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SUBSENTENTIAL LEVEL
LEXICAL CATEGORIES/PARTS OF THE SPEECH
Concept Definition/Description Examples Personal Notes
1. NOUN A word used to name a person, A noun is a word that name
place, thing, state, or quality. “John,” “house”, “affinity”, “river”. something, such as a person,
place, thing, or idea.
6 TYPES OF NOUNS
Proper nouns Specific. Their first letters are Anna, Christian, Christmas, Truman Street A noun that serves as the name
capitalized for specific place, person, or thing
Common nouns General A common noun is a noun that
Lady, boy, woman, hospital describes a type of person, thing,
or place or that names a concept.
Collective nouns Name groups a collective noun is a noun that
team, crowd, organization refers to some sort of group or
collective.
Mass nouns Cannot be counted but can be Salt, sugar, flour, stars Mass noun don’t have plural
quantified. forms, so they always use the
singular form.
Concrete nouns Exist in the physical world Flower, moon, chair, bag, bottle a concrete noun is a noun that
refers to a physical thing, person,
or place.
Abstract nouns Refers to ideas and feelings an abstract noun is a noun that
Love, liberty, ambition refers to something non-physical-
something conceptual that you
can’t perceive directly with your
senses.

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NOUN FUNCTIONS
Concept Definition/Description Examples Personal Notes
Subject of the The one that is talked about in the Maria is the most beautiful. The subject of the sentence is the
Sentence sentence. Philippines is an archipelago. person, place, or thing that is
performing the action of the
sentence.
Vocative Indicate that somebody is being Karla, where is Javier? A vocative is a word or phrase
directly addressed by the speaker. Oh God! Where art thou? used to address a reader or
listener directly, usually in the
form of a personal name, title, or
term of endearment.
Direct Object The one that receives the action of The boy likes cars. A direct object is a noun that
the verb. Answer the question who or I accepted her gifts. receives the action of the verb.
what after the verb.
Indirect Object Answers the question to whom or for Joanna baked Charlie an apple pie. The indirect object of a verb
whom. Mark John paid the company his debts. receives the direct object.
Subject Noun A word/phrase that refers back to the I am a teacher. A subject is the noun or pronoun-
Predicate subject comes after a linking verb. He is an exemplar in words, thoughts, and based part of a sentence, and a
deeds. predicate is the verb-based part
that the subject performs.
Object Noun Comes after a direct object. Refers The class elected John auditor. Comes after a direct object.
Predicate back to the object. I considered Mark my enemy. Refers back to the object.
Object of the Comes after a preposition The book is placed on the table. A noun or pronoun that comes
Preposition after a preposition.
Appositive Is a noun or noun phrase that During the dinner conversation, Clifford, An appositive is a noun that
renames another noun right beside it. the messiest eater at the table, spewed immediately follows and renames
Enclosed within commas. mashed potatoes. another noun in order to clarify it.
The insect, a cockroach, is crawling across
the table.

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Concept Definition/Description Examples Personal Notes

2. PRONOUN A word used to replace a noun They are good at playing basketball. A short word we use as a simple
She has many chocolate in her pocket. substitute for the proper name of
a person. I, YOU, HE, SHE, IT,
WE, THEY, ME, HIM, HER, US,
and THEM.
TYPES OF PRONOUNS
Demonstrative A demonstrative pronoun is a This is my handbag. This (singular) (near) A pronoun that points to a specific
Pronoun pronoun used to point to specific These are my shoes. These plural) (near) noun or pronoun the audience
people or things. That is my bag. That(singular) (distant) already knows about, this, that,
these, those, neither, none and
such.
Relative Pronouns Is a pronoun that marks a relative who, whose, whoever, whom, that, which, A pronoun that connects a noun
clause. whichever. or pronoun to an adjective clause,
who, whose, whom, which, that,
and so on.
Indefinite Pronouns Is a pronoun which does not have a Singular- any, anybody, nobody, each, Does not refer to any specific
specific, familiar referent. everyone, one, someone, somebody, person, thing or amount.
every, either, neither

Plural- all, some, few, both, several, many

Interrogative Are pronouns that are used to ask who, which, what, whom, who, whose, A pronoun that replaces a noun in
Pronouns questions. whoever. a sentence to ask a question.
Personal Pronoun Refers to the speaker, the person I, you, he, she, we, they, me, him, her, us, A personal pronoun is a short
spoken to, and the person spoken and them. word use as a simple substitute
about for the proper name of a person.
Reflexive/ Intensive Refers back to the subject in the myself, ourselves, yourself, her/himself, A reflexive pronoun reflects back
Pronoun sentence/gives emphasis to the themselves on the subject of the sentence

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subject. while an intensive pronoun adds

emphasis or intensity to a noun.
NOMINATIVE OBJECTIVE POSSESSIVE
SINGULAR
1st PERSON I me my, mine
2nd PERSON you you you, yours
3rd PERSON he, she, it him, her, it his, her, hers

PLURAL we, us our, ours,

1st PERSON you you your, yours
2nd PERSON they them their, theirs
3rd PERSON
1. Pronoun- Verb Formed by combining a pronoun and She and (I, me) sang. A pronoun is a word that can used
a verb together. instead of a noun or noun phrase.

2. Linking verb- The singers are (they, them).

Pronoun
3. Appositive- We, the students, are excited of the
(Pronoun- Noun) summer.

OBJECTIVE CASE
1. Verb- Pronoun I gave Mila and (he, him) presents.

