GET 208: STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

STRESSES AND STRAINS DUE TO LOADING

The strength of a material depends on its ability to sustain a load without undue
deformation or failure. One of the most important tests to perform in order to
determine this property is the tension or compression test. Although several
important mechanical properties of a material can be determined from this test,
it is used primarily to determine the relationship between the average normal
stress and average normal strain in many engineering materials such as metals,
ceramics, polymers, and composites. The load and corresponding deformation
data are used to calculate various values of the stress and corresponding strain in
the specimen. A plot of the results produces a curve called the stress–strain
diagram. A typical stress–strain diagram is shown in Figure 1below.

Figure 1: Conventional Stress-Strain Diagram

Elastic Behavior: Elastic behavior of the material occurs when the strains in the
specimen are within the elastic region as shown in Figure 1. The curve is
actually a straight line throughout most of the region, so that the stress is
proportional to the strain. The material in this region is said to be linear elastic.
The upper stress limit to this linear relationship is called the proportional limit,
𝜎 . If the stress slightly exceeds the proportional limit, the curve tends to bend
and flatten out as shown. This continues until the stress reaches the elastic limit.
Upon reaching this point, if the load is removed the specimen will still return
back to its original shape.

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Yielding: A slight increase in stress above the elastic limit will cause the
material to deform permanently. This behavior is called yielding. The stress that
causes yielding is called the yield stress, 𝜎 , and the deformation that occurs is
called plastic deformation.

Strain Hardening: When yielding has ended, an increase in load can be

supported by the specimen, resulting in a curve that rises continuously but
becomes flatter until it reaches a maximum stress referred to as the ultimate
stress, 𝜎 . The rise in the curve in this manner is called strain hardening.

Necking: Up to the ultimate stress, as the specimen elongates, its cross-

sectional area will decrease. This decrease is fairly uniform over the specimen’s
entire length; however, just after, at the ultimate stress, the cross-sectional area
will begin to decrease in a localized region of the specimen. As a result, a
“neck” tends to form in this region as the specimen elongates further. Here the
stress–strain diagram tends to curve downward until the specimen breaks at the
fracture stress, 𝜎 .

Strain Energy: As a material is deformed by an external loading, it tends to

store energy internally throughout its volume. Since this energy is related to the
strains in the material, it is referred to as strain energy. Strain energy is denoted
as U. For applications, it is often convenient to specify the strain energy per unit
volume (V) of material. This is called the strain-energy density, and it can be
expressed as:

∆𝑈 1
𝑢= = 𝜎𝜖
∆𝑉 2
If the material behavior is linear elastic, then Hooke’s law applies, 𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖 ,
and therefore the above equation can be expressed as:
1𝜎
𝑢=
2𝐸

Modulus of Resilience: When the stress reaches the proportional limit, the
strain-energy density is referred to as the modulus of resilience, i.e.
1 1𝜎
𝑢 = 𝜎 𝜖 =
2 2 𝐸

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 GENERALIZED HOOKE'S LAW
The stress-strain diagrams for most engineering materials exhibit a linear
relationship between stress and strain within elastic limit. Consequently, an
increase in stress causes a proportionate increase in strain. This fact is known as
Hooke’s law. It is expressed as 𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖 .
E represents the constant of proportionality, which is called the modulus of
elasticity or Young’s modulus. The equation above represents the equation of
the initial straight-lined portion of the stress-strain diagram up to the
proportional limit. Furthermore, the modulus of elasticity represents the slope of
this line. Also, the modulus of elasticity is a mechanical property that indicates
the stiffness of a material. Materials that are very stiff, such as steel, have large
values of E (𝐸 = 200𝐺𝑃𝑎), whereas soft materials such as vulcanized rubber
may have low values (𝐸 = 0.7𝑀𝑃𝑎).
A similar modulus called the shear modulus or the modulus of rigidity relates
the shearing stress 𝜏 and the shearing strain 𝛾 as follows:
𝜏
𝐺=
𝛾
Poisson’s ratio: A material loaded in one direction will undergo strains
perpendicular to the direction of the load in addition to those parallel to the
load. The ratio of the lateral (perpendicular) strain to the longitudinal (axial)
strain is called Poisson’s ratio and is given as:
𝜖𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙
𝜐=−
𝜖𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
Consider a bar having an original radius r and length L and subjected to the
tensile force P. This force elongates the bar by an amount 𝛿 and its radius
contracts by an amount 𝛿 . Strains in the longitudinal or axial direction and in
the lateral or radial direction are given as follows:

