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Exam 2010 Aerodynamics I, questions

Aerodynamics I (Monash University)

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Monash University

Semester One 2010 Examination Period – Deferred Examination

Faculty Of Engineering

EXAM CODES: MAE 5401

TITLE OF PAPER: AERODYNAMICS

EXAM DURATION: 3 hours writing time

READING TIME: 10 minutes

THIS PAPER IS FOR STUDENTS STUDYING AT:( tick where applicable)

† Berwick ; Clayton † Malaysia † Off Campus Learning † Open Learning
† Caulfield † Gippsland † Peninsula † Enhancement Studies † Sth Africa
† Pharmacy † Other (specify)

During an exam, you must not have in your possession, a book, notes, paper, calculator, pencil case, mobile
phone or other material/item which has not been authorised for the exam or specifically permitted as noted
below. Any material or item on your desk, chair or person will be deemed to be in your possession. You are
reminded that possession of unauthorised materials in an exam is a discipline offence under Monash Statute 4.1.

N o e x a m ina t ion pa pe rs a re t o be re m ove d from t he room .

AUTHORISED MATERIALS

CALCULATORS ; YES † NO

OPEN BOOK † YES ; NO

SPECIFICALLY PERMITTED ITEMS † YES ; NO

if yes, items permitted are:
N/A.

Candidates must answer ALL questions in their script books.

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This examination is marked out of 50 and contributes 50% to your overall score in this unit.

Throughout this examination, cubic polynomial approximations should be used for laminar boundary
layer calculations, and seventh-root profile approximations should be used for turbulent boundary
layers.

For multiple-choice questions 1 to 3, be aware that 2 marks will be awarded for a correct answer, but
2 marks will be SUBTRACTED for an incorrect answer.

Question 1 [2 mark total]

In the construction of thin aerofoil theory, which of the following statements is true?
a) A vortex sheet is placed on the chord line and is constructed such that it represents a stream line,
b) A vortex sheet is placed on the chord line and is constructed such that the camber line is a stream
line,
c) A vortex sheet is placed on the camber line and is constructed such that it represents a stream line,
d) A vortex sheet is placed on the camber line and is constructed such that the chord line is a stream
line.

Question 2 [2 mark total]

In the construction of thin aerofoil theory, which of the following statements is most correct?
a) The Kutta condition enforces that the flow tangent to the upper and lower surfaces of the aerofoil
have the same speed at the trailing edge,
b) The Kutta condition enforces that flow leaves the aerofoil at the trailing edge,
c) The Kutta condition enforces that the vortex sheet circulation strength is zero at the trailing edge,
d) The Kutta condition enforces that the divergence of the velocity field is zero at the trailing edge.

Question 3 [2 mark total]

In a laminar boundary layer, which of the following statements is true in the streamwise direction?

a) A favourable pressure gradient leads to an increase in and at the wall,

b) A favourable pressure gradient leads to a decrease in and at the wall,

c) A favourable pressure gradient leads to an increase in and a decrease in at the wall,

d) A favourable pressure gradient leads to a decrease in and an increase in at the wall.

Question 4 [2 mark total]

Using your knowledge of boundary layer theory, explain what is wrong with the following statement.
Include in your answer the mathematical definition of “adverse pressure gradient” and “flow separation” in
this context:
“A laminar boundary layer separates when the pressure gradient becomes adverse.”

Question 5 [2 mark total]

Lifting line theory is constructed based on inviscid flow theory. Explain why, then, d’Alembert’s Paradox
appears to be violated? i.e., Why is there a non-zero drag predicted from the theory? What is this drag
contribution called, and how does it arise?

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Question 6 [10 marks total]

A thin cambered aerofoil has a camber line defined as 0.05 0.05 ,0 1.

a) [8 marks] At what angle is the lift coefficient zero?

b) [2 marks] Find the equation for lift coefficient as a function of angle of attack for this aerofoil.

1 1
Note: You may need cos d sin , cos2 d sin cos , cos3 d sin cos2 2 .
2 2 3

Question 7 [10 marks total]

A water tunnel employs fluid flow through a straight circular duct of radius 40 mm. Fluid enters the duct
with a uniform velocity of U∞ m/s.

a) [2 marks] Assuming the duct walls are hydraulically smooth, find the total friction force
exerted by the fluid on the duct if U∞ = 2.3 m/s, the duct length is 4.9 m, and the fluid properties are
μ = 1.04 × 10-3 kg/(m s) and ρ = 1003 kg m-3.
b) [2 marks] What would the maximum allowable equivalent sand-grain roughness of the surface
be for the assumption that the surface is hydraulically smooth to be valid?
c) [3 marks] Determine, as a function of both U∞ and the position along the duct x, the velocity U
which might be measured by a probe along the centreline of the duct. Assume that laminar boundary
layers grow on the walls.
d) [3 marks] If the boundary layers transition to turbulent flow at a Reynolds number Ret, what
limitations might this place on the relationship derived in part (c)? Determine an expression for the
maximum duct position xmax at which a reliable centreline velocity measurement could be obtained
from the expression given in part (c).

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Question 8 [20 marks total]

This question considers an aircraft powered by a 224-kW engine.

Station z (m) c (m)

1 -2.5 1.45
2 1.1 1.45
3 3.8 1.25

Figure 1: Plan view of the light aircraft, identifying the

wing semi-span, s, and spanwise coordinate, z. Wing
stations [1], [2], and [3] are indicated, with coordinate
and local chord dimensions given in the accompanying
table.

The aircraft is in flying level with zero rate of ascent, and the following specifications apply:

Length 9.7 m Speed 322 kph

Wing span (2s) 10.88 m Altitude 4990 m
Wing area 16.21 m2 Air density 0.72 kg/m3
Mass (loaded) 1675 kg Air viscosity 1.5 x 10-5 kg/(m s)

a) [2 marks] Assume that the wing is untwisted, symmetrical about the centre-span, has a 0°
geometric angle of attack, and the aerofoil profile supplies a zero-lift angle of attack of -3°. The
aircraft enters large-scale clear air turbulence, which presents as a rotation about the longitudinal axis
through the centre of the aircraft with an angular velocity of 3 radian per second (clockwise when
looking forward from the cockpit). For the given flight conditions, state which are the first 3 non-
zero coefficients (e.g. An where n = 1, 2, 3; An where n = 1, 3, 5; An where n = 2, 4, 6; An where n = 0,
2, 4; etc.) if Prandtl’s integral equation were to be used for a finite-wing analysis of this aircraft.

b) [6 marks] Given these flight conditions, expand Prandtl’s integral equation at each of the three
given stations for the first 3 non-zero coefficients An. Solve to find the An coefficients.

c) [3 marks] Find the lift generated by the wing under these conditions. Would the aircraft be
climbing, descending, or remain at the same altitude at this moment?

d) [6 marks] Suggest two methods of aerofoil flow control which could be employed to modify
the lift of the wing to maintain a constant altitude under these flight conditions. Describe in relation
to viscous aerodynamics how both of these methods work (100 words or less for each).

e) [3 marks] By approximating the wing as a rectangular flat plate with a constant chord obtained
from the stated planform area and span, find the total drag force acting on the wing surfaces due to
induced and friction drag, if the surface has an equivalent sand-grain roughness of 2 mm.

