UNIT -I ANALOG COMMUNICATION

• Introduction to Communication Systems

• Modulation – Types - Need for Modulation.
• Theory of Amplitude Modulation
• Theory of Frequency and Phase Modulation
• Comparison of Analog Communication
Systems (AM – FM – PM).
 Introduction to Communication Systems
• Communication is the process of establishing connection (or link) between two points
for information exchange.
• Communication system is a system model describes a communication exchanges
between two stations, transmitter and receiver
• Signals or information passes from source to distention through what is called channel,
which represents a way that signal use it to move from source toward destination.
• To transmit signals in communication system, it must be first processed by several
stages, beginning from signal representation, to signal shaping until encoding and
modulation.
• The Two basic types of communication systems are

(i) Analog.

(ii) Digital.
In Analog Systems: Both the information and the carrier are analog signals.
In Digital Systems: The digital pulses are transferred between two or more points
in a communication system.
Block diagram of a general
communication system
 Block diagram of a general
communication system
• Message Source: The originator of the message
• Input Message: The message/data/info that is to be communicated
• Input Transducer: Converts the input message into electrical form
• Input Signal: The data in electrical form (this is a baseband signal)
• Transmitter: Modifies the signal for transmission
• Channel: The medium over which the transmitted signal is sent (e.g., wire,
air, optical fiber, free space)
• Distortion/Noise: External signals/features that affect the signal
• Receiver: Modifies the received signal, undoing the modifications done by
the transmitter
• Output Transducer: Converts message from electrical signal back into its
original form
• Output Message: The message/data/info that has been communicated
• Message Destination: Who/what the message/data/info was intended for
 Signals
• Electronic communications use the properties of
electricity, and Electromagnetism to send
information from one point to another
• Signals
• A typical signal can be represented like this:
•
• V(t)is the sigv is the peak amplitude of the signal

• f is the frequency of the signal (in Hz)

• t is time
• φ is the phase shift of the signal
• Systems
• Analyzing the signals themselves can be interesting, a discussion of
communication systems is not complete without including the
systems that the signals travel through.
• The part of the electronic communication systems that we are most
interested in here are the transmitter, the channel, and the receiver
• Transmitter
• The transmitter is the means for putting data out onto the channel,
and it includes components for encoding, modulating, and
transmitting the signal
• Channel
• This is the medium over which the data is sent
Twisted Pair:
Coaxial Cable
Fibre Optics
Wireless
• Receiver
• The receiver consists of the components that extract
the signal out of a channel, and may include an
antenna, a demodulator, a decoder and filters.
• Data Representation in Communication Systems
• Data can be represented in a communication system in
any manner desired or required. The only necessity is
that the sender and the receiver of the message both
use the same method. In general, there are two broad
classes for representing data in electronic
communication systems: analog communication and
digital communication
Drawbacks of Baseband Transmission
(without Modulation)
▪ Excessively large antenna heights.
▪ Signals get mixed up.
▪ Short range of communication.
▪ Multiplexing is not possible.
▪ Poor quality of reception.
▪ The above drawbacks can be overcome by
means of modulation techniques:
 Modulation
• For a signal to be transmitted to a distance, without the effect of any external
interferences or noise addition and without getting faded away, it has to undergo a
process called as Modulation. It improves the strength of the signal without
disturbing the parameters of the original signal.
• Modulation is the process of changing the parameters of the carrier signal, in
accordance with the instantaneous values of the modulating signal
• Need for Modulation
• Baseband signals are incompatible for direct transmission. For such a signal, to
travel longer distances, its strength has to be increased by modulating with a high
frequency carrier wave, which doesn’t affect the parameters of the modulating
signal.
• Advantages of Modulation
• Reduction of antenna size
• No signal mixing
• Increased communication range
• Multiplexing of signals
• Possibility of bandwidth adjustments
• Improved reception quality
 Signals in the Modulation
Process
• Following are the three types of signals in the modulation process.
• Message or Modulating Signal
• The signal which contains a message to be transmitted, is called as
a message signal. It is a baseband signal, which has to undergo the
process of modulation, to get transmitted. Hence, it is also called as
the modulating signal.
• Carrier Signal
• The high frequency signal, which has a certain amplitude, frequency
and phase but contains no information is called as a carrier signal. It
is an empty signal and is used to carry the signal to the receiver
after modulation.
• Modulated Signal
• The resultant signal after the process of modulation is called as
a modulated signal. This signal is a combination of modulating
signal and carrier signal.
Types of Modulation
 Types of Modulation-
Continuous-wave Modulation
• The types of modulations are broadly classified into continuous-wave
modulation and pulse modulation.
• Continuous-wave Modulation
• In continuous-wave modulation, a high frequency sine wave is used as a
carrier wave. This is further divided into amplitude and angle modulation.
• If the amplitude of the high frequency carrier wave is varied in accordance
with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal, then such a
technique is called as Amplitude Modulation.
• If the angle of the carrier wave is varied, in accordance with the
instantaneous value of the modulating signal, then such a technique is
called as Angle Modulation. Angle modulation is further divided into
frequency modulation and phase modulation.
– If the frequency of the carrier wave is varied, in accordance with the
instantaneous value of the modulating signal, then such a technique is called
as Frequency Modulation.
– If the phase of the high frequency carrier wave is varied in accordance with
the instantaneous value of the modulating signal, then such a technique is
called as Phase Modulation.
 Types of Modulation-
Pulse Modulation
• Pulse Modulation
• In Pulse modulation, a periodic sequence of rectangular pulses, is used
as a carrier wave. This is further divided into analog and digital
modulation.
• In analog modulation technique, if the amplitude or duration or
position of a pulse is varied in accordance with the instantaneous
values of the baseband modulating signal, then such a technique is
called as Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) or Pulse Duration/Width
Modulation (PDM/PWM), or Pulse Position Modulation (PPM).