2. Preposition- Mila smiled at (he, him)

Pronoun The letter is for me and (he, him)

CONCEPT Definition/Description EXAMPLE PERSONAL NOTES

A content word that denotes an I can speak five languages. A verb is a word that indicates a
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3.VERB action, occurrence, or state of I don’t want to discuss it. physical action (e.g., “drive”), a
existence I failed the written test. mental action (e.g., “think”), or a
state of being (e.g., “exist”).
Regular verbs Form their past tense by the adding dance danced danced A regular verb is a verb that
‘d’ or ‘ed’ to the base form. enjoy enjoyed enjoyed follows a common pattern of
conjugation.
form their past tense and past be was/were been Irregular verb are verbs that do
participle in several ways. lie (present) lay (past) lain (past not follow the normal patterns for
participle). tense and past participle.
Irregular verbs lay (present) laid (past) laid ( past
participle).

(lie means to recline; lay means to place

something, to put something)
Are used to link or join the subject become, seem, look, appear, feel, taste, A linking verb connects the
with a word in the predicate which sound, remain and so on. subject of a sentence to an
Linking verbs relates to the subject. The ‘be’ form of adjective, noun, or pronoun that
verb (am, is, are, was, were) is the completes the meaning of the
most commonly used linking verb. verb.
Are used together with a main verb. She has seen the show. Auxiliary verbs are always used
The most common Auxiliary verbs is They have decided to dance the night along with a main verb to indicate
Auxiliary verbs have. away. tense, mood, and voice.
(or Helping) Has- is used in singular, present
tense of the verb.
Have- (base form) is used in plural,
present tense of the verb.
Had- is used in singular/ plural, past
participle form of the verb.
The Emphatic Verbs must be I did enjoy the time with you. Is a form that emphasizes verbs
followed by a simple form of the verb. Jake does speak well. and makes them more forceful.
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The emphatic Verbs Do- present tense, plural the + simple

form of the verb
Does – present tense, singular + the
simple form of the verb
Did – past tense, singular/ plural +
the simple form of the verb
Concept Definition/description Examples Personal notes
is a part of speech used to modify They live in a beautiful house. An adjective modifies a noun or
4. ADJECTIVE nouns and pronouns. The flowers are so fresh and colorful. pronoun by providing descriptive
His smile is so charming. or specific detail.
gives color and vividness to the angry, blue, careful,, dry, eager, fast, great, Is an adjective that modifies a
person(s), place(s), or thing(s) we hot, incredible, jumpy, little, mighty, nice, noun or pronoun by describing it
Descriptive Adjective talk or write about. It tells what kind, special, quiet, young, and so on. or expressing its quality.
what color, what size, what shape,
etc.
Indicates the number or quantity. It Jim bought those reds apples rather than One of a small group of adjective
tells how many, how much, and Jim bought red those apples. that modify the nouns to which
whose. “restricting” they are applied by restricting
Limiting Adjective rather than describing or
Descriptive Limiting qualifying.
high skyscraper three checks
new kicks one speaker
nice person his bag
is an adjective derived from proper Norwegian sardines Indian summer “Proper adjectives” also describe
nouns. Canadian bacon United States flag people and things, but they are
Proper Adjective based on names and therefore
need to be capitalized, like the
names.
is that which completes the meaning The cookies are delicious. Predicate adjective are adjective
of the verb, and modifies the subject. Corn is plentiful in Illinois. that modify or describe the
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Predicate Adjective It follows the linking verb, and usually subject of a sentence or clause
describes the subject noun, or and are linked to the subject by a
pronoun. linking verb.

Possessive nouns used as adjectives. John’s car was wrecked in the crash. Possessive adjective are my,
Adjectives I am wearing my sister’s coat. your, his, its, our, their.
Possessive adjective occur before
a noun (my car) or an adjective +
noun (my new car). Rule 3.
Possessive adjective have no
singular or plural.
ADJECTIVE ORDER:
Determiners – a, an, the, my, your etc. Observations – lovely, boring, nice, etc.
Size – tiny, small, huge, etc. Shape – round, square, rectangular, etc.
Age – old, new, ancient, etc. Color – red, blue, green, etc.
Origin – British, American, Mexican, etc. Material – gold, copper, silk, etc.

Examples:
§ The interesting, small, rectangular, blue car is parked in my space.
§ I bought a beautiful, long, red, Italian, silk tie.
§ My father lives in a lovely, gigantic, ancient, brick house.

Concept Definition/description Examples Personal notes

is a part of speech which modifies a We arrived at the airport early. Adverbs can be used to show
verb, an adjective, or another adverb. (Adverb – early modifies arrived) manner (how something
5. ADVERB It is generally placed immediately happens), degree (to what
before or after the word it modifies. We had to make an early start. extent), place(where) and
(Adjective – early modifies start) time(when).

That was a hard task.

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(Adjective – hard modifies task)

Our janitor works hard.

(Adverb – hard modifies works)

TYPES OF ADVERBS
An adverb of time provides more He collapsed and died yesterday. Adverbs of time tell us when an
information about when a verb takes I will call you later. action happened, but also for how
place. We use it at the beginning or So far, we have found twelve grammar long, and how often.
at the end of a sentence. We use it mistakes.
Adverb of time as a form of emphasis when we I haven’t been going to the gym lately.
place it at the beginning. We recently bought a new car.
▪ Adverbs of time include afterwards,
already, immediately, last month,
now, soon, then, and yesterday.

Adverbs of place illustrate where the We can stop here for lunch. An adverb of place always talks
verb is happening. We use it after the The school boy was knocked over by a about the location where the
verb, object or at the end of a school bus. action of the verb is being caried
Adverb of place sentence. He walked into a wall. out.
▪ Adverbs of place include words
such as above, below, here, outside,
over there, there, under, upstairs.
Adverbs of manner provide more The brothers were badly injured in the Adverbs of manner describe how
Adverb of manner information about how a verb is done. fight. something happens.
▪ Most adverbs of manner end in –ly At the advanced age of 88, she still sang
such as badly, happily, sadly, slowly, very well
quickly, and others that include well,
hard, fast, etc.