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Aide Memoire

Prandtl’s incompressible boundary-layer equations Skin friction & transition in boundary-layer flows
∂u ∂u ∂ 2u
θ (L )
1 dp 2
u +v =− +ν 2 CF =
∂x ∂y ρ dx ∂y L
∂p 1
CD = CF =
0.0744
=0
∂y 2 F 5 Re
L

∂u ∂v ν
+ =0 xTt = 35.5
5
Ret 8
∂x ∂y U∞
Blasius profile
f ′′′ + f ⋅ f ′′ = 0
ReL C F
0.0744
(
= ReL − Ret + 35.5Ret 8
5
4
5
)
where f = f ′ = 0 at η = 0 ReL C DF
(
= 35.5( pc ReL ) 8 + (1 − pc )ReL
5
)4
5

and f → 1 as η → ∞ 0.1488
U∞ Turbulent boundary-layers
ξ = x, η = y Prandtl-Schlichting:
2νx 0.455
CF =
Cubic momentum integral profile for laminar flow (log10 ReL )2.58
Λ
y − y 3 + (y − 2 y 2 + y 3 ) c f = (2 log10 Re x − 0.65)
3 1 −2.3
u=
2 2 4
V∗ = τ w ρ
δ 2 dU e
where the Polhausen parameter is Λ ≡
ν dx Viscous sub-layer yV∗ < 5
ν
δ (x ) =
4.64 x
Fully developed turbulence yV∗ > 50
Re x ν
k sV∗
δ ∗ (x ) =
1.74 x Completely rough: > 50
Re x ν
C F = (1.89 + 1.62 log10 (L / k s ))
−2.5

θ (x ) =
0.646 x
Re x Thin aerofoils and finite wings
⎡
(cos θ 0 − 1)dθ 0 ⎤⎥
1 π dz
7th-root turbulent velocity profile cl = 2π ⎢α +
⎣ π ∫ 0 dx ⎦
u =7 y
Thin aerofoil change of variables: x 1 − cos θ
δ (x ) =
0.383 x =
5 Re c 2
x
C L = π ( AR ) A1
δ ∗ (x ) =
0.0479 x ∞
5 Re
x C DV = π ( AR )∑ nAn2
n =1
θ (x ) =
0.0372 x
∞
⎛ μn ⎞
5 Re
x μ (α − α 0 ) = ∑ An sin (nθ )⎜1 + ⎟
n =1 ⎝ sin θ ⎠
Momentum integral equation
μ = ca∞ / 8s where s is the wing semi-span.
τ
d
dx
(
U e2θ ) + δ ∗U e
dU e
dx
− ρU eVs = w
ρ
Finite wing change of variables: z = − s cosθ
∞
u y Γ = 4 sV ∑ An sin nθ
u= ,y= n =1
U∞ δ Atmospheric properties
Wakes: θ a = θ b 0 o C = 273.15K
Bio-Savart law R = 286.9J/ (kg ⋅ K )
Velocity induced by vortex filament: k = 1.401
Γ
v= [cos(α ) + cos(β )] a = RTk
4πh
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Exam 2011 Aerodynamics I, questions

Aerodynamics I (Monash University)

StuDocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

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Monash University

Semester One 2011 Examination Period

Faculty Of Engineering

EXAM CODES: MAE 5401

TITLE OF PAPER: AERODYNAMICS

EXAM DURATION: 2 hours writing time

READING TIME: 10 minutes

THIS PAPER IS FOR STUDENTS STUDYING AT:( tick where applicable)

 Berwick  Clayton  Malaysia  Off Campus Learning  Open Learning
 Caulfield  Gippsland  Peninsula  Enhancement Studies  Sth Africa
 Pharmacy  Other (specify)

During an exam, you must not have in your possession, a book, notes, paper, calculator, pencil case, mobile
phone or other material/item which has not been authorised for the exam or specifically permitted as noted
below. Any material or item on your desk, chair or person will be deemed to be in your possession. You are
reminded that possession of unauthorised materials in an exam is a discipline offence under Monash Statute 4.1.

No examination papers are to be removed from the room.

AUTHORISED MATERIALS

CALCULATORS  YES  NO

OPEN BOOK  YES  NO

SPECIFICALLY PERMITTED ITEMS  YES  NO

if yes, items permitted are:
N/A.

Candidates must answer ALL questions in their script books.

Page 1 of 4

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This examination is marked out of 40 and contributes 40% to your overall score in this unit.

Throughout this examination, cubic polynomial approximations should be used for laminar boundary
layer calculations, and seventh-root profile approximations should be used for turbulent boundary
layers.

Question 1 [5 marks total]

Describe, with the aid of a diagram, how it is that extending trailing edge flaps on an aircraft’s wing acts to
increase the lift generated by the wing. Your answer should refer to the chord length, camber, wing
circulation, and boundary layers under and over the wing and flap surfaces.

Question 2 [10 marks total]

𝑥 𝑥
𝑧
0.06 𝑐 , 0≤ ≤ 0.5
𝑐
A thin cambered aerofoil has a camber line defined as =� 𝑥 𝑥 .
𝑐
0.06 �1 − � , 0.5 < ≤1
𝑐 𝑐

a) [8 marks] Find the zero-lift angle of attack for this aerofoil.

b) [2 marks] What is the equation for the lift coefficient as a function of angle of attack?

1 𝜃 1
Note: You may need ∫ cos 𝜃 d𝜃 = sin 𝜃 , ∫ cos2 𝜃 d𝜃 = 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 + 2 , ∫ cos3 𝜃 d𝜃 = 3 sin 𝜃 (cos2 𝜃 + 2).

Question 3 [10 marks total]

A water tunnel employs fluid flow through a straight duct with square cross section. The cross-section has a
side length of 38 mm. Fluid enters the duct with a uniform velocity of U∞ m/s.

a) [2 marks] Assuming the duct walls are hydraulically smooth, find the total friction force
exerted by the fluid on the duct if U∞ = 2.4 m/s, the duct length is 5.2 m, and the fluid properties are
μ = 1.03 × 10-3 kg/(m s) and ρ = 998 kg m-3.

b) [2 marks] Find the maximum allowable equivalent sand-grain roughness for the interior
surface of the duct that still allows it to be considered hydraulically smooth?

c) [3 marks] Determine, as a function of both U∞ and the position along the duct x, the velocity U
which might be measured by a probe along the centreline of the duct. Assume that laminar boundary
layers grow on the walls.

d) [3 marks] If the boundary layers transition to turbulent flow at a Reynolds number Ret, what
limitations might this place on the relationship derived in part (c)? Determine an expression for the
maximum duct position xmax at which a reliable centreline velocity measurement could be obtained
from the expression given in part (c).

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Question 4 [15 marks total]

This question considers an aircraft powered by a 224-kW engine.

Station z (m) c (m)

1 -2.6 1.45
2 1.2 1.45
3 3.7 1.25

Figure 1: Plan view of the light aircraft, identifying the

wing semi-span, s, and spanwise coordinate, z. Wing
stations [1], [2], and [3] are indicated, with coordinate
and local chord dimensions given in the accompanying
table.

The aircraft is in flying level with zero rate of ascent, and the following specifications apply:

Length 9.8 m Speed 333 kph

Wing span (2s) 10.88 m Altitude 4880 m
Wing area 16.34 m2 Air density 0.71 kg/m3
Mass (loaded) 1695 kg Air viscosity 1.4 x 10-5 kg/(m s)

a) [3 marks] Assume that the wing is untwisted, symmetrical about the centre-span, has a 0°
geometric angle of attack, and the aerofoil profile supplies a zero-lift angle of attack of -4°. For the
given flight conditions, state which are the first 3 non-zero coefficients (e.g. An where n = 1, 2, 3; An
where n = 1, 3, 5; An where n = 2, 4, 6; An where n = 0, 2, 4; etc.) if Prandtl’s integral equation were
to be used for a finite-wing analysis of this aircraft.

b) [6 marks] Given these flight conditions, expand Prandtl’s integral equation at each of the three
given stations for the first 3 non-zero coefficients An. Solve to find the An coefficients.

c) [3 marks] Find the lift generated by the wing under these conditions. Would the aircraft be
climbing, descending, or remain at the same altitude at this moment?

d) [3 marks] By approximating the wing as a rectangular flat plate with a constant chord obtained
from the stated planform area and span, find the total drag force acting on the wing surfaces due to
induced and friction drag, if the surface has an equivalent sand-grain roughness of 3 mm.