• In digital modulation, the modulation technique used is Pulse Code

Modulation (PCM) where the analog signal is converted into digital
form of 1s and 0s. As the resultant is a coded pulse train, this is called
as PCM. This is further developed as Delta Modulation (DM). These
digital modulation techniques are discussed in our Digital
Communications tutorial
 THEORY OF AMPLITUDE
MODULATION
• Definition: Amplitude Modulation is a technique
by which the amplitude of the carrier wave is
changed according to the signal wave or
modulating signal. Among various modulation
schemes, amplitude modulation is the simplest
and oldest modulation technique.
• Basically, the information that is carried by the
low frequency modulating signal is superimposed
on the carrier wave of high frequency by varying
the amplitude of the carrier. Thus it is termed
as amplitude modulation.
 The figure below shows the
modulating signal having amplitude Am
Mathematical Expression for
Amplitude Modulation
Mathematical Expression for
Amplitude Modulation
Mathematical Expression for
Amplitude Modulation
• Using the above mathematical expressions for modulating
and carrier signals, we can create a new mathematical
expression for the complete modulated wave. It is given as,
 Modulation Index and
Percent Modulation
• The ratio of maximum amplitude of
modulating signal to maximum amplitude
carrier signal is called modulation index. i.e.,

• Value of Em must be less than value of Ec to

avoid any distortion in the modulated signal.
 Calculation of modulation
index from AM waveform:
• This is also called time domain representation
of AM signal.
• It is clear from the above signal that the modulating signal rides upon the
carrier signal. From above figure we can write,
• Linear modulation: When the value of the modulation index is less than 1 then it is said to be
a linear or under-modulated wave

• Over modulation: When the value of the modulation index exceeds more than 1, then over
modulation takes place. As we can see in the figure shown below:

• Critical modulation :Modulation index will be equal to 1 when Em=Ec

 Frequency Spectrum and
Bandwidth
• The modulated carrier has new signals at different
frequencies, called side frequencies or sidebands. They occur
above and below the carrier frequency.

