATTENTION

● Selective attention is the ability to focus on only one stimulus from

among all sensory input (Broadbent, 1958).
● Dr. Donald E. Broadbent’s original filter theory, a kind
of “bottleneck” occurs between sensory memory and
short-term memory. Only a stimulus that is “important”
enough will be selected from all of the information in
sensory memory to be consciously analyzed for meaning
in STM.

● Dr. Anne M. Treisman proposed that selective attention

operates in a two-stage filtering process: In the first
stage, incoming stimuli in sensory memory are filtered
on the basis of simple physical characteristics, similar to
Broadbent’s original idea. In the second stage, only the
stimuli that meet a certain threshold of importance are
processed.
 SHORT-TERM MEMORY
WORKING MEMORY
● Working memory can be defined as the ability of our brains to keep a
limited amount of information available long enough to use it. Working
memory helps process thoughts and plans, as well as carries out ideas.
● You can think of working memory as your short-term memory
combining strategies and knowledge from your long-term memory
bank to assist in making a decision or calculation.

Capacity: The Magical Number Seven, plus or minus two {5-9}

● George Miller (1956) wanted to know how much information humans
can hold in short-term memory at any one time. He reviewed several
memory studies, including some using a memory test called the
digit-span test. He also developed the concept of Chunking.
 Maintenance Rehearsal
With maintenance rehearsal, a person is simply continuing to
pay attention to the information to be held in memory, and
since attention is how that information got into STM in the
first place, it works quite well. With this type of rehearsal,
information will stay in short-term memory until rehearsal
stops.
LONG-TERM MEMORIES
● The third stage of memory is long-term memory (LTM),
the system into which all the information is placed to be
kept more or less permanently.

CAPACITY
● In terms of capacity, LTM seems to be unlimited for all
practical purposes.

DURATION
● Many of the memories people have stored away for a
long, long time—even since childhood— may still be
there. That does not mean that people can always
retrieve those memories.
● The memories may be available but not accessible,
meaning that they are still there, but for various reasons
people cannot “get to” them.
 Elaborative Rehearsal
Elaborative rehearsal is a way of transferring information
from STM into LTM by making that information meaningful
in some way. The easiest way to do this is to con new
information with something that is already well known.

For example, the French word maison means “house.” A

person could try to memorize that (using maintenance
rehearsal) by saying over and over, “Maison means house,
maison means house.”
 Long-Term Memory Organization
Research suggests that long-term memory is organized in terms of related
meanings and concepts. Semantic network model assumes that information
is stored in the brain in a connected fashion with concepts that are related to
each other stored physically closer to each other than concepts that are not
highly related.
 RETRIEVAL OF LONG-TERM MEMORIES
RETRIEVAL CUES
A retrieval cue is a stimulus that initiates remembering. Retrieval cues can be
external, such as an image, text, a scent, or some other stimulus that relates
to the memory.

They can also be internal, such as a thought or sensation that is relevant to

the memory. Cues can be encountered inadvertently or deliberately sought in
the process of deliberately trying to remember something.

ENCODING SPECIFICITY
The connection between surroundings and remembered information is called
encoding specificity.
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ENCODING SPECIFICITY TYPES

Context-dependent State-dependent
learning Learning
Context-dependent learning may Memories formed during a
refer to the physical particular physiological or
surroundings a person is in when psychological state will be easier
they are learning specific to remember while in a similar
information. state.
RECALL AND RECOGNITION
In recall, memories are retrieved with few or no external
cues, such as filling in the blanks on an application form.

In recognition, on the other hand, involves looking at or

hearing information and matching it to what is already in
memory.
 ● Tip of the tongue (TOT) phenomenon
Although people may be able to say how long the word is or
name letters that start or even end the word, they cannot
retrieve the sound or actual spelling of the word to allow it to
be pulled into the auditory “recorder” of STM so that it can be
fully retrieved.

● Serial Position Effect

Another interesting feature of recall is that it is often subject
to a kind of “prejudice” of memory retrieval, in which
information at the beginning and the end of a list, such as a
poem or song, tends to be remembered more easily and
accurately called Primacy or Recency effect.
Automatic Encoding
Automatic Encoding refers to the tendency of certain
kinds of information to enter long term memory with
little or no efforts.

Usually Long term memories need extensive rehearsal

or effortfull encoding to enter from short term
memory to long term memory.
 Flashbulb Memories
Memories of highly emotional events can often seem vivid and
detailed, as if the person’s mind has took a flash picture of the
moment in time. These are called flashbulb memories.