Page 3 of 4

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Aide Memoire

Prandtl’s incompressible boundary-layer equations Skin friction & transition in boundary-layer flows
∂u ∂u ∂ 2u
θ (L )
1 dp 2
u +v =− +ν 2 CF =
∂x ∂y ρ dx ∂y L
∂p 1
CD = CF =
0.0744
=0
∂y 2 F 5 Re
L

∂u ∂v ν
+ =0 xTt = 35.5
5
Ret 8
∂x ∂y U∞
Blasius profile
f ′′′ + f ⋅ f ′′ = 0
ReL C F
0.0744
(
= ReL − Ret + 35.5Ret 8
5
4
5
)
where f = f ′ = 0 at η = 0 ReL C DF
(
= 35.5( pc ReL ) 8 + (1 − pc )ReL
5
)4
5

and f → 1 as η → ∞ 0.1488
U∞ Turbulent boundary-layers
ξ = x, η = y Prandtl-Schlichting:
2νx 0.455
CF =
Cubic momentum integral profile for laminar flow (log10 ReL )2.58
Λ
y − y 3 + (y − 2 y 2 + y 3 ) c f = (2 log10 Re x − 0.65)
3 1 −2.3
u=
2 2 4
V∗ = τ w ρ
δ 2 dU e
where the Polhausen parameter is Λ≡ Viscous sub-layer yV∗ < 5
ν dx ν
δ (x ) =
4.64 x yV∗
Fully developed turbulence > 50
Re x ν
k sV∗
δ ∗ (x ) =
1.74 x Completely rough: > 50
Re x ν
C F = (1.89 + 1.62 log10 (L / k s ))
−2.5

θ (x ) =
0.646 x
Re x Thin aerofoils and finite wings

(cos θ 0 − 1)dθ 0 
1 π dz
7th-root turbulent velocity profile cl = 2π α +
 π ∫ 0 dx 
u =7 y
Thin aerofoil change of variables: x 1 − cos θ
δ (x ) =
0.383x =
5 Re c 2
x
C L = π ( AR ) A1
δ ∗ (x ) =
0.0479 x ∞
5 Re
x C DV = π ( AR )∑ nAn2
n =1
θ (x ) =
0.0372 x
∞
 µn 
5 Re
x µ (α − α 0 ) = ∑ An sin(nθ )1 + 
n =1  sin θ 
Momentum integral equation
µ = ca ∞ / 8s where s is the wing semi-span.
τ
d
dx
(U e2θ ) + δ ∗U e
dU e
dx
− ρU eVs = w
ρ
Finite wing change of variables: z = − s cosθ
∞
u y Γ = 4 sV ∑ An sin nθ
u= ,y= n =1
U∞ δ Atmospheric properties
Wakes: θ a = θ b 0 C = 273.15K
Bio-Savart law R = 286.9J/ (kg ⋅ K )
Velocity induced by vortex filament: k = 1.401
Γ
v= [cos(α ) + cos(β )] a = RTk
4πh
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Exam 2012, Aerodynamics I Semester 2 questions

Aerodynamics I (Monash University)

StuDocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

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Monash University

Semester Two Examination Period 2012

Faculty of Engineering

EXAM CODES: MAE2404

TITLE OF PAPER: AERODYNAMICS I

EXAM DURATION: 3 hours writing time

READING TIME: 10 minutes

THIS PAPER IS FOR STUDENTS STUDYING AT:

 Berwick  Clayton  Malaysia  Off Campus Learning  Open Learning
 Caulfield  Gippsland  Peninsula  Enhancement Studies  Sth Africa
 Pharmacy  Other (specify)

During an exam, you must not have in your possession, a book, notes, paper, electronic device/s,
calculator, pencil case, mobile phone or other material/item which has not been authorised for the
exam or specifically permitted as noted below. Any material or item on your desk, chair or person
will be deemed to be in your possession. You are reminded that possession of unauthorised materials
in an exam is a discipline offence under Monash Statute 4.1.

No examination papers are to be removed from the room.

AUTHORISED MATERIALS

CALCULATORS  YES  NO

(only calculators with an 'approved for use' Faculty sticker are permitted)

OPEN BOOK  YES  NO

SPECIFICALLY PERMITTED ITEMS  YES  NO

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This examination is marked out of 70 and contributes 70% to your overall score in this unit.
Marks available for each question, as well as the breakdown of marks within each question
are provided in square brackets throughout this paper.

Question 1 [10 marks total]

You wish to determine the relevant dimensionless groups for a problem involving measurement of
the lift generated by the incompressible flow past a given aerofoil profile. You believe that the
relevant variables associated with this problem are as follows:

Symbol Definition (units)

𝛼 Angle of incidence (radian)
𝑉∞ Freestream velocity (m/s)
𝑐 Aerofoil chord length (m)
𝜌 Air density (kg/m3)
𝜇 Air dynamic viscosity (N.s.m-2)
𝐋′ Lift per unit span (N/m)

a) [1 mark] How many unique fundamental dimensions are represented amongst these
variables?

b) [2 marks] How many independent dimensionless groupings can therefore be constructed from
these variables?

c) [7 marks] Use the Buckingham Pi Theorem to find all of the independent groupings relevant to
this problem.

Question 2 [10 marks total]

A low-speed wind tunnel has a test section with horizontal top and bottom walls located a relatively
short distance from an aerofoil model mounted inside the test section. Arrays of pressure tappings
are used to record the variation in pressure in the streamwise (x) direction along the upper and
lower tunnel surfaces, 𝑝𝑢 (𝑥) and 𝑝𝑙 (𝑥), respectively. A control volume is established enclosing a
rectangular region of the test section as well as the surface of the aerofoil. The airstream enters
the control volume at the vertical left boundary with a uniform horizontal velocity 𝑢 = 𝑢1 , and exits
the control volume through the vertical right boundary with a non-uniform horizontal velocity
𝑢 = 𝑢2 (𝑦). There is no flow through the top and bottom walls of the test section, and the surface of
the aerofoil is impermeable. Neglect viscosity and friction in this analysis. Use the conservation-
of-momentum integral equation to determine an expression for the lift force imparted on the
aerofoil by the flow as a function of these velocity and pressure profiles.

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Question 3 [10 marks total]

A solution is proposed for the steady-state flow over a wavy wall, given in Cartesian coordinates as

ℎ 2𝜋 2𝜋𝑥 −2𝜋𝛽𝑦/𝑙
𝑢 = 𝑉∞ �1 + �cos �𝑒 �,
𝛽 𝑙 𝑙
2𝜋 2𝜋𝑥 −2𝜋𝛽𝑦/𝑙
𝑣 = −𝑉∞ ℎ �sin �𝑒 ,
𝑙 𝑙

Where constant 0 < 𝛽 ≤ 1. Constants l and h denote the wavelength and amplitude of the wall
waviness, respectively. Constant 𝑉∞ is the freestream velocity, and the mean wall position is at
𝑦 = 0.

a) [2 marks] Find the divergence of this velocity field. Based on your answer, is this a
compressible or incompressible flow?

b) [2 marks] Find the vorticity field for this velocity field. Based on your answer, is this a
rotational or an irrotational flow?

c) [1 marks] Find the rate-of-strain field for this velocity field.

d) [4 marks] Find the horizontal and vertical components of the time rate of change of velocity for
a fluid element moving with the flow, as a function of x and y.

e) [1 mark] What is the asymptotic time rate of change of velocity far from the wall?

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Question 4 [10 marks total]

The potential flow past a circular cylinder (radius R) with a circulation Γ added to the flow through
the placement of a point vortex at the centre of the cylinder results in a pressure coefficient
distribution around the surface of the cylinder given by
2
2Γsin𝜃 Γ
𝐶𝑝 = 1 − �4sin2 𝜃 + +� � �.
𝜋𝑅𝑉∞ 2𝜋𝑅𝑉∞

a) [2 marks] If the freestream density and velocity are 𝜌∞ and 𝑉∞ , respectively, what is the
pressure distribution around the cylinder surface?

b) [8 marks] The resultant vector for force per unit span imparted on the cylinder by the fluid is
given by

𝐑′ = � 𝑝 𝐝𝐬.
𝑆

Use this integral to find the lift per unit span, 𝐋′ , for this flow. Hint: First resolve the unit vector
differential 𝐝𝐬 into horizontal and vertical components written in terms of 𝜃 to split this integral into
horizontal and vertical force contributions.