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An adverb of degree tells us the level It was too dark for us to find our way out of Specify the degree to which an
or extent that something is done or the cave. adjective or another adverb
Adverb of degree happens. The accident victim nearly died from his applies. Common adverbs of
▪ Words of adverb of degree are injuries. degree include: very, slightly,
almost, much, nearly, quite, really, so, quite, totally, fairly, absolutely
too, very… and extremely.
An adverb of frequency tells us how While overseas, he frequently phoned An adverb of frequency describes
often something is done or happens. home. how often an action happens.
▪ Words used as adverbs of She is not nearly always right although she
frequency include again, almost, thinks she is.
Adverb of frequency always, ever, frequently, generally, He complained that she never smiled
hardly ever, nearly always, never, back.
occasionally, often, rarely, seldom,
sometimes, twice, usually, and
weekly.

Concept Definition/description Examples Personal notes

a word expressing the relationship I get in the morning before 6 o’clock. is a group of words used before a
between a noun, pronoun, and other You can play video games after your noun, pronoun, or noun phrase to
6. Preposition elements of a sentence. studies. show direction, time, place,
The brain is located inside the skull. location, spatial relationships, or
to introduce an object.
Place or position- at, over, up, in, to, under, down, on, from, beneath, across, above, by, on top of, around, below
Time- at, in, during, at the beginning of, after, by, on, since, at the end before, for, until, in the middle of
Agent or instrument- by, with
Accompaniment- with
Purpose- for
Association- of
USES OF PREPOSITION
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Prepositions of Time: ▪ We use at to designate specific The train is due at 12:15 p.m. A preposition of time that allows
At, On, and In times. you to discuss a specific time
▪ We use on to designate days and My brother is coming on Monday. period such as a date on the
dates. We’re having a party on the Fourth of July. calendar, one of the days of the
▪ We use in for non-specific times week, or the actual time
during a day, a month, a season, or a She likes to jog in the morning. something takes place.
year. He’s going to quit in August.

Prepositions of Place: ▪ We use at for specific addresses. John lives at 55 Boretz Road in Durham. Preposition of place are used to
At, On, and In ▪ We use on to designate names of Her house is on Boretz Road. show the position or location of
streets, avenues, etc. She lives in Durham one thing with another.
▪ We use in for the names of land-
areas (towns, counties, states,
countries, and continents).

Concept Definition/description Examples Personal notes

7. CONJUNCTION a word used to connect sentences, I bought milk and some fruit. A conjunction is a word that is
clauses, phrases, or words. Do you prefer a pink or blue shirt? used to connect words, phrases,
She doesn’t like music. Nor do I. and clauses.
Coordinating join equals to one another i.e. words, (F,A,N,B,O,Y,S) A coordinating conjunction is a
Conjunction- phrases, clauses For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So conjunction that connects words,
She wanted to go shopping, but Fred phrases, and clauses that are
refused to take her. coordinate, or equal to each
I want peanut butter and jelly other.
The gold is hidden at the beach or by the
lakeside.

Note: Coordinating conjunctions go in between items joined, not at the start or end
Punctuation with ▪ When a coordinating conjunction Cookies and milk at the beach or by When a coordinating conjunction
coordinating joins two words, phrases, or the lakeside joins two independent clauses, a
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conjunction subordinate clauses, no comma comma is used before the

should be placed before the coordinating conjunction (unless
conjunction. the two independent clauses are
very short).
▪ A coordinating conjunction joining Peanuts, cookies, and milk
three or more words, phrases, or what you think, what you say, and what
subordinate clauses creates a series you do
and requires commas between the
elements.

▪ A coordinating conjunction joining She wanted to go shopping, but Fred

two independent clauses creates a refused to drive her to the mall.
compound sentence and requires a
comma before the coordinating
conjunction.

a conjunction that introduces a ▪ Because I forgot the time, I missed the A subordinating conjunction is a
subordinate clause. final exam. word that links together an
Subordinating
independent clause and a
Conjunction- ▪ I checked my money before I invited Tom
dependent clause.
for lunch.
After in order (that) unless even if
Although insofar as until even though
As in that when how
as far as lest whenever if
as soon as no matter how where In as much as
as if now that wherever in case (that)
as though once whether So that
because provided (that) while Than

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before since why though

Correlative A correlative conjunction is a paired either... or, neither... nor, not only... but also Correlative conjunctions are
Conjunction- conjunction that links balanced conjunctions used to illustrate
words, phrases, and clauses. how two words within a sentence
relate to each other.

These pairs of conjunctions require equal (parallel) structures after each one.

Incorrect: Clara not only wants money but also fame.

Correct: Clara wants not only money but also fame.
Clara not only wants money but also wants fame
Refer to that special class of words I put my backpack on the front porch, and A determiner is a word that is used to
that limit the nouns that follow them. now I can't find it. modify or introduce the noun in a
Determiners sentence. Its mostly acts an
-The first type of functional category which adjective in that it refers to the noun.
● Various types of words fit into this Determiners include articles,
category: articles (the a(n)), we shall deal with is the category of
adjectives of quantity, demonstrate
demonstratives (this, that, these, determiner (abbreviated to D, or adjective, possessive adjectives, etc.
those), and possessive determiners sometimes DET). Items such as those
(my, your, his, her, its, our, their), to bold-printed in below (as used there) are
cite the major ones.' They precede an traditionally said to be (referential)
adjective if one is present; otherwise, determiners (because they determine the
they are positioned directly in front of referential properties of the italicized noun
a noun. expression which follows them):

Determiners and quantifiers

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The village store is closed

This appalling behaviour has got to stop
That dog of yours is crazy

Referential determiners are used to introduce referring expressions: an expression like the car in a sentence such as Shall we take the car?
is a referring expression in the sense that it is typically used to refer to a specific car which is assumed to be familiar to the hearer/addressee.