𝛿 𝛿′
𝜖 = and 𝜖 =

Like the modulus of elasticity and the shear modulus G, Poisson’s ratio is also a
property of a material. Hence, Poisson’s ratio (𝜐) is related to E and G by the
formula:
E = 2(1 + 𝜐)𝐺

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EXERCISES
1) An aluminum specimen has a diameter of 25mm and a length of
250mm. If a force of 165kN elongates the length by 1.2mm,
determine the modulus of elasticity. Also determine by how much the
force causes the diameter of the specimen to contract. Take 𝐺 =
26𝐺𝑃𝑎 and 𝜎 = 440 𝑀𝑃𝑎. (Ans: 𝑬 = 𝟕𝟎𝑮𝑷𝒂 & 𝜹 = 0.0416mm)

2) A square steel rod 15mmx15mm in section is to carry an axial load

(compressive) of 150 kN. Calculate the shortening in a length of
75mm. 𝐸 = 2.03 × 10 𝑘𝑁/𝑚 . (Ans: 𝜹 = 0.246mm)

3) The following observations were made during a tensile test on a

mild steel specimen 50mm in diameter and 180mm long. Elongation
with 50kN load (within limit of proportionality) is 𝛿 =
0.256𝑚𝑚, yield load = 150kN, Maximum load =230 kN, length of
specimen at fracture = 232mm. Determine (i) Modulus of Elasticity
(ii) Yield point stress (iii) Ultimate Stress (iv) Percentage elongation.
(Ans: (i) 𝑬 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟗𝟔𝑮𝑷𝒂 (𝒊𝒊) 𝝈𝒀 = 76.4MPa,
(iii) 𝝈𝑼 = 117.14MPa, (iv) 𝜹𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 = 𝟐𝟖. 𝟗%)

4) A hollow cast-iron cylinder 5m long, 400mm outer diameter and

metal thickness of 50mm is subjected to a central load on the top
when standing straight. The stress produced is 80,000 𝑘𝑁/𝑚 .
Assume Young’s modulus for cast iron is 1.5 × 10 𝑘𝑁/𝑚 .
Determine (i) Magnitude of the load (ii) longitudinal strain produced
(iii) Total decrease in length.
(Ans: (i) 𝑷 = 𝟒𝟑𝟗𝟖. 𝟐𝒌𝑵 (𝒊𝒊) 𝝐𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈 = 5.33× 𝟏𝟎 𝟒 , (iii) 𝜹 =
𝟐. 𝟔𝟕𝒎𝒎)

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 STRESSES AND STRAINS DUE TO TEMPERATURE CHANGES
If the temperature of a body is lowered or raised, its dimensions will decrease or
increase correspondingly. If these changes are checked, the stresses thus
developed in the body are called temperature stresses and the corresponding
strains are called temperature strains.
If L = length of a bar of uniform cross-section
t1 = Initial temperature of the bar
t2 = Final temperature of the bar
α = Coefficient of linear expansion
The extension (e) in the bar due to rise in temperature will be:
e = α(t2 − t1)L
If this elongation in the bar is prevented by some external force or by fixing the
bar ends, the temperature strain thus produced will be given by:
( )
Temperature strain = = α(t2 − t1)
Therefore, temperature stress developed = α(t2 − t1)E

Exercises

1) A steel rod 15m long is at a temperature of 15oC. Find the free extension of
the length when the temperature is raised to 60oC. Determine the temperature
stress produced when:
i. The expansion of the rod is prevented.
ii. The rod is permitted to expand by 6mm. Take α = 12 × 10 per oC and
E = 200 GPa

2) Calculate the values of stress and strain in a non-prismatic steel bar ABC
which is rigidly restrained at its ends A and C. The length of both AB and BC is
0.3m and the cross-sectional areas of AB and BC are 400mm2 and 800mm2,
respectively. A close fit exists at both of the rigid supports at room temperature
and the temperature is raised by 75 oC. Take E = 200 GPa and α = 12 ×
10 per oC for steel.

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References:
1. Hibbeler R.C. (2011) “Mechanics of Materials”, Prentice Hall, 8th edition.
2. Riley W.F. and Zachary L. (1989) “Introduction to Mechanics of
Materials”, John Wiley & Sons, 1st edition.
3. Riley W.F., Sturges L. and Morris D. (2007) “Mechanics of Materials”,
John Wiley & Sons, 6th edition.
4. Hearn E.J. (1997) “Mechanics of Materials I”, Butterworth-Heinemann,
3rd edition.
5. Vasilier V.V. and Morozov E.V. (2001) “Mechanics and Analysis of
Composite Materials”, Elsevier Science Ltd, 1st edition.
6. Dias da Silva V. (2006) “Mechanics and Strength of Materials”, Springer,
1st edition.

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