Question 5 [15 marks total]

An aerofoil has a camber line defined by

𝑧 𝑥 2 𝑥 3 𝑥
= 0.1 �� � − � � � for 0 ≤ ≤ 1.
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐

a) [8 marks] Use thin aerofoil theory to find the zero-lift angle of attack for this aerofoil.

b) [2 marks] Find the lift coefficient for this aerofoil at 4° angle of attack.

c) [4 marks] Find the quarter-chord moment coefficient and centre of pressure for this aerofoil at
4° angle of attack.

d) [1 mark] Where is the aerodynamic centre for this aerofoil?

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Question 6 [15 marks total]

This question considers an aircraft powered by a 224-kW engine.

Station z (m) c (m)

1 -2.5 1.45
2 1.1 1.45
3 3.8 1.25

Figure 1: Plan view of the light aircraft,

identifying the wing semi-span, s, and spanwise
coordinate, z. Wing stations [1], [2], and [3] are
indicated, with coordinate and local chord
dimensions given in the accompanying table.

The aircraft is in flying level with zero rate of ascent, and the following specifications apply:

Length 9.7 m Speed 322 kph

Wing span (2s) 10.88 m Altitude 4990 m
Wing area 16.21 m2 Air density 0.72 kg/m3
Mass (loaded) 1675 kg Air viscosity 1.5 x 10-5 kg/(m s)

a) [2 marks] Assume that the wing is untwisted, symmetrical about the centre-span, has a 0°
geometric angle of attack, and the aerofoil profile supplies a zero-lift angle of attack of -3°. The
aircraft enters large-scale clear air turbulence, which presents as a rotation about the longitudinal
axis through the centre of the aircraft with an angular velocity of 3 radian per second (clockwise
when looking forward from the cockpit). For the given flight conditions, state which are the first 3
non-zero coefficients (e.g. An where n = 1, 2, 3; An where n = 1, 3, 5; An where n = 2, 4, 6; An where
n = 0, 2, 4; etc.) if Prandtl’s integral equation were to be used for a finite-wing analysis of this
aircraft.

b) [9 marks] Given these flight conditions, expand Prandtl’s integral equation at each of the three
given stations for the first 3 non-zero coefficients An. Solve to find the An coefficients.

c) [4 marks] Find the lift generated by the wing under these conditions. Given this lift condition,
would the aircraft be about to climb, descend, or remain at the same altitude?

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Aide Memoire

Gravity: Conservation of momentum:

2
g = 9.81 m/s
𝜕
� 𝜌𝐕 d𝒱 + �(𝜌𝐕 ∙ 𝐝𝐒)𝐕
𝜕𝑡
𝒱 𝑆
Aerofoil forces and moments:
𝑐𝑙 = 𝑐𝑛 cos 𝛼 − 𝑐𝑎 sin 𝛼,
= − � 𝑝 𝐝𝐒 + � 𝜌𝐟 d𝒱 + 𝐅viscous
𝑐𝑑 = 𝑐𝑛 sin 𝛼 + 𝑐𝑎 cos 𝛼 𝑆 𝒱

′
𝑐 ′
𝑀𝐿𝐸 = − 𝐿′ + 𝑀𝑐/4 = −𝑥𝑐𝑝 𝐿′
4
Substantial derivative:
D 𝜕
Centre of pressure: ≡ + (𝐕 ∙ ∇)
D𝑡 𝜕𝑡
′
𝑀LE
𝑥cp ≈− ′
𝐿 Streamline:
𝐝𝐬 × 𝐕 = 𝟎
Fluid statics:
(line everywhere tangent to velocity field)
d𝑝 = −𝑔𝜌 d𝑦

Circulation:
Buckingham Pi Theorem:
𝑓𝑛(Π1 , Π2 , … , Π𝑛−𝑘 ) = 0 Γ = − � 𝐕 ∙ 𝐝𝐬 = �(∇ × 𝐕) ∙ 𝐝𝐒
𝐶
𝑆

Cartesian vector relations:

𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑧 Stream function:
∇∙𝐀= + + ,
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
𝑢= ,𝑣 = −
𝐢 𝐣 𝐤 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 1 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
∇×𝐀=� � 𝑉𝑟 = , 𝑉𝜃 = −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟
𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧

Velocity potential:
Deformation of a fluid element:
𝐕 = ∇𝜙
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤
𝜀𝑥𝑦 = + , 𝜀𝑦𝑧 = + , 𝜀𝑧𝑥 = +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥
Bernoulli’s equation:
1
Conservation of mass: 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉 2 = const.
2
𝜕
� 𝜌 d𝒱 + � 𝜌𝐕 ∙ 𝐝𝐒 = 0
𝜕𝑡 Quasi-one-dimensional flow:
𝒱 𝑆
𝜕𝜌 𝜌𝐴𝑉 = const.
+ ∇ ∙ (𝜌𝐕) = 0
𝜕𝑡

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Pressure coefficient: ∞

𝑝 − 𝑝∞ Γ = 4 sV ∑ An sin nθ
𝐶𝑝 = , n =1
𝑞∞
1
𝑞∞ = 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞2 , Trigonometric and integral identities
2
𝑉 2 cos 2𝜃 = 2 cos2 𝜃 − 1,
𝐶𝑝 = 1 − � � for incompressible flow.
𝑉∞
� cos 𝜃 d𝜃 = sin 𝜃,

Laplace’s equation: 1
� cos 2 𝜃 d𝜃 = (𝜃 + sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃),
∇2 𝜙 = 0, 2
1
∇2 𝜓 = 0 � cos3 𝜃 d𝜃 = (9 sin 𝜃 + sin 3𝜃),
12
1
Kutta-Joukowski theorem: � cos4 𝜃 d𝜃 = (12𝜃 + 8 sin 2𝜃 + sin 4𝜃),
32
𝐿′ = 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ Γ 1
� sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 d𝜃 = − cos2 𝜃,
2
1
Thin aerofoil theory: � sin2 𝜃 cos 𝜃 d𝜃 = sin3 𝜃,
3

(cos θ0 − 1) dθ0 
1 π dz
cl = 2π α +
 π ∫
0 dx  � sin 𝜃 d𝜃 = − cos 𝜃,

x 1 − cos θ 1
= � sin2 𝜃 d𝜃 = (𝜃 − sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃),
c 2 2
1 𝜋 d𝑧 1
𝐴0 = 𝛼 − � d𝜃 , � sin3 𝜃 d𝜃 = (cos 3𝜃 − 9 cos 𝜃)
𝜋 0 d𝑥 12
2 𝜋 d𝑧
𝐴𝑛 = � cos(𝑛𝜃) d𝜃
𝜋 0 d𝑥 Atmospheric properties
𝑐𝑙 𝜋
𝑐𝑚,LE = − − (𝐴1 − 𝐴2 ) 0 C = 273.15K
4 4
𝜋 R = 286.9J/ (kg ⋅ K )
𝑐𝑚,𝑐/4 = (𝐴2 − 𝐴1 )
4 k = 1.401
𝑐 𝜋
𝑥𝑐𝑝 = �1 + (𝐴1 − 𝐴2 )� a = kRT
4 𝑐𝑙

Finite wing theory

(2𝑠)2
𝐴𝑅 = ,
𝑆
C L = π ( AR ) A1
∞
C DV = π ( AR )∑ nAn2
n =1

∞
𝜇𝑛
� 𝐴𝑛 sin(𝑛𝜃) �1 + � = 𝜇(𝛼eff. − 𝛼𝐿=0 )
sin 𝜃
𝑛=1

𝜇 = 𝑐 𝑎0 ⁄8𝑠 where 𝑠 is the wing semi-span.

Finite wing change of variables: 𝑧 = −𝑠 cos 𝜃

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Exam 2012, Aerodynamics I Semester 2 questions

Aerodynamics I (Monash University)

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Monash University

Semester Two Examination Period 2012

Faculty of Engineering

EXAM CODES: MAE2404

TITLE OF PAPER: AERODYNAMICS I

EXAM DURATION: 3 hours writing time

READING TIME: 10 minutes

THIS PAPER IS FOR STUDENTS STUDYING AT:

 Berwick  Clayton  Malaysia  Off Campus Learning  Open Learning
 Caulfield  Gippsland  Peninsula  Enhancement Studies  Sth Africa
 Pharmacy  Other (specify)

During an exam, you must not have in your possession, a book, notes, paper, electronic device/s,
calculator, pencil case, mobile phone or other material/item which has not been authorised for the
exam or specifically permitted as noted below. Any material or item on your desk, chair or person
will be deemed to be in your possession. You are reminded that possession of unauthorised materials
in an exam is a discipline offence under Monash Statute 4.1.