It occurs because the event has strong emotional association

for the person.
 Constructive Processing of Memories
People tend to assume that their memories are accurate when in fact,
memories are revised, edited and altered on an almost continuous
basis.
The reason for the changes that occur in memory has to do with the
way in which memories are formed as well as how they are retrieved.

Constructive processing of memories refers to the retrieval of

memories in which those memories are altered, revised or influenced
by newer information.
 The Reconstructive nature of Long
Term Memory Retrieval:
Memories are literally “built” or reconstructed
from the information stored away during
encoding.

Each time a memory is retrieved, it may be

altered or revised in some way to include new
information or to exclude details that may be
left out of the new reconstruction.
Memory Retrieval Problems
The Misinformation Effect
The tendency of misleading information presented after an event to alter
the memories of the event itself refers to the misinformation effect.
In one of Loftus’s studies subjects viewed a slide presentation of a traffic
accident.
The actual slide presentation contained a stop sign, but in a written
summary of the presentation, thesign was referred to as a yield sign,
Subjects who were given this misleading information after viewing the
slides were far less accurate in their memories for the kind of sign present.

Also, Information that comes not only after the original event but also in a
totally different format can cause memories of the event to be incorrectly
reconstructed.
Memory Retrieval Problems
False Memory Syndrome
False Memory Syndrome refers to the creation of
inaccurate or false memories through the suggestion of
others, often while the person is under hypnosis.

False memories have been accidentally created by

therapist’s suggestions during hypnotic therapy sessions.

Research suggests that false memories are created in the

brain in much the same way as real memories are formed.
 FORGETTING
The term forgetting refers to the loss of information already stored in long-term memory.
It is also known as a passive mental process in which we can’t recall the experience or
information we have already learned. It is a failure to retain what has been acquired.

Causes of forgetting :

Forgetting can happen for a number of reasons. Three common explanations include
depression, lack of sleep, and stress. However, it can also occur due to medical
conditions, brain disorders, substance use, and other reasons. You should always talk
to your doctor if you are concerned about your memory or find yourself forgetting more
than normal.
Ebbinghaus And the Forgetting Curve
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1913) was one of the first
researchers to study forgetting. Because he did
not want any verbal associations to aid him in
remembering, he created several lists of “nonsense
syllables,” pronounceable but meaningless.
He memorized a list, waited a specific amount of
time, and then tried to retrieve the list, graphing
his results each time. The result has become a
familiar graph: the curve of forgetting. This graph
clearly shows that forgetting happens quickly
within the first hour after learning the lists and
then tapers off gradually
 Encoding failure
There are several reasons why people forget things. One of
the simplest is that some things never get encoded in the
first place. For example, your friend may have said
something to you as he walked out the door, and you may
have heard him, but if you weren’t paying attention to what
he said, it would not get past sensory memory. This isn’t
forgetting so much as it is encoding failure, the failure to
process information into memory.
 Memory Trace Tendency theory

A memory trace is some physical change in the brain, perhaps in a neuron or

in the activity between neurons, which occurs when a memory is formed.

The trace decay theory of forgetting states that all memories fade
automatically as a function of time. Under this theory, you need to follow a
certain pathway, or trace, to recall a memory. If this pathway goes unused for
some amount of time, the memory decays, which leads to difficulty recalling,
or the inability to recall, the memory. Rehearsal, or mentally going over a
memory, can slow this process. But disuse of a trace will lead to memory
decay, which will ultimately cause retrieval failure. This process begins almost
immediately if the information is not used: for example, sometimes we forget
a person’s name even though we have just met them.
 INTERFERENCE THEORY

It is easier to remember recent events than those

further in the past. ” Transience ” refers to the
general deterioration of a specific memory over
time. Under interference theory, transience occurs
because all memories interfere with the ability to
recall other memories. Proactive and retroactive
interference can impact how well we are able to
recall a memory, and sometimes cause us to
forget things permanently.
★ Proactive Interference- Proactive interference occurs when old memories
hinder the ability to make new memories. In this type of interference, old
information inhibits the ability to remember new information. For example,
proactive interference often occurs when someone gets a new cell phone
number. People in this situation often find themselves remembering their old
cell phone number or some of its digits instead of the new cell phone number
when they are trying to give the new number to friends.

★ Retroactive Interference- It occurs when you forget a previously learnt

task due to the learning of a new task. In other words, later learning interferes
with earlier learning – where new memories disrupt old memories. Some of
the examples are-
1. Moving from the United States to England, where people drive on the
left instead of the right side of the road.
2. Trying to program your old DVR after having the new one for a year.
3. Moving from one operating system to a different one, such as from
Windows to Mac.
 Neuroscience Of Memory
By - Taanya
Specific areas of the brain may be the places in which memories are physically
formed and that these areas are different for different types of memory.