• Consider the expression of AM wave given by equation

(1.2.3),
 Frequency spectrum of AM
wave
• From this equation we can prepare the
frequency spectrum of AM wave as shown
below in fig. 1.2.3.
 Bandwidth of AM wave
• This contains full carrier and both the sidebands, hence it is also called Double
Sideband Full Carrier (DSBFC) system
• We know that bandwidth of the signal can be obtained by taking the difference
between highest and lowest frequencies. From above figure we can obtain
bandwidth of AM wave as ,
 AM Power Distribution
• AM signal has three components : Unmodulated carrier, lower sideband and upper
sideband. Hence total power of AM wave is the sum off carrier power Pe and
powers in the two sidebands PLSB. i.e.,

• Here all the three voltages are rms values and R is characteristic impedence of
antenna in which the power is dissipated. The Carrier Poweer is
AM Power Distribution
AM Power Distribution
 AM Power Distribution
• This equation relates total power of AM wave
to carrier power, Maximum Value of
modulation index, m=1 to avoid distortion. At
this value of modulation index, Ptotal = 1.5 Pc.
From the above equation we have
m2/2=Ptotal/Pc =1
Advantages &Disadvantages
of amplitude modulation
• Advantages of amplitude modulation
• It is the simplest modulation technique.
• Demodulating the modulated wave is easy.
• It is a Low cost technique.
• Disadvantages of amplitude modulation
• High signal attenuation due to noise.
• It provides low efficiency.
• It is to be noted here that amplitude modulation is
performed only to transmit the signal and the modulated
wave is again demodulated at the receiver in order to have
the original information carrying signal.
THE CONCEPT OF ANGLE
MODULATION
When frequency or phase of the carrier is varied by the modulating signal,
then it is called angle modulation. There are two types of angle modulation.
1. Frequency Modulation: When frequency of the carrier varies as per
amplitude variations of modulating signal, then it is called Frequency
Modulation(FM). Amplitude carrier remains constant.
2. Phase Modulation: When phase of the carrier varies as per amplitude
variations of modulating signal, then it is called Phase Modulation (PM).
Amplitude of the modulated carrier remains constant.
FM and PM Waveforms
(i) For FM signal, the maximum frequency deviation takes place when
modulating signl is at positive and negative peaks.
(ii) For PM signal the maximum requency deviation takes place near zero
crossings o the modulating signal.
(iii) Both FM and PM waveforms are identical except the phase shift.
(iv) From modulated waveform it is difficult to know, whether the
modulation is FM or PM.
Frequency Modulation (FM)
 Mathematical expression
• Let the modulating signal be m(t) having amplitude Vm and
frequency fm

• and the carrier wave is given by

• It is noteworthy that in FM, the frequency changes according

to the modulating voltage.
• Hence, instantaneous frequency is given as
• Substituting the value of the modulating signal in the
expression shown above,

• Here, Δf denotes the frequency deviation

• The extent of the occurred change in frequency of the

carrier wave is termed as the deviation.
• Thus, we can conclude that the maximum frequency of
an amplitude modulated wave is given as,
 Modulation index
• It is defined as the ratio of frequency deviation to the
modulating signal frequency. Thus, is given by the
expression,