No examination papers are to be removed from the room.

AUTHORISED MATERIALS

CALCULATORS  YES  NO

(only calculators with an 'approved for use' Faculty sticker are permitted)

OPEN BOOK  YES  NO

SPECIFICALLY PERMITTED ITEMS  YES  NO

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This examination is marked out of 70 and contributes 70% to your overall score in this unit.
Marks available for each question, as well as the breakdown of marks within each question
are provided in square brackets throughout this paper.

Question 1 [10 marks total]

You wish to determine the relevant dimensionless groups for a problem involving measurement of
the lift generated by the incompressible flow past a given aerofoil profile. You believe that the
relevant variables associated with this problem are as follows:

Symbol Definition (units)

𝛼 Angle of incidence (radian)
𝑉∞ Freestream velocity (m/s)
𝑐 Aerofoil chord length (m)
𝜌 Air density (kg/m3)
𝜇 Air dynamic viscosity (N.s.m-2)
𝐋′ Lift per unit span (N/m)

a) [1 mark] How many unique fundamental dimensions are represented amongst these
variables?

b) [2 marks] How many independent dimensionless groupings can therefore be constructed from
these variables?

c) [7 marks] Use the Buckingham Pi Theorem to find all of the independent groupings relevant to
this problem.

Question 2 [10 marks total]

A low-speed wind tunnel has a test section with horizontal top and bottom walls located a relatively
short distance from an aerofoil model mounted inside the test section. Arrays of pressure tappings
are used to record the variation in pressure in the streamwise (x) direction along the upper and
lower tunnel surfaces, 𝑝𝑢 (𝑥) and 𝑝𝑙 (𝑥), respectively. A control volume is established enclosing a
rectangular region of the test section as well as the surface of the aerofoil. The airstream enters
the control volume at the vertical left boundary with a uniform horizontal velocity 𝑢 = 𝑢1 , and exits
the control volume through the vertical right boundary with a non-uniform horizontal velocity
𝑢 = 𝑢2 (𝑦). There is no flow through the top and bottom walls of the test section, and the surface of
the aerofoil is impermeable. Neglect viscosity and friction in this analysis. Use the conservation-
of-momentum integral equation to determine an expression for the lift force imparted on the
aerofoil by the flow as a function of these velocity and pressure profiles.

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Question 3 [10 marks total]

A solution is proposed for the steady-state flow over a wavy wall, given in Cartesian coordinates as

ℎ 2𝜋 2𝜋𝑥 −2𝜋𝛽𝑦/𝑙
𝑢 = 𝑉∞ �1 + �cos �𝑒 �,
𝛽 𝑙 𝑙
2𝜋 2𝜋𝑥 −2𝜋𝛽𝑦/𝑙
𝑣 = −𝑉∞ ℎ �sin �𝑒 ,
𝑙 𝑙

Where constant 0 < 𝛽 ≤ 1. Constants l and h denote the wavelength and amplitude of the wall
waviness, respectively. Constant 𝑉∞ is the freestream velocity, and the mean wall position is at
𝑦 = 0.

a) [2 marks] Find the divergence of this velocity field. Based on your answer, is this a
compressible or incompressible flow?

b) [2 marks] Find the vorticity field for this velocity field. Based on your answer, is this a
rotational or an irrotational flow?

c) [1 marks] Find the rate-of-strain field for this velocity field.

d) [4 marks] Find the horizontal and vertical components of the time rate of change of velocity for
a fluid element moving with the flow, as a function of x and y.

e) [1 mark] What is the asymptotic time rate of change of velocity far from the wall?

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Question 4 [10 marks total]

The potential flow past a circular cylinder (radius R) with a circulation Γ added to the flow through
the placement of a point vortex at the centre of the cylinder results in a pressure coefficient
distribution around the surface of the cylinder given by
2
2Γsin𝜃 Γ
𝐶𝑝 = 1 − �4sin2 𝜃 + +� � �.
𝜋𝑅𝑉∞ 2𝜋𝑅𝑉∞

a) [2 marks] If the freestream density and velocity are 𝜌∞ and 𝑉∞ , respectively, what is the
pressure distribution around the cylinder surface?

b) [8 marks] The resultant vector for force per unit span imparted on the cylinder by the fluid is
given by

𝐑′ = � 𝑝 𝐝𝐬.
𝑆

Use this integral to find the lift per unit span, 𝐋′ , for this flow. Hint: First resolve the unit vector
differential 𝐝𝐬 into horizontal and vertical components written in terms of 𝜃 to split this integral into
horizontal and vertical force contributions.

Question 5 [15 marks total]

An aerofoil has a camber line defined by

𝑧 𝑥 2 𝑥 3 𝑥
= 0.1 �� � − � � � for 0 ≤ ≤ 1.
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐

a) [8 marks] Use thin aerofoil theory to find the zero-lift angle of attack for this aerofoil.

b) [2 marks] Find the lift coefficient for this aerofoil at 4° angle of attack.

c) [4 marks] Find the quarter-chord moment coefficient and centre of pressure for this aerofoil at
4° angle of attack.

d) [1 mark] Where is the aerodynamic centre for this aerofoil?

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Question 6 [15 marks total]

This question considers an aircraft powered by a 224-kW engine.

Station z (m) c (m)

1 -2.5 1.45
2 1.1 1.45
3 3.8 1.25

Figure 1: Plan view of the light aircraft,

identifying the wing semi-span, s, and spanwise
coordinate, z. Wing stations [1], [2], and [3] are
indicated, with coordinate and local chord
dimensions given in the accompanying table.

The aircraft is in flying level with zero rate of ascent, and the following specifications apply:

Length 9.7 m Speed 322 kph

Wing span (2s) 10.88 m Altitude 4990 m
Wing area 16.21 m2 Air density 0.72 kg/m3
Mass (loaded) 1675 kg Air viscosity 1.5 x 10-5 kg/(m s)

a) [2 marks] Assume that the wing is untwisted, symmetrical about the centre-span, has a 0°
geometric angle of attack, and the aerofoil profile supplies a zero-lift angle of attack of -3°. The
aircraft enters large-scale clear air turbulence, which presents as a rotation about the longitudinal
axis through the centre of the aircraft with an angular velocity of 3 radian per second (clockwise
when looking forward from the cockpit). For the given flight conditions, state which are the first 3
non-zero coefficients (e.g. An where n = 1, 2, 3; An where n = 1, 3, 5; An where n = 2, 4, 6; An where
n = 0, 2, 4; etc.) if Prandtl’s integral equation were to be used for a finite-wing analysis of this
aircraft.

b) [9 marks] Given these flight conditions, expand Prandtl’s integral equation at each of the three
given stations for the first 3 non-zero coefficients An. Solve to find the An coefficients.

c) [4 marks] Find the lift generated by the wing under these conditions. Given this lift condition,
would the aircraft be about to climb, descend, or remain at the same altitude?