A related class of words are those which belong to the category quantifier (abbreviated to Q), and this is traditionally said to include items like
those bold-printed below:

Most good comedians tell some bad jokes

Many students have no money
Every true Scotsman hates all Englishmen
Each exercise contains several examples

Determiner- it used to identify things.

Quantifier- it used to say how much or how many.

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT RULES (SVA)

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# OF RULES EXAMPLE
RULE #1: Singular subject must take the singular form of the verb.
Plural subject must take the plural form of the verb. He loves to play piano.
Tip: They want to have a trip on summer.
Verb with –s is singular. Verb without –s is plural.

Marina’s concern is her classmates.

RULE #2: Make the linking verb agree with the real subject. Henry’s mother and father are his sole supporter.

The food is good.

RULE #3: Non-count noun subjects take singular verb. Unity builds a nation.

RULE #4: In most cases, collective noun subject take singular The committee was in full agreement with my idea.
Verbs. But if the group is viewed as individual members,
Use a plural verb.

A. Collective nouns take singular verbs if all members act as a single

body. Noun such as audience, class, team, band, committee, jury, herd, The family is unanimous on the issue.
crowd, flock.

B. Collective nouns take plural verbs if the members act as individuals. My family are always fighting among themselves.

RULE #5: Mass nouns can only be pluralized by quantifiers.

Noun such as sugar, rice, hair, evidence, Two sacks of rice are needed to feed the children.
Information etc. Pieces of evidence have to be presented in court.

RULE #6: Mass nouns (non-countable) are always singular. Black ink is needed for this.
Sugar is sweet.

RULE #7: Subject nouns that are derived from adjectives and The rich are in favor of a tax cut.
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Describe people, take plural verbs. The poor are opposing the proposal to revise the constitution.

RULE #8: Some proper noun subjects that end in –s such as Mathematics is Jake’s favorite subject.
Names of courses, diseases, places, as well as book Measles often has side effects.
And film titles and the word news, take singular verbs. The news was not pleasing.

RULE #9: There are some nouns that have the same singular and
Plural form. In this case, the subject, may take either a
Plural verb, depending on the intention or the meaning
that you wish to express. Her eyeglasses are new.
Nouns that are always plural in form should take a plural verb, such as
slippers, eyeglasses, scissors, trousers, pants, earrings, etc.

RULE #10: For items that have two parts, when you use the word His pair of shoes is new.
“pair”, the verb is singular but without the word “pair”,
The verb is plural. My earrings are missing.

RULE #11: Plural subject nouns such as a unit of measurement Nine hundred nautical miles is too far to travel in a day.
(distance, weight, time, or amount of money) that signal
One unit should take a singular verb. The last five minutes with her was an eternity for him.

RULE #12: Basic arithmetical operations (add, subtract, multiply, Five times six equals thirty.
Device) take singular verbs. Five times six is equal to thirty.
Five times six is thirty.

RULE #13: Clausal subjects are singular even if the nouns referred What we need is more reference books.
To are plural.

RULE #14: Gerund and infinitive subjects take a singular verb. Reading books is my hobby.
Watching movies is so fun.

RULE #15: With fractions, percentages, and the quantifiers all (of), Reading and writing are my hobbies.

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a lot of, verb agreement depends on the noun coming

after these phrases.

A non-count noun takes a singular verb. A lot of the information is about the upcoming trip.

A plural noun takes a plural verb. All of the villagers need to evacuate.

NAMASA- None, All, Most, Any, Some, A lot of Some of the boys are my friends.
Can be singular or plural Some of the food tastes strange.

RULE #16: The indefinite pronouns below are always singular:

Every student has a responsibility to study their lessons.
Anyone, Anybody, Anything, Everyone, Everybody, Everything, Someone, Nobody wants to be with her.
Somebody, Something, No one, Nobody, Nothing, Each, Every

RULE #17: The expression “The number” used as a subject takes a The number of students coming is decreasing.
Singular verb. The expression “A plural” as a subject
Takes a plural verb. A number of players practicing are increasing.

RULE #18: With none as a subject, use a singular verb. None of the students is present

RULE #19: With either or neither as subject, use a singular verb. Either/Neither was acceptable to me.

RULE #20: With correlative subjects either-or or neither-nor, the verb Either Peter or his siblings attend the ceremony.
With the nearer subject. Neither my cousins nor Bea is going to the party.
RULE #21 With ‘there’ subjects, the verb is singular or plural
Depending on whether the noun phrase following the There are many devices in a man’s heart.
verb is singular or plural. There and here are never Here is the plant you want for the garden.
used as subjects. When a sentence begins with there or
here, you much look thoroughly to find the real subject.

Here come my children.

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When the sentence begin with there and here, the verb agrees with the There is a book on the table.
subject that comes after the verb. There is no justice.

RULE #22: When the subjects joined by and refer to a single unit or Bread and butter is a common breakfast for Americans.
is considered as one, it takes a singular verb. My teacher and sponsor lives next door.

RULE #23: Compound subjects joined by ‘and’ referring to separate Jack and Mary are watching the sunset.
entities, should take a plural verb. My professor and my friend live next door.

RULE #24: Follow the general rule in pairing subjects and verbs The color of his eyes is blue.
regardless of prepositional phrases or clauses that are His eyes are blue.
sometimes placed in between the subject and verb. The roads along the city are closed.

RULE #25: The verb after the relative pronouns who, which, and Children may not see a film that has an X-rating.
that agrees with its antecedent. Children may not see films that have an X-rating.

