Chemistry for Civil Engineers Lecture No.

_______________________________________________________________________________

Durability of the civil engineering infrastructures

Durability of the civil engineering infrastructures in various natural environments is getting

more and more attentions by governments and individuals because it can help achieve the
long-lasting goals of engineering constructions.

Durability : General definition

In general, durability is the resistance to degradation of products, materials, buildings and

other built assets over time. A non-durable material decomposes or is eroded in a relatively
short period of time.

A durable building -- one that lasts a long time -- provides a long period of time to amortize
the environmental and economic costs that were incurred in building it. A durable material is
also a low-maintenance material.

Building materials could classified to two categories:

Concrete durability

Durability is the ability to last a long time without significant deterioration. Concrete
durability is defined as the concrete ability to resist weathering actions, chemical attack and
abrasion while maintaining its desired engineering properties.

Durability benefits

Durable concrete structures have plenty of benefits to the environment, people and the
national economy. The extension of five to ten years in the service life of the structures may
mean billions of USD saving to the national economy and to the national resources.
Strength of the concrete

Strength of the concrete is a main structural requirement that determines the capacity of the
concrete to support the designed loads (weight, force, etc...) without breaking and maintain
the structure stability and integrity. Strength is the property generally specified in concrete
design and quality control.

Factors may affect the durability of concrete structures

Many factors may affect the durability of concrete structures such as structural design,
concrete quality (which may include mix design, quality and consistency of raw materials,
mixing and delivery), workmanship (placing, compaction, finishing and curing), structure
usage and environmental exposure.

Strength and durability concepts

Strength and durability are two different concepts related to the quality of the concrete. They
have to be dealt as two different concepts.

A concrete with a higher strength does not necessary mean a concrete with a better durability
performance. At the same time, a concrete with a better durability performance is not
necessary to be a high strength concrete. Strength should be specified only as a requirement
needed to allow the structure withstanding against the loads applied and not as a durability
performance indicator.

The concepts rated to durability based- thinking such as:

 The use of cementitious additives such as silica fume, GGBFS, fly ash, or natural
pozzolans either in binary or ternary blends with cement.

 The use of one of hydrophobic or crystalline admixtures.

 Setting a limit on W/CM ratio.

 Specifying appropriate level of concrete workability that facilities easier construction

processes of concrete casting, compaction and finishing, and eliminates the wrong
practices by the workmanship such as adding extra water on-site.

 Facilitating of better construction processes related to concrete casting, compacting,

finishing and curing of the concrete.

 Specifying “performance-based durability specifications” that focus on the

performance indicators of concrete durability without the need of setting limits on
every single material that would be used as an ingredient in the mix.
I. Physical Durability

The ability of concrete to resist environmental conditions is its physical durability

Abrasion:

Abrasion resistance is defined as the ability of a surface to resist being worn away by rubbing
or friction. It is affected by the exposure conditions, concrete strength, aggregate properties,
cementitious materials, curing methods and surface finish. At its’ worst case, abrasion can
completely wear away concrete from structural elements. In the case of reinforced concrete,
abrasion reduces concrete cover to the reinforcing steel (rebar) which can lead to corrosion
(and thus weakening of rebar) as water and chlorides make their way to the reinforcing steel.

Freezing and Thawing:

Concrete that is exposed to elements in cold climates must be resistant to the effects of
freeze-thaw cycles. Ice takes up more volume than water, which causes microfractures in
concrete to open up and become cracks.

Freeze thaw cycle in concrete

Air-entrainment agents (Pore-Forming Agents) improves the physical durability of concrete

by providing microscopic air pockets to relieve internal pressure and provide tiny chambers
for water to expand into when it freezes. Air-entraining agents are added in an amount of
about 0.001–0.1 wt%, based on the weight of dry cement to yield a desired level of air in a
cement composition. The particular amount used will depend on materials, mix proportion,
and mixing conditions.

Rain and Humidity:

Moisture and environmental conditions affect the pH levels of concrete, known as

carbonation. Carbonation of concrete is the chemical reaction between carbon dioxide in the
air and calcium hydroxide and hydrated calcium silicate in the concrete to give mainly
carbonates. Carbonation does not damage the concrete directly, but the formation of calcium
carbonate leads to a loss of the alkaline concrete environment for rebars. This enables
reinforcing steel corrosion, which causes serious damage to the structure.

II. Chemical Durability

Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR):

ASR is an expansive reaction between chemicals contained in concrete mixes where silica in
aggregates reacts with potassium and sodium alkalis in cement paste. When this reaction
occurs it may produce expansion which results in the development of network of cracks,
spalling of joints, and movement of certain portions of a structure.

Schematic representation of alkali-silica reaction and cracking in concrete

The process is shown in three stages: hydroxyl and alkali species react with the silica to form
a gel; the gel absorbs water, creating expansive forces; and the stresses can ultimately
generate sufficient stress to crack both the aggregates and the surrounding paste. The possible
practice to prevent disorders due to alkali-silica reaction (ASR) in concretes containing
reactive aggregates is the use of chemical admixtures (lithium salts) or, more commonly,
mineral admixtures such as fly ash, silica fume, ground granulated slag or metakaolin.
Chemicals:

Concrete is resistant to most natural environments and many chemicals. Some chemicals,
however, can attack concrete and cause deterioration. Concrete with low permeability is more
resistant to chemicals.