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Aide Memoire

Gravity: Conservation of momentum:

2
g = 9.81 m/s
𝜕
� 𝜌𝐕 d𝒱 + �(𝜌𝐕 ∙ 𝐝𝐒)𝐕
𝜕𝑡
𝒱 𝑆
Aerofoil forces and moments:
𝑐𝑙 = 𝑐𝑛 cos 𝛼 − 𝑐𝑎 sin 𝛼,
= − � 𝑝 𝐝𝐒 + � 𝜌𝐟 d𝒱 + 𝐅viscous
𝑐𝑑 = 𝑐𝑛 sin 𝛼 + 𝑐𝑎 cos 𝛼 𝑆 𝒱

′
𝑐 ′
𝑀𝐿𝐸 = − 𝐿′ + 𝑀𝑐/4 = −𝑥𝑐𝑝 𝐿′
4
Substantial derivative:
D 𝜕
Centre of pressure: ≡ + (𝐕 ∙ ∇)
D𝑡 𝜕𝑡
′
𝑀LE
𝑥cp ≈− ′
𝐿 Streamline:
𝐝𝐬 × 𝐕 = 𝟎
Fluid statics:
(line everywhere tangent to velocity field)
d𝑝 = −𝑔𝜌 d𝑦

Circulation:
Buckingham Pi Theorem:
𝑓𝑛(Π1 , Π2 , … , Π𝑛−𝑘 ) = 0 Γ = − � 𝐕 ∙ 𝐝𝐬 = �(∇ × 𝐕) ∙ 𝐝𝐒
𝐶
𝑆

Cartesian vector relations:

𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑧 Stream function:
∇∙𝐀= + + ,
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
𝑢= ,𝑣 = −
𝐢 𝐣 𝐤 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 1 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
∇×𝐀=� � 𝑉𝑟 = , 𝑉𝜃 = −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟
𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧

Velocity potential:
Deformation of a fluid element:
𝐕 = ∇𝜙
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤
𝜀𝑥𝑦 = + , 𝜀𝑦𝑧 = + , 𝜀𝑧𝑥 = +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥
Bernoulli’s equation:
1
Conservation of mass: 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉 2 = const.
2
𝜕
� 𝜌 d𝒱 + � 𝜌𝐕 ∙ 𝐝𝐒 = 0
𝜕𝑡 Quasi-one-dimensional flow:
𝒱 𝑆
𝜕𝜌 𝜌𝐴𝑉 = const.
+ ∇ ∙ (𝜌𝐕) = 0
𝜕𝑡

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Pressure coefficient: ∞

𝑝 − 𝑝∞ Γ = 4 sV ∑ An sin nθ
𝐶𝑝 = , n =1
𝑞∞
1
𝑞∞ = 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞2 , Trigonometric and integral identities
2
𝑉 2 cos 2𝜃 = 2 cos2 𝜃 − 1,
𝐶𝑝 = 1 − � � for incompressible flow.
𝑉∞
� cos 𝜃 d𝜃 = sin 𝜃,

Laplace’s equation: 1
� cos 2 𝜃 d𝜃 = (𝜃 + sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃),
∇2 𝜙 = 0, 2
1
∇2 𝜓 = 0 � cos3 𝜃 d𝜃 = (9 sin 𝜃 + sin 3𝜃),
12
1
Kutta-Joukowski theorem: � cos4 𝜃 d𝜃 = (12𝜃 + 8 sin 2𝜃 + sin 4𝜃),
32
𝐿′ = 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ Γ 1
� sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 d𝜃 = − cos2 𝜃,
2
1
Thin aerofoil theory: � sin2 𝜃 cos 𝜃 d𝜃 = sin3 𝜃,
3

(cos θ0 − 1) dθ0 
1 π dz
cl = 2π α +
 π ∫
0 dx  � sin 𝜃 d𝜃 = − cos 𝜃,

x 1 − cos θ 1
= � sin2 𝜃 d𝜃 = (𝜃 − sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃),
c 2 2
1 𝜋 d𝑧 1
𝐴0 = 𝛼 − � d𝜃 , � sin3 𝜃 d𝜃 = (cos 3𝜃 − 9 cos 𝜃)
𝜋 0 d𝑥 12
2 𝜋 d𝑧
𝐴𝑛 = � cos(𝑛𝜃) d𝜃
𝜋 0 d𝑥 Atmospheric properties
𝑐𝑙 𝜋
𝑐𝑚,LE = − − (𝐴1 − 𝐴2 ) 0 C = 273.15K
4 4
𝜋 R = 286.9J/ (kg ⋅ K )
𝑐𝑚,𝑐/4 = (𝐴2 − 𝐴1 )
4 k = 1.401
𝑐 𝜋
𝑥𝑐𝑝 = �1 + (𝐴1 − 𝐴2 )� a = kRT
4 𝑐𝑙

Finite wing theory

(2𝑠)2
𝐴𝑅 = ,
𝑆
C L = π ( AR ) A1
∞
C DV = π ( AR )∑ nAn2
n =1

∞
𝜇𝑛
� 𝐴𝑛 sin(𝑛𝜃) �1 + � = 𝜇(𝛼eff. − 𝛼𝐿=0 )
sin 𝜃
𝑛=1

𝜇 = 𝑐 𝑎0 ⁄8𝑠 where 𝑠 is the wing semi-span.

Finite wing change of variables: 𝑧 = −𝑠 cos 𝜃

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Exam 2013 Aerodynamics I, questions and answers semester

2
Aerodynamics I (Monash University)

StuDocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

Downloaded by Ferhat Gültekin ([email protected])
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Office Use Only

Monash University

Semester Two Examination Period 2013 - SOLUTIONS

Faculty of Engineering

EXAM CODES: MAE2404

TITLE OF PAPER: AERODYNAMICS I

EXAM DURATION: 3 hours writing time

READING TIME: 10 minutes

THIS PAPER IS FOR STUDENTS STUDYING AT:

 Berwick  Clayton  Malaysia  Off Campus Learning  Open Learning
 Caulfield  Gippsland  Peninsula  Enhancement Studies  Sth Africa
 Pharmacy  Other (specify)

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Question 1 [15 marks total]

The frequency of vortex shedding behind circular cylinders has important implications on fatigue of
structures exposed to aerodynamic flows. It is expected that shedding frequency f may be
expressed as a function of the following independent variables: cylinder diameter d, freestream
velocity 𝑉∞ , fluid density 𝜌, and fluid viscosity 𝜇.

a) [10 marks] Use the Buckingham Pi Theorem to find all of the independent dimensionless
groupings relevant to this problem.

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b) [5 marks] Experiments have determined that in the low-Reynolds-number laminar flow regime,
shedding frequency f is proportional to 𝑑−3/2 . Two cylinders (cylinder 1 and cylinder 2) are
immersed in air (same density and viscosity). Cylinder 1 has 3.5 times the flow velocity and 0.7
times the diameter as cylinder 2. What will the ratio of shedding frequencies be for cylinder 1 to
cylinder 2?

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Question 2 [10 marks total]

The potential flow over a sphere can be constructed by superposing the elementary uniform
freestream flow and a three-dimensional doublet flow. In spherical coordinates (𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜙) with the
origin located at the centre of the doublet, and 𝜃 = 0 pointing upstream, the elementary uniform
flow with velocity 𝑉∞ is given by
𝑉𝑟 = −𝑉∞ cos𝜃,
𝑉𝜃 = 𝑉∞ sin𝜃,
𝑉𝜙 = 0.
The elementary three-dimensional doublet with strength 𝜅 is given by
𝜅
𝑉𝑟 = cos𝜃,
2𝜋𝑟 3
𝜅
𝑉𝜃 = sin𝜃,
4𝜋𝑟 3
𝑉𝜙 = 0.
a) [2 marks] Find the (𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜙) coordinates of any stagnation points in this flow,

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b) [1 mark] Show that this flow is capable of describing the potential flow past a sphere (i.e. show
that there exists some radius R over which the velocity normal to the surface is zero everywhere
on the surface.

c) [1 mark] Find an expression for the tangential velocity 𝑉𝜃 on the sphere as a function of 𝜃, 𝜙
and R.

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d) [2 marks] Find the maximum velocity and show with the aid of a diagram the location where
it occurs on the sphere surface.

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e) [4 marks] For the potential flow past a circular cylinder, the pressure coefficient is given by
𝐶𝑝 = 1 − 4sin2 𝜃. In your own words, describe the three-dimensional relieving effect in flow over
three-dimensional bodies compared to the flow over two-dimensional bodies, making reference to
the difference (if any) between the surface pressure coefficients produced by flow over spheres
and circular cylinders.

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Question 3 [10 marks total]

a) [2 marks] A U-tube water manometer measures a wing surface pressure on a wind tunnel
model. One arm connects to the model, while the other is open to the atmosphere. Atmospheric
pressure and water density are 1.01 × 105 N/m2 and 998 kg/m3, respectively. What is the point
pressure on the wing if the displacement between the water column free surfaces is 45 cm, with
the column on the model side rising?