RULE #26: Subjects followed by intervening expressions such as:

in addition to, in company with, together with, as well The teacher, together with the pupils, is dancing.
as etc. should take verbs that agree with real subjects.

RULE #27: Titles of literary/artistic works and names of firms, Green Coconuts is Manansala’s latest painting.
companies, stores, etc. should take singular verbs. Del Pan Brothers is a marketing firm.

RULE #28: Words such as many and few are used only with plural
nouns. Words such as much and little are used only Many applicants were hired.
with non-count nouns. Much money is needed for the project.

RULE #29: Each other is used when we refer to two person or

things. One another is used when we refer to more He and his sister always advise each other.
than three. His classmates help one another in their project.

RULE #30: The word some may modify a singular or plural noun. Some food looks delicious.

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Some tickets were not sold.

RULE #31: The phrase such as, is one of the and among the must Mike is one of the players.
be followed by a plural noun. She is the shortest among the candidates.

RULE #32: Emphatic verbs must be followed by the simple for of a

verb. John did not write the poem.
Jake does possess wisdom beyond his years.
Do present tense, plural + THE SIMPLE FORM OF THE VERB Cath and Tess do play basketball.
Does present tense, singular + THE SIMPLE FORM OF THE VERB
Did past tense, sing/plural + THE SIMPLE FORM OF THE VERB

RULE #33: Do not allow the number of the verbs to be affected by

intervening expressions standing between the verb and Tact, as well as patience, is required.
its subject. Determine the real subject of the verb. Ana, together with Kelly, has arrived.

RULE #34: The verb concords with the subject, not with the predicate. My favorite gift is flowers.
The thoughts I have are filled with your smile.

RULE #35: When a sentence begins with a phrase, the verb agrees Hanging on a tree was a streamer.
with one subject that comes after the verb. Seated among the students is the president of the school

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SENTENTIAL LEVEL
TENSES AND ASPECTS OF VERB
Concept Definition/description Example Personal notes

refers to when the action occurred. refers to the absolute location of

TENSE There are only verb tenses namely an event or action in time, either
past, present, and future. the present or the past.

refers to the flow of time. Aspect refers to how an event or action is

addresses whether or not the action to be viewed with respect to time,
takes place in a single block of time rather than to its actual location in
ASPECT or if the action is continuous or time.
repeated. There are three verb
aspects namely simple, perfect and
progressive.

Verbs in the past tense express A definite single completed

Simple Past Tense actions that happened in the past. She sang yesterday event/action in the past.

Simple Present Verbs in the present tense express Habitual actions in the Present.
Tense habitual or factual action. The sun shines.

Verbs in the future tense express The simple future refers to a time
actions that will happen in the future. She will sing. later than now, and expresses
facts or certainty.
Simple Future *An action to take place at some I will take the LET next month
Tense definite future time

*A future habitual action or state After October, July will take the 7:30 train
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every day.
*In the main (result) clause of future If you do not read, you will be sorry.
conditionals

Verbs in the present tense express Habitual actions in the Present.

habitual or factual action. The sun shines.

This expresses a continuing action She was singing all afternoon yesterday. Describes an action was in
that started and ended in the past. progress at a specific time in the
past.
Past Progressive An action in progress at a specific He was walking to school at 8:30 this
Tense point of time in the past morning.

Past action simultaneous with some Jenna was washing her hair when her
other event that is usually stated in apartment collapsed.
the simple past
Used to express a current action,
Present This expresses actions that are She is singing. an action in progress or an
Progressive Tense happening in the moment. unfinished action

She will be singing in the competition. Is used to indicate a future event

Future Progressive This expresses a continuing action that will be ongoing (or”
Tense that will happen in the future. progressive”).

Refers to a time earlier than

This expresses two past actions, in She had sung before she danced. before now. It is used to make it
Past Perfect Tense which one happened before the clear that one event happened
other. before another in the past.

This expresses an action that started I have sung a song. Used for past actions that are
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Present Perfect in the past, but is still happening at related to or continue into the
Tense present. present.

Used to describe an event that is

Future Perfect This expresses two future actions, in She will have sung before she dances. expected or planned to happen
Tense which one will happen before the before a time of reference in the
other. future.

This expresses two actions, where Emphasizes the duration of a past

Past Perfect the first one was still happening when She had been singing before the bomb action before another action
Progressive Tense the second one transpired. exploded. happened.

This expresses an action that started Used to talk about something that
Present Perfect in the past and still happening at She has been singing since this morning. started in the past and is
Progressive Tense present and will most likely continue continuing at the present time.
to happen in the future.

This expresses two future actions, Describes action hat will continue
Future Perfect where the first future action is still She will have been singing before the up until a point in the future.
Progressive Tense happening when the second one bomb explodes.
transpires.
SUMMARY
Simple Past I danced.
Simple Present I dance.
Simple Future I will dance. will + base form of the v
Past Prog I was dancing all afternoon yesterday. was/were + -ing
Present Prog I am dancing. am/is/are + -ing
Future Prog I will be dancing. will be + -ing
Past Perf I had danced before I sang. had -ed/-d + simple past
Present Perf I have danced. have/has -ed/-d
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Future Perf I will have danced before I sing. will have -ed/-d + simple present
Past Perf Prog I had been dancing when the bomb exploded. had been –ing + simple past
Present Perf Prog I have been dancing since morning. have/has been –ing
Future Perf Prog I will have been dancing when the party ends. will have been –ing + simple present

SENTENCE CONDITION
Concept Description Example Personal notes
are statements discussing known Conditional sentence are natural
factors or hypothetical situations and When water reaches 100 degrees, it boils. language sentences that express
their consequences. We use them to I would travel around the world if I won the that one thing contingent on
communicate that something is true lottery something else.
Conditional or happens only if something else is
sentences true or happens—that is, only under
a certain condition. Complete
conditional sentences contain a
conditional clause (often referred to
as the if-clause) and the
consequence.