Several studies have offered evidence that memory is not simply one physical
change but many:

● changes in the number of receptor sites

● ·changes in the sensitivity of the synapse through repeated stimulation
(called long-term potentiation).
● ·changes in the dendrites and specifically in the proteins within the
neurons.

·
 ● Nondeclarative memories seem to be stored in the cerebellum (Boyd & Winstein,
2004; Daum & Schugens, 1996).

Collectively, the synaptic alterations, changes in neuronal structure, protein synthesis,

and other changes that take place as a memory is forming are called consolidation.
Consolidation may take only a few minutes for some memories, such as learning a new
friend’s name, but may take years for others, such as learning a new language (Dudai,
2004).

Hippocampus was identified as the part of the brain that is responsible for the
formation of new long-term declarative memories. Another area of the brain involved in
the formation of long-term memories is the posterior cingulate, an area of the cortex
located near the rear of the corpus callosum.
Amnesia
Amnesia refers generally to Memory loss. Memory loss, confusion, and an
inability to recognise familiar people or settings are all symptoms. Temporary
amnesia can be brought on by a concussion, a serious sickness with a high
temperature, mental stress, some medications, and electroconvulsive therapy,
among other things.
 Retrograde Amnesia
A type of memory loss known as retrograde amnesia involves the inability to
retrieve memories that were created before to the start of amnesia. Damage to
the parts of the brain connected to memory storage is the reason behind it.
Retrograde memory, which is information that occurred before a specific time
period, such as the beginning of a brain injury or another ailment, is impacted.

When someone develops retrograde amnesia, they may have little to no

memory of what happened in the months or years leading up to the amnesia.
But they’re still likely to retain memories from their childhood or early life.

Example - someone might forget whether or not they own a car, what type it
is, and when they bought it but they will still know how to drive.
Anterograde Amnesia
Concussions can also cause a more temporary version of the kind of
amnesia. This kind of amnesia is called anterograde amnesia, or the
loss of memories from the point of injury or illness forward. In this,
people have difficulty remembering anything new. This is also the kind
of amnesia most often seen in people with senile dementia, a mental
disorder in which severe forgetfulness, mental confusion, and mood
swings are the primary symptoms.

Example - someone they've recently met, a new phone number, a

recent meal.
 Infantile Amnesia
Infantile amnesia the inability to retrieve memories from much
before age 3. Infantile amnesia involves the type of memory that
exists in the first few years of life, when a child is still considered
an infant. Early memories are implicit and implicit memories are
difficult to bring to consciousness.

Explicit memory, which is the more verbal and conscious form of

memory, does not really develop until after about age 2, when the
hippocampus is more fully developed and language skills blossom.
 Alzheimer's Disease
Alzheimer's disease causes the brain to shrink and brain cells to eventually die. Alzheimer's
disease is the most common cause of dementia — a gradual decline in memory, thinking,
behavior and social skills. These changes affect a person's ability to function.

With Alzheimer’s disease, the primary memory problem, at least in the beginning, is
anterograde amnesia. Memory loss may be rather mild at first but becomes more severe
over time, causing the person to become more and more forgetful about everyday tasks.
Eventually more dangerous forgetting occurs, such as taking extra doses of medication or
leaving something cooking on the stove unattended. As Alzheimer’s disease progresses,
memories of the past seem to begin “erasing” as retrograde amnesia also takes hold. It is a
costly disease to care for, and caregivers often face severe emotional and financial
burdens in caring for a loved one who is slowly becoming a stranger.
The risk factors for Alzheimer’s (and many other forms of dementia) are
something that can be managed: high cholesterol, high blood pressure, smoking,
obesity, Type II diabetes, and lack of exercise all contribute (Alzheimer’s
Association, 2010; Baumgart et al., 2015).

One study’s findings indicate that continued everyday learning stimulates

brain-derived neurotrophic factors (BDNF), a key protein involved in the
formation of memories (L. Y. Chen et al., 2010). A more recent study suggests that
a drug intended for use in treating diabetes, AC253, may be able to restore
memory to Alzheimer’s-affected brain cells (Kimura et al., 2012), while another
new drug, ORM-12741, also shows promise (Rouru et al., 2013).
THANK YOU
Made By-
Avleen Kaur (036)
Palak Singla (073)
Aas Kaur (066)
Mandeep (057)
Taanya Upadhyay (095)