1 mark working + 1 mark answer

b) [8 marks] An open-circuit wind tunnel has an inlet-to-throat (test section) area ratio of 12. A U-
tube mercury manometer reads a height difference of 10 cm when the tunnel is switched on, when
one end is connected to the inlet, and the other to the test section. What is the airflow velocity in
the test section? Take the density of mercury to be 1.36 × 104 kg/m3.

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Question 4 [10 marks total]

The Mk I variant of the Supermarine Spitfire (shown above) first flew in 1936. Its maximum speed
at 18,500 ft altitude was 362 mi/h. Its weight was 5820 lb, wing area 242 ft2, wing span 36.1 ft, and
its supercharged Merlin powerplant produced 1050 horsepower at this altitude. (At this altitude,
density 𝜌 = 0.0013329 slug/ft3; also assume 𝜏 = 𝛿).

a) [3 marks] Calculate the induced drag coefficient at this flight condition.

In steady, level flight, L = W, thus

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b) [3 marks] What percentage of the total drag coefficient is due to induced drag? (Assume
steady, level flight, and assume that 90% of the engine power is converted to thrust by the
propeller).

First find the total drag on the Spitfire:

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c) [4 marks] Find the induced drag coefficient for the Spitfire on landing approach at sea level
(𝜌 = 0.002377 slug/ft3) at a speed of 70 mi/h. Compare this result to your answer for part (a), and
comment on the importance of the induced drag coefficient at low speeds compared to that at high
speeds.

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Question 5 [25 marks total]

In the late 1800s, Otto Lilienthal published aerodynamic force coefficient data measured from wing
experiments at various angles of attack (𝛼). Orville and Wilbur Wright used data tabulated by
Lilienthal at 𝛼 = 3° to predict the lift produced by their early 1900 glider design. Upon testing their
glider at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, they discovered that instead of producing the lift coefficient
from Lilienthal’s data, their glider achieved only 1/3 of the expected lift coefficient. This led to the
persistent suggestion in the early aerodynamics community that Lilienthal’s data was in error. The
table below contains wing parameters from both the Lilienthal experiments and from the Wright
brothers’ field tests. For both wings, find
a) [8 marks] The zero-lift angle of attack,

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b) [4 marks] The lift slope,

c) [4 marks] The lift coefficient at 𝛼 = 3°. Compare the results – was Lilienthal’s data as
erroneous as it appeared in 1900?

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d) [3 marks] What assumptions are Prandtl’s wing theories based on? What other factors might
also contribute to the discrepancy between Lilienthal’s and the Wright brothers’ wing lift coefficient
measurements?

Prandtl’s theories are based on

• inviscid flow (friction due to viscosity is neglected – no friction force contribution),

• thin aerofoils (aerofoil is the camber line – less accurate for thicker aerofoils)
• small camber (less accurate as camber increases)
• 2D: aerofoil can be represented by placing the vortex sheet on the chord line that makes
the camber line a streamline, while enforcing the Kutta condition for flow leaving at the
trailing edge
• 3D: wing represented by a bound line vortex (effect of planform shape only accommodated
through the imposition of known loading distributions – works best for large aspect ratios,
not so well for smaller aspect ratios, where numerical vortex lattice methods would be
preferred).

We have also not considered wing sweep, though it isn’t applicable in this case.

Additionally, the wing/body configuration has not been considered – biplane configurations,
fuselage and tail geometries can alter airflow and cause aerodynamic forces to deviate from these
theoretical predictions.

e) [6 marks] If you could teleport back to Kitty Hawk in 1900, what recommendations would you
make to the Wright brothers as to how they might modify their aspect ratio, camber, and planform
shape in order to improve lift and lift-to-drag ratio at 𝛼 = 3°? Explain your reasoning for each of
these recommendations in relation to Prandtl’s wing theories.

Recommendations:

1) Increase the aspect ratio – from

𝐶𝐿2 𝐶𝐿2
𝐶𝐷,𝑖 = (1 + 𝛿) =
𝜋AR 𝜋𝑒AR

it can be seen that induced drag is inversely proportional to aspect ratio  larger aspect ratios
result in lower drag (and thus higher lift-drag ratios) for a given lift coefficient.

2) Modify the camber profile and maximum camber – thin aerofoil theory demonstrates that
increasing camber shifts the zero-lift angle of attack to more negative values, thus predicting a
greater lift at any given incidence angle than would be achieved with a smaller camber.

However, the position of maximum camber, the camber profile and the thickness profile all
combine to produce either desirable or undesirable airflow properties, thus either producing
favourable or unfavourable performance in terms of lift-drag polars, lift coefficient vs angle of
attack, stall angles, etc. In the early 1900s, experimental studies on many different profiles would
be the only way to find out what shape(s) might work best.

3) Use either a tapered wing planform (with taper ratio ~0.3) or an elliptical wing planform to
minimise the induced drag. In the above equation, 𝛿 = 0 for an elliptic wing, which produces the
minimum possible induced drag for an aerodynamically and geometrically untwisted planform,
while taper ratios in the vicinity of 0.3 minimise 𝛿, often to better than 1% of the elliptic planform
(depending on aspect ratio).

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MAE2404 tutorial 06 solutions

Aerodynamics I (Monash University)

StuDocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

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MAE2404 Aerodynamics I

Tutorial 6 – Incompressible duct flow; Irrotational, incompressible flow

Worked solutions

Question 1
A venturi has a throat-to-inlet area ratio of 0.8 and is mounted on an aeroplane fuselage in standard sea-
level flight. If the static pressure at the throat is 2100 lb/ft2, what is the aeroplane velocity?

To solve this problem we need to employ Bernoulli’s equation along some streamline from the venturi inlet
(which we may refer to as station 1), to the throat (station 2),

1 1
𝑝" + 𝜌𝑉"( = const. = 𝑝( + 𝜌𝑉(( .
2 2

We know the inlet pressure is standard sea-level atmospheric, and we know density is constant throughout
at standard sea-level conditions. Neither inlet (aeroplane) velocity nor throat velocity is known, but we can
relate the velocity at the throat to the inlet velocity by employing the quasi-one-dimensional continuity
equation and our knowledge of the area ratio of the venturi

𝐴" 𝑉" = 𝐴( 𝑉(
𝑉" 𝐴(
∴ = = 0.8
𝑉( 𝐴"
𝑉"
∴ 𝑉( = .
0.8

Rearranging our Bernoulli expression leads to

1
𝜌(𝑉"( − 𝑉(( ) = 𝑝( − 𝑝" .
2

Substituting our area ratio and further rearranging leads to the solution through

1 𝑉" (
𝜌 7𝑉" − 8 9 : = 𝑝( − 𝑝" .
(
2 0.8
1 ( 1
𝜌𝑉" 81 − 9 = 𝑝( − 𝑝" .
2 0.8(

2(𝑝( − 𝑝" )
𝑉" = ; .
1
𝜌 <1 − =
0.8(

2(2100 − 2116)
𝑉" = ; = 154.7 ft/s.
1
0.002377 <1 − =
0.8(

-1-

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Question 2
A small hole is drilled in the side of the throat of a venturi with a throat-to-inlet area ratio of 0.85. Defining a
vacuum as the pressure difference between this hole and ambient pressure of the air entering the venturi,
what is the maximum attainable vacuum in a standard sea level airstream at 90 m/s?

We again have a venturi, but this time we are interested in the difference in pressure between the throat
and the inlet. The solution for this problem can be obtained by combining Bernoulli’s equation along with

1
the quasi-one-dimensional continuity equation. From the solution to the previous question, we have

𝜌(𝑉"( − 𝑉(( ) = 𝑝( − 𝑝"

2

and

𝐴"
𝑉( = 𝑉" .
𝐴(

Combining and simplifying gives

1 𝐴" (
𝑝( − 𝑝" = 𝜌 7𝑉"( − 𝑉"( 8 9 :.
2 𝐴(

Everything on the right-hand side is known, so substitution reveals the solution:

1 N
𝑝( − 𝑝" = 1.23(90)( (1 − 0.85G( ) = −1913 ( .
2 m

-2-

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Question 3
An open-circuit wind tunnel has an inlet-to-throat (test section) area ratio of 12. A U-tube mercury
manometer reads a height difference of 10 cm when the tunnel is switched on, when one end is connected
to the inlet, and the other to the test section. What is the airflow velocity in the test section? Take the
density of mercury to be 1.36 × 104 kg/m3.