Types of conditional sentences

express general truths—situations in ● It is used in describing
which one thing always causes If you don’t brush your teeth, you get situations that are always true of
another. When you use a zero cavities. factual.
Zero conditional conditional, you’re talking about a When people smoke cigarettes, their
sentences general truth rather than a specific health suffers. ● Also called Real Condition
instance of something.

There are a couple of things to take

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note of in the above sentences using

the zero conditional. First, when
using the zero conditional, the correct When people smoke cigarettes, their
tense in both clauses is the simple health will suffer.
present tense. A common mistake is
to use the simple future tense.

used to express situations in which

the outcome is likely (but not
guaranteed) to happen in the future.
If you rest, you will feel better. Is used to express the future
First conditional Use the zero conditional (simple If you set your mind to a goal, you’ll consequence of a realistic
sentences present + simple present) only eventually achieve it possibility now or in the future.
when a certain result is guaranteed. If
the result is likely, use the first
conditional (simple present +
simple future).
are useful for expressing outcomes If I inherited a billion dollars, I would travel A structured used to talk about
that are completely unrealistic or will to the moon. impossible or imaginary
not likely happen in the future. If I owned a zoo, I might let people interact situations.
with the animals more.

Second conditional ●Notice that the correct way to structure

sentences second conditional sentences is to use the
simple past tense in the if-clause and a
modal auxiliary verb (e.g., could, should,
would, might) in the main clause (the one
that expresses the unrealistic or unlikely
outcome).
are used to explain that present To talk about past events that did
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Third conditional circumstances would be different if If I had got a gold medal, I would have not happen as an alternative to
sentences something different had happened in been happy. what did happen.
the past.

SENTENCE MOOD
MOOD
Conveys the speaker’s attitude toward the factual content of the sentence.
MAJORS MOODS
DECLARATIVE/ The indicative moods states a fact or The sky is blue. makes a statement, gives an
INDICATIVE asks a question. Why is the sky blue? explanation, conveys a fact or
provides information.
This mood is used to express a Are you coming to the summer camp? An interrogative clause is a
Interrogative mood sense of uncertainty by asking a Where have the children gone? clause whose form is typically
question. The question contains an associated with question-like
auxiliary verb (helping verb) and then meanings.
a main verb.
Imperative mood The imperative mood expresses an Make your bed. Asking for favors, commanding,
order Go away! mood express.
MINOR MOODS
Exclaiming, forceful emotion You were amazing! Exclamatory sentences usually
You did a really good job! begin with exclamatory pronouns
Exclamatory like ‘how’ or ‘what’ to give
emphasis on the noun or object in
the sentence.
The subjunctive mood shows a wish, If I were in her situation, I would never Dubiety, uncertainty, hopeful.
Subjunctive mood a suggestion, a doubt, a demand, or drive. (Expresses a hypothetical situation)
condition contrary to fact. - My mother demanded he prepare the
luggage. (Expresses a demand)
SENTENCES STRUCTURE
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CLAUSE AND KINDS OF SENTENCES

A clause is a group of words that may contain a subject and a predicate, and use as a part of a sentence.
Independent Dependent

Independent Clause – is a clause that can stand alone Although it was raining, I left the house An independent clause is a
(Main Clause) because its meaning is complete early. clause that can stand by itself as
They came late because the car stalled. a simple sentence. An
The machine that we saw belongs to Mr. independent clause contains a
Ruiz. subject and a predicate and
makes sense by itself.
Dependent Clause is a clause that cannot stand by itself
(Subordinate because of its incomplete meaning.
Clause)
● Adjective Clause modifies a noun or a pronoun by The man, who saw the incident, refused to Adjective clause are dependent
telling what kind or which one. testify. clauses that give information
He took the advice that completely about nouns.
changed his life
●Adverb Clause modifies an adjective, a verb, and She stopped as if she were fainting. Is a clause containing a subject
another adverb. The Congress adjourned when the bill and verb that main clause of a
was passed. sentence.

KINDS OF SENTENCES
SIMPLE SENTENCE
a. May have one subject and one verb
▪ My car stalled three times last week

b. May have more than one subject

▪ Malou and Boots went home together
c. May have more than one verb

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▪The children smiled and waved at us

d. May have several subjects or verbs
▪ Manny, Tom, and Jack lubricated my car, replaced the oil filter, and cleaned the spark plugs
– is made up of two or more simple ▪The rain increased, so the officials
sentences. The two complete cancelled the game.
COMPOUND statements in a compound sentence
SENTENCE are usually connected by a comma ▪Martha wanted to go shopping, but Fred
plus a coordinator (for, and, nor, but, refused to drive her
or, yet, so).
– is made up of a simple sentence,
and a clause that begins with a
subordinator, such as the following:

After if, even if when, whenever I checked my money before I invited Tom
for lunch.
COMPLEX although, though in order that A complex sentence is a sentence
SENTENCE with one independent clause and
where, wherever as since I love you because you are beautiful inside as least one dependent clause.
and out.
whether because that, so that

which, whichever before unless.

While even though Until who

how what, whatever whose

COMPOUND- – is made up of two or more simple When the power line snapped, Jack was Is a comprised of at least two
COMPLEX sentences, and one or more listening to the stereo, and Linda was independent clauses and one or
SENTENCE subordinating (dependent) clause. reading in bed. more dependent clauses.
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After I returned to school following a long

illness, the math teacher gave me a make-
up work, but the history teacher made me
drop her course.