Chloride attack

High concentrations of chloride ions in concrete can be very problematic. Chloride ions break
down the passive layer of reinforcing steel, corrosion takes place as the chloride ions meet
with the steel and the surrounding passive material to produce a chemical process which
forms hydrochloric acid. The hydrochloric acid eats away at the steel reinforcement and thus
leads to concrete cracking, spalling, and eventually failure.

Chloride attack on concrete structures

There are two main sources of chloride ions; one is from the concrete mix components, and
the other from the surrounding environment.

The first could come from unwashed aggregates and sand, admixtures, and even from the use
of seawater in the concrete processing.

The second comes mainly from being exposed to marine environment such as sea water,
when concrete is in contact with soils rich with chlorides deposits, or it can come from
deicing salts and use of chemicals.

Sulfates

Sulfates in water and soil can attack concrete and cause damage. Sulfates react to compounds
in hardened concrete which can create pressure eventually leading to disintegration. Concrete
used in heavy sulfate environments must be specially formulated to resist their effects.
The chemical consequences of sulfate attack on concrete components are:

1. The formation of ettringite (calcium aluminate trisulphate), resulting in an increase in

solid volume, leading to expansion and cracking

2. The formation of gypsum (calcium sulphate dihydrate), leading to softening and loss of
concrete strength

There are plenty of influence factors of sulfate attack on concrete, which are mainly focused
on the kind and concentration of sulfate solution, temperature, pH value, cement composition,
admixtures, and erosion form .

It was indicated that that the MgSO4 had more influence on the deterioration of concrete than
that of Na2SO4.

Concrete samples completely disintegrated between 91 and 105 days in immersion in

sulphate solutions
Elements of Durability

The durability of buildings depends on relatively few specific factors that can be addressed
through design and construction.

Moisture

To a significant extent, durability is an issue of water management. It was estimated that fully
80% of durability problems in buildings have to do with moisture.

Heat

Thermal stress can reduce durability by causing materials to expand and contract. For
example, this can affect long-term window performance; certain frame materials, including
vinyl and aluminum, expand and contract at a higher rate than glass, making windows leakier
over time. High roof temperatures contribute to the degradation of roofing materials, and this
was an important factor in the highly publicized premature degradation of flame-retardant-
treated plywood roof sheathing some years ago. With metal roofing, thermal expansion and
contraction may loosen fasteners over time.

Sunlight

Ultraviolet (UV) light degrades many materials, including most plastics, wood, fabric, and
paint. Along with heat, this is a major cause of the degradation of roofing materials Plastics
that are used outdoors, including vinyl siding, are typically treated with UV stabilizers, but in
some cases these stabilizers themselves carry environmental burdens. UV light also degrades
interior materials, though UV-blocking glazings can reduce damage and prolong the life of
interior finishes and furnishings.

Atmospheric pollutants

Various atmospheric pollutants, especially ozone and acid rain, can degrade building
materials. Ozone is formed at ground level through a chemical reaction between volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) and nitrous oxides (NOx) in the presence of sunlight.

3 O2 + UV => 2 O3 The chemical equation of formation of Ozone

(VOCs) are emitted as gases from certain solids or liquids. VOCs include a variety of
chemicals: benzene, ethylene glycol, formaldehyde, methylene chloride, tetrachloroethylene,
toluene, xylene, and 1,3-butadiene.

While ozone is beneficial in the stratosphere because it blocks high-energy UV light, it is a

pollutant at ground level. Along with causing a host of health problems, such as asthma and
other respiratory illnesses, ozone also damages materials. Many synthetic materials, including
rubber, polyester, nylon, dyes, and certain paints, are susceptible to ozone damage. It can also
damage cotton textiles.

Acid rain, resulting primarily from sulfur dioxide pollutants in the atmosphere (from coal and
other hydrocarbon combustion) corrodes various materials and is especially a problem with
limestone building façades. Acid rain also increases corrosion of copper and lead roofing,
contributing to both shorter lifespans of those materials and the leaching of toxic materials
into the environment. The low-emissivity coatings in most energy-efficient windows block
most of the UV radiation.

Insects

A handful of insect families are responsible for damages to each year, according to. Most
costly of these insects are several dozen species of termites, mostly in
the subterranean termite family. The Formosan termite, a species of subterranean termite, is
becoming the most damaging species in North America. Other insects that can damage
wooden buildings include carpenter ants and powder post beetles. A wide range of design
practices, specialized barrier products, and insect-resistant materials, such as treated wood,
are used to protect buildings from termites and other insects.

Material Failure

Some materials and building components simply wear out. It is reasonable to expect that
some materials have shorter lifespans than others. The challenge is to understand this and
plan accordingly.

Building Function

Some buildings, even as designed, function poorly. A building that is highly functional will
be durable by virtue of the value its occupants place on it; that building is more likely to be
restored or renovated as components wear out, while a less functional building is more likely
to be replaced.

Style

In many areas, design for durability must also address natural disasters, including hurricanes,
tornados, floods, fires, and earthquakes. Designing buildings to withstand natural disasters
and protect occupants in the event of these disasters is a high priority but one that is fairly
well addressed in our life-safety-based building codes.