To solve this problem we recognise that the open-circuit wind tunnel is behaving as a venturi. The
pressure difference is being measured by a U-tube manometer, so we can combine our knowledge of U-
tube manometers from our coverage of hydrostatics to replace the pressure difference appearing in the
venturi analysis expressions from the previous questions. Noting that we are interested in the velocity at
the throat (test section, station 2), the required equations are therefore

1
𝜌(𝑉"( − 𝑉(( ) = 𝑝( − 𝑝" ,
2
𝐴(
𝑉" = 𝑉( ,
𝐴"
𝑝( − 𝑝" = 𝜌K 𝑔∆ℎ,

effect, and therefore the test section pressure will be lower than atmospheric. Therefore, the ∆ℎ in the U-
Now we need to recognize that the velocity in the test section will be higher than the inlet due to the venturi

tube manometer equation must be negative.

So combining, simplifying and substituting known values permits us to find the solution:

1
𝜌(𝑉"( − 𝑉(( ) = 𝜌K 𝑔∆ℎ,
2
1 𝐴( (
∴ 𝜌 7𝑉(( 8 9 − 𝑉(( : = 𝜌K 𝑔∆ℎ,
2 𝐴"
𝜌K 𝑔∆ℎ
∴ 𝑉(( = 2 ,
𝐴 (
𝜌 7<𝐴( = − 1:
"

𝜌K 𝑔∆ℎ
∴ 𝑉( = 2 ,
; 𝐴( (
𝜌 7< = − 1:
𝐴"

(1.36 × 10P )(9.81)(−0.1) m

∴ 𝑉( = 2 = 147.8 .
; 1 ( s
1.23 7<12= − 1:

-3-

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Question 4
If the static pressure at the inlet for the wind tunnel in the previous question is atmospheric, what pressure
would be measured by a Pitot tube placed in the test section.

To solve this problem, we recognise that a Pitot tube measures total pressure, or the sum of the static and
dynamic pressures.

The dynamic pressure in the test section can be determined from the dynamic pressure definition

1 1
𝑞( = 𝜌𝑉(( = (1.23)(147.8)( = 1.343 × 10P Pa.
2 2

The static pressure in the test section can be found by using the U-tube manometer reading from the
previous question, and noting that the inlet static pressure is standard sea-level atmospheric pressure:

𝑝( − 𝑝" = 𝜌K 𝑔∆ℎ
∴ 𝑝( = 𝑝" + 𝜌K 𝑔∆ℎ

∴ 𝑝( = 1.01 × 10T + (1.36 × 10P )(9.81)(−0.1) = 8.775 × 10P Pa

Therefore the total pressure is found from

𝑝U,( = 8.775 × 10P + 1.343 × 10P = 1.01 × 10T Pa.

In other words, the total pressure in the test section is equal to atmospheric pressure. This occurs because
there are negligible losses (we certainly haven’t considered any!) in the flow from the open-air tunnel inlet
to the test section. If we had accounted for possible viscous losses, we would see an increase in the total
pressure in the test section. This is why in hydraulic systems (e.g. pipe networks, the circulatory system,
etc.), a higher pressure is needed upstream to drive the flow (i.e. to offset the total pressure increase due to
friction losses).

-4-

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Question 5
What is the velocity of an aircraft flying at standard sea level conditions if a Pitot tube affixed to the aircraft
reads 1.07 × 105 N/m2?

To solve this question, recall that a Pitot tube measures total pressure in a flow. Therefore, the velocity can

𝑝U = 𝑝 + 𝑞,
be inferred from the dynamic pressure term in the relation

where q is the dynamic pressure, and p is the static pressure (here being standard sea level air pressure).

1
Therefore

𝑝U = 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑉 (
2
1 (
∴ 𝜌𝑉 = 𝑝U − 𝑝
2
∴ 𝑉 = V2(𝑝U − 𝑝)/𝜌
m
∴ 𝑉 = V2(1.07 − 1.01) × 10T /1.23 = 98.8 .
s

Question 6
For the aircraft in the previous question, what would the pressure coefficient be at a point on the wing
surface where the local flow speed is 130 m/s?

To solve this question apply the pressure coefficient expression, and note that we had the aircraft velocity

𝑝 − 𝑝Y
being 98.8 m/s in the previous question

𝐶X =
𝑞Y
𝑉 (
∴ 𝐶X = 1 − 8 9
𝑉Y
130 (
∴ 𝐶X = 1 − 8 9 = −0.731
98.8

-5-

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Show that a uniform flow with velocity 𝑉Y is a physically possible irrotational incompressible flow.
Question 7

To be a physically possible irrotational and incompressible flow, the divergence and curl of the velocity field
must both be zero.

The velocity field is given by

𝐕 = 𝐢𝑉Y ,

and the expressions to satisfy are

∇ ∙ 𝐕 = 0,
∇ × 𝐕 = 0.

Given the horizontal and uniform nature of this velocity field, it will be convenient to conduct this analysis in
a Cartesian coordinate system. Therefore for the divergence of velocity we have

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
∇∙𝐕 = + + ,
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

where

𝜕𝑢
𝑢 = 𝑉Y , = 0,
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑣
𝑣 = 0, = 0,
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑤
𝑤 = 0, = 0.
𝜕𝑧

Therefore the divergence of velocity is zero everywhere, and the flow is INCOMPRESSIBLE.

In a Cartesian sense, the curl of velocity for this flow is given by

𝐢 𝐣 𝐤
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑉Y 𝜕𝑉Y
∇×𝐕 =e e = 𝐢(0 − 0) + 𝐣 7 − 0: + 𝐤 70 − : = 0.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦
𝑉Y 0 0

Therefore the curl of velocity is zero everywhere, and the flow is IRROTATIONAL.

-6-

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Show that a source flow (𝑉h = 𝑐 ⁄𝑟, 𝑉l = 0, where c is a constant) is a physically possible incompressible
Question 8

and irrotational flow everywhere but the origin.

To be a physically possible irrotational and incompressible flow, the divergence and curl of the velocity field
must both be zero.

𝑐
The velocity field is given by

𝐕 = 𝐞h ,
𝑟

∇ ∙ 𝐕 = 0,
and the expressions to satisfy are

∇ × 𝐕 = 0.
Given the radial nature of this velocity field, it will be convenient to conduct this analysis in a cylindrical

1 𝜕(𝑟𝑉h ) 1 𝜕𝑉l 𝜕𝑉o

coordinate system. Therefore for the divergence of velocity we have

∇∙𝐕= + + ,
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧

𝜕(𝑟𝑉h )
where

𝑟𝑉h = 𝑐, = 0,
𝜕𝑟
𝜕𝑉l
𝑉l = 0, = 0,
𝜕𝜃
𝜕𝑉o
𝑉o 0, = 0.
𝜕𝑧

0 0
Therefore

∇∙𝐕 = + + 0,
𝑟 𝑟
Therefore the divergence of velocity is zero everywhere, EXCEPT at the origin where it is undefined (0/0).
The flow is therefore INCOMPRESSIBLE everywhere except at the origin.

𝐞h 𝑟𝐞l 𝐞o
In a cylindrical sense, the curl of velocity for this flow is given by

1 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 1 𝜕 𝑐 𝜕 𝑐
∇ × 𝐕 = ee𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧ee = p𝐞h (0 − 0) + 𝑟𝐞l 7 < = − 0: + 𝐞o q0 − < =rs = 0.
𝑟 𝑐 𝑟 𝜕𝑧 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟
0 0
𝑟
Therefore the curl of velocity is zero everywhere, EXCEPT at the origin where it is undefined (0/0). The
flow is therefore IRROTATIONAL everywhere except at the origin.

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