SENTENCE VOICE
It is the form a verb takes to indicate
VOICE whether the subject of the verb
performs or receives the action.

TYPES OF VOICE
It indicates that the subject of the John will give a book report to the class. Denotes that the noun or pronoun
1. Active Voice. verb is acting or the doer of the She has done the Math project. that acts as the subjects in the
action. Christian repainted her bicycle. sentence is the doer of the action.

It indicates that the subject of the A book report will be given to the class by Used when we want to
2. Passive Voice verb is receiving- or the recipient of John. emphasize the action (the verb)
the action. The Math project had been done by her. and the objects of a sentence
Her bicycle was repainted [by Christian]. rather than subject.

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TYPES 0F
ERRONEUS SENTENCES
A faulty parallelism - (also sometimes called parallel structure error or a parallel construction error) occurs when the structure of a sentence is
not grammatically parallel
A run-on sentence - occurs when two or more independent clauses (also known as complete sentences) are connected improperly.
Modifiers- A modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that modifies, or describes, a thing or an action. The most common mistakes writers make
with modifiers generally fall into two categories: misplaced and dangling.

*A misplaced modifier occurs when the modifier describes a word in the sentence other than the one it is intended to describe.
*A dangling modifier occurs when the modifier describes a word that is missing from the sentence

FAULTY PARALLELISM
●Words in a pair or series should ▪ Nonparallel / Non-Balanced
have parallel structure. ▪ My job includes checking the inventories, Parallelism refers to the use of
initialing the order and to call the suppliers. identical grammatical structures
● By balancing the items in a pair or for related words, phrases, or
series so that they have the same clauses in a sentence or a
kind of structure, you will make the ▪ Parallel or Balanced paragraph.
Parallelism sentences clearer and easier to read. ▪My job includes checking the inventories,
initialing the order and calling the
suppliers.

A balanced series of –ing words: checking,

initialing, calling

RUN-ON SENTENCES
A run-on is two complete thoughts that are run together with no adequate sign given to mark the break between them. Some run-ons have no
punctuation at all to mark the break between thoughts.

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1.Fused Sentence – in which two or more sentences joined with no punctuation.

▪Our foreign policy is not well-defined it confuses many countries.
▪My professor read my paper she said it was excellent.
2. Comma Splice – which have two or more sentences separated only by commas rather than by commas and conjunctions.
▪Our foreign policy is not well-defined, it confuses many countries.
▪My cat meowed angrily, I knew she wanted food.
CORRECTING RUN-ONS
Method 1: By Separation
a. Full separation – using a period
▪ Our foreign policy is not well defined. It confuses many countries.
▪ My professor read my paper. She said it was excellent

b. Partial separation – using a semicolon

▪Our foreign policy is not well defined; it confuses many countries.
▪My cat meowed angrily; I knew she wanted food.

Method 2: By Coordination
a. Using the coordinators/coordinating conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so)
Example:
▪ Our foreign policy is not well defined, so it confuses many countries.

Method 3: By Subordination
a. Using adjective clause markers (who, that, which, whose, whom)
Example:
▪ Our foreign policy, which is not well define, confuses many countries.

b. Using adverb clause markers (if, because, when, where, until, unless, although, though, since, after, before, while….)
Example:
▪ Since our foreign policy is not well-defined, it confuses many countries.

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ERROR IN USING MODIFIERS

A. Misplaced Modifier (an error in sentence structure)

A modifier is misplaced if it appears to modify the wrong part of the sentence, or if we cannot be certain what part of the sentence the writer
intended to modify.

▪ A man leaped into the water over the ship’s rail. (Confusing)
▪ A man leaped over the ship’s rail into the water. (Clear)
▪ Armed with high-caliber guns, the bank was robbed by unknown suspects. (Confusing)
▪ Armed with high-caliber guns, unknown suspect robbed the bank. (Clear)

B. Dangling Modifier (an error in sentence structure)

A dangling modifier does not sensibly modify anything in its sentence.

Dangling: Being crowded in the car, the trip was uncomfortable.

Revised: Being crowded in the car, we were uncomfortable.
Dangling: When he was three years old, Jerry’s uncle entered medical school.
Revised: When Jerry was three years old, his uncle entered medical school.

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SYNTAX

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SUPRASENTENTIAL LEVEL
Concept Description/ definition Example Personal notes
I.FOREGROUNDING
&
BACKGROUNDING
FOREGROUND the part of an utterance that carries Last month, I went to Italy. It is a vibrant is a concept in literary studies
main storyline and liberating country. There, I met new concerning making a linguistic
people of different race. utterance stand out from the
surrounding linguistic context, from
given literary traditions or from more
general world knowledge.
BACKGROUND The part of an utterance that Last month, I went to Italy. It is a vibrant is an intermediate stage sometimes
Provides the background of a and liberating country. There, I met new used in cattle production which
storyline people of different race. begins after weaning and ends upon
placement in a feedlot
II.COHESION

Reference/Refencing

The semantic meaning of the utterance relies on the existence of referents in the text.

referring back to someone that has Mary is cooking and she hurt herself. Anaphoric reference means that a
● Anaphoric been previously mentioned or word in a text refers back to other
Reference- identified. ideas in the text for its meaning.

● Cataphoric referring forward to a mentioned in She hurt herself…Mary is such a klutz Cataphoric reference means that a
Reference the latter part of the text. word in a text refers to another later
in the text and you need to look
forward to understand

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II.COHESION
Reference/referencing Lexical Cohesion

Ellipsis Conjunction

Substitution
II.COHESION

Ellipses…

The process of omitting unnecessary item which has been mentioned earlier in a text.

II.COHESION

Ellipses…

●Gapping - I ordered fettuccini and he [ordered] salad.