• When the frequency deviation is constant, then due to

inverse relation, with the increase in modulating
frequency, modulation index will decrease.
• It is the major factor in frequency modulation because
the transmission bandwidth is decided by the
modulation index. FM supports the modulation index
to be greater than 1.
• Advantages of FM
• A frequency modulated wave shows resilience (flexibility) property towards noise and
interference factor. Thus, is utilized in the high-quality broadcast.
• It provides better sound quality.
• The effect of noise that is dominant in amplitude modulation, is not severe in case of
frequency modulation.
• Disadvantages of FM
• As during long-distance transmission, the high-frequency signal passes through the
ionospheric layer of atmosphere and does not get reflected. Thus, is used for short distance
transmission.
• FM signal transmission and reception are somewhat more complex as compared to AM.
• Frequency modulation is expensive than that of Amplitude modulation.
• Applications of FM
• It is used in radio signal broadcasting.
• During satellite and microwave communication, frequency modulation is widely used.
• It has extensive applications in cellular radio communication and TV sound transmission.
• Whenever audio is heard on the speaker of a receiver, then the volume or intensity is
determined by the shift in the frequency of the carrier wave.
 NARROW BAND FM MODULATION:
• The case where |θm(t)| << 1 for all t is called narrow
band FM. Using the approximations cos x ~= 1 and sin x
~= x for |x| << 1, the FM signal can be approximated as:
• s(t) = Ac cos[ωct + θm(t)]
• = Ac cos ωct cos θm(t) − Ac sin ωct sin θm(t)
• ~= Ac cos ωct − Acθm(t) sin ωct
• This is similar to the AM signal except that the
discrete carrier component Ac coswc(t) is 90° out
of phase with the sinusoid Ac sinwc(t) multiplying
the phase angle θm(t). The spectrum of narrow
band FM is similar to that of AM.
 The Bandwidth of an FM
Signal
• The following formula, known as Carson‘s rule
is often used as an estimate of the FM signal
bandwidth: BT = 2(∆f + fm) Hz
• where ∆f is the peak frequency deviation and
fm is the maximum baseband
message frequency component.
 Mathematical Expression
• Hence, a narrow band FM wave can be expressed mathematically as
under,

• The (-) sign associated with the LSB represents a phase shift of 180o.
• Practically, the narrow band FM systems have mf less than 1 . The
maximum permissible frequency deviation is restricted to about 5 kHz .
• This system is used in FM mobile communications such as police wireless,
ambulances, taxicabs etc .
 Wideband FM
• For large values of modulation index mf , the FM
wave ideally contains the carrier and an infinite
number of sidebands located symmetrically
around the carrier.
• Such a FM wave has infinite bandwidth and
hence called as wideband FM.
• The modulation index of wideband FM is higher
than 1.
• The maximum permissible deviation is 75 kHz
and it is used in the entertainment broadcasting
applications such as FM radio, TV etc.
 Frequency Spectrum of a
Wideband FM wave
• The expression for the wideband FM is
complex since it is sine of sine function.
• The only way to solve this equation is by using
the Bessel functions. By using the Bessel
functions the equation for wideband FM wave
can be expanded as follows :
Comparisons of Narrowband
and Wideband FM
FM TRANSMITTER
Indirect method of modulation
 Phase Modulation (PM)
• Definition: Phase modulation is another type of angle modulation in
which the phase of the carrier wave is changed according to the amplitude
(magnitude) of the message (modulating) signal.
As when the signal moves from positive to negative amplitude then negative
phase reversal exists. While, when the message signal shows movement from
negative to positive amplitude then positive phase reversal takes place.
 Phase Modulation (PM)
• Suppose the voltage of the carrier signal is
given as
• c(t) = VC sin (ωct + φ)
• So, the phase modulated wave will be
• s(t) = VC sin (ωct + φm sin ωmt)
• φm denotes the maximum change in the phase
of the carrier signal in accordance with the
highest amplitude of the message signal.
 Phase Modulation (PM)
• So, for simplicity, we can write,
• s(t) = VC sin (ωct + mp sin ωmt)
• : φm = mp = modulation index
• Deviation sensitivity of Phase Modulation
• The message signal is
• x(t) = Vm cos (ωmt)
• The phase deviation is given as
• θ(t) α x(t) rad
• θ(t) = Kp x(t) rad
• : Kp is the deviation sensitivity
• Kp = rad / V
• Also, the modulation index of a phase modulated wave is given as
• mp = KpVm
Advantages, Disadvantages and
application of Phase Modulation
• Advantages
• The process of phase modulation is quite east than frequency modulation.
• This technique is used to determine the speed of the mobile target. Because for
this the carrier is required to be constant and this is obtained in case of phase
modulation.
• Disadvantages of Phase Modulation
• In order to raise the modulation index of a phase modulated signal, frequency
multipliers are needed.
• The system cost is quite expensive.
• Sometimes phase ambiguity exists when the modulation index exceeds a certain
value.
• Applications of Phase Modulation
• This technique is widely used in the transmission of radio waves. This process is
also employed in wireless signal transmission like satellite and Wi-Fi transmission
etc.
• A phase modulated signal is more immune to noise effects.