●Stripping - I ordered fettuccini [ I did] not [ordered] salad.
●Verb Phrase Ellipsis - I’ll order fettuccini and you can [order fettuccini] too.
●Answer Ellipsis - Who ordered fettuccini? I did [order fettuccini]
●Sluicing - Del ordered something, but I don’t know what [he ordered].
●Nominal Ellipsis - I ordered two fettuccini, and Del ordered one [fettuccini].

II.COHESION
Substitution
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substituting a noun with another This car is old. I’ll buy a new one describes words or groups of words
● Nominal noun. Elements of this type are one, that function together as a noun
ones, same.

● Verbal - substituting a verb or VP with I challenge you to graduate before I do. uses the word do (does, did, don’t,
another verb doesn’t, didn’t, has done, have
done).

● Clausal substituting clauses by so or not Do you think she like him, too? I don’t The word “so” and “not” can replace
think so. a verbal group.
Lexical Cohesion

The choice of vocabulary.

It is concerned with the relationship that exist between lexical items in a text such as words and phrases.

● Reiteration Repetition of lexical items or the use A boy is climbing a wall. The lad’s gonna the act of saying or doing something
of a general word to refer back to a fall if he doesn’t take care. That child will again, or over and over; excesive
lexical item. hurt himself. repetition.

● Collocation The way which particular words tend Deep, deep feeling, deep pockets, deep the act of collocating.
to occur or belong together sleep the state or manner of
Heavy, heavy rain, heavy sleeper, heavy being collocated
drinker

Lexical Cohesion
Reiteration thru:
A synonym is a word, morpheme, or

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Terry is a genius. Her intelligence is phrase that means exactly or nearly

●Synonymy Referring items of similar meanings incomparable. the same as another word,
morpheme, or phrase in a given
language.
antonym is a word having a meaning
●Antonym Referring items of opposite Terry is a genius Kath is so dumb. opposite to that of another word,
meanings such as hot and cold, short and tall.
Lexical Cohesion
thru:
Referring items of ‘specific-general’ rose, hibiscus, daisy, tulips are semantic relationship between each
●Hyponymy or example of relationship hyponyms of the superordinate flower of the more specific words (such as
chamomile and rose) and the
broader term (flower) is called
hyponymy or inclusion
●Meronymy Referring items of part-whole’ Eyes-face A meronym denotes a constituent
relationship. Hand-arm part of, or a member of something.
Lexical
Cohesion
Reiteration thru:
Restatement of the same lexical Terry eats an apple. The apple should speech that employ repetition
●Repetition item. be freshly picked. usually repeat single words

Conjunction
The expression of ‘logical-semantic’ relationship between sentences rather than between words and structures.

●Additive substance added to something in Likewise, further, furthermore, in substance added to something in
small quantities to improve or addition, moreover, and, and the like. small quantities to improve or

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preserve it preserve it.

Ex. She studies hard and parties wildly.

●Adversative But, however, in contrast, contradictory, expressing opposition or antithesis.

expressing opposition or antithesis. whereas, on the hand, and the like

Ex. She doesn’t want to go to school but

her parents want her to.
●Causal expressing a cause, as the So, thus, hence, therefore, because, as expressing a cause, as the
conjunctions because and since a result, and the like. conjunctions because and since

Ex. She studies hard; as a result, she

passed excellently.
●Temporal tells us about the time. When will Finally, soon, then, next, at the same tells us about the time. When will
something happen? Which of the time. something happen? Which of the
two happened first two happened first?
Ex. She studied hard for four years.
Finally her hard work will be paid off
now.

III. REGISTER
LEVEL OF FORMALITY OF LANGUAGE

●FIELD ●MODE ●TENOR

It refers to the ‘social activity’ where  Talking to a teacher inside the Field refers to the subject matter or
the language is being used and what campus, to your boss, to elders content being discussed.
●Field is being talked about.  Business meeting

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 Rave party
It is reflected in the choice of content  Christening
words.
 Neutral tenor refers to the participants in a
It refers to the ‘relationship of the  Inferior-Superior discourse, their relationships to each
participants’  Superior-Inferior other, and their purposes. In
●Tenor examining how context affects
language use, linguists refer to
the context-specific variety of
language as a register
●Mode It refers to the ‘channel or medium of  Written
communication’  Spoken
 Non-verbal
 Digital/Electronic
Joo’s Five Styles in Spoken English
Printed unchanging language; no  National Pledge Also referred to as static register.
1.Frozen interaction  Marriage Ceremonies Printed unchanging language, such
 National Anthem as biblical quotations, often
contains archaisms.
One-way participation; no  I feel really tired. One-way participation; no
interruption  You did well. interruption; technical vocabulary or
2.Formal  I've made fewer mistakes. exact definitions are important;
includes presentations or
introductions between strangers.
3.Consultative Two-way participation; with  What’s new with you? Is a semi-formal vocabulary,
interaction  I’m fine. unplanned and two- way
 What’s new with you? communication and dialogue

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 Use contractions: "That's not In-group friends and acquaintances;

true," "What're you doing?" no background information
4. Casual Clique and acquaintances type of "Where'd he go?" "This's a good provided; ellipsis and slang common
interaction idea," etc. ; interruptions common. This is
 Use simplified grammar: eg. "I common among friends in a social
thought you were going out?" setting
instead of "I thought THAT you
were going out?"
 Use slang: "Slang" is language that's
only recently been created. Examples
include "That's lit" or "This food is
bomb".

 Good morning, my love. Non-public; intonation more

 Honey, do you want me to make you important than wording or grammar;
5. Intimate Non-public; private vocabulary your favorite dish? private vocabulary. Also includes
non-verbal messages. This is most
 Sweetie, don’t run around too fast or common among family members
you might fall down. and close friends.

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