Principle of Mathematical

Induction (PMI)
BY: RAFAEL S. DATUKAN
What is induction?
• A method of proof
• It does not generate answers: it only can prove them
• Three parts:
✓ Base case(s): show it is true for one element
✓ Inductive hypothesis: assume
it is true for any given element
Must be clearly labeled!!!
✓ Show that it is true for the next
highest element
 The Principle of Mathematical Induction (PMI)

Suppose we have some statement P(n) and we want to

demonstrate that P(n) is true for all 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁.

Even if we can provide proofs for P(1), P(2), …, P(k) where k is

some large number, we have accomplished very little. However,
there is a general method, the Principle of Mathematical
Induction.
 Principle of Mathematical Induction (PMI).
In order to show that ∀𝑛 ∈ ℕ, let 𝑃 𝑛 be a statement about 𝑛,
it suffices to establish the following properties:

𝑖 Base Case: Show that 𝑃 1 is true.

𝑖𝑖 Induction Step: Assume that 𝑃 𝑘 is true, and
show that 𝑃 𝑘 + 1 also holds (where 𝑘 is some positive
integer). (That is, 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 = 𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1)
 The symbol ∀ is called the
universal quantifier.
In mathematical logic, a universal quantification is a type
of quantifier, a logical constant which is interpreted as “for any" or
"for all“.

Examples: ∀x ∈ ℤ+ − reads as “for any x in ℤ+ " or "for all x in ℤ+ “.

∀𝑛 ∈ ℕ − reads as “for any n in ℕ " or "for all n in ℕ“.
 Mathematical Induction examples
+ 𝑛 𝑛+1
Example 1. Show that ∀𝑛 ∈ ℤ , 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + 𝑛 =
2
𝑛 𝑛+1
Proof: Let P(n) be 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + 𝑛 = .
2
1(1+1)
𝑖 Base case: let 𝑛 = 1, then 1 = . Hence 𝑃(1) is true.
2
𝑘 k+1
𝑖𝑖 Induction Step: let 𝑃 𝑘 be true, suppose that 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + 𝑘 = for
2
𝑘 k+1
some 𝑘 ∈ ℤ+ , then 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + 𝑘 + 𝒌 + 𝟏 = + 𝒌+𝟏 by IH.
2
𝒌𝟐 + 𝒌 𝟐𝒌 + 𝟐
= +
𝟐 𝟐
𝒌𝟐 + 𝟐𝒌 + 𝟐 (𝒌 + 𝟏)(𝒌 + 𝟐)
= =
𝟐 𝟐
(𝒌 + 𝟏) (𝒌 + 𝟏) + 𝟏
=
𝟐
Hence, 𝑃 𝑘 + 1 is true.
+ 𝑛 𝑛+1
Therefore, ∀𝑛 ∈ ℤ , 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + 𝑛 = . Q.E.D Link
2
Example 2. Show that ∀𝑛 ∈ ℕ, 1 + 3 + 5 + ⋯ + (2𝑛 − 1) = 𝑛2
Proof: Let 𝑃 𝑛 be 1 + 3 + 5 + ⋯ + 2𝑛 − 1 = 𝑛2 . We will show that
P(n) holds for all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ by indution on n.

𝑖 Let 𝑛 = 1, then 1 = 12 . Hence 𝑃(1) is true.

𝑖𝑖 Let 𝑃 𝑘 be true, suppose that 1 + 3 + 5 + ⋯ + (2𝑘 − 1) = 𝑘 2 ,
for some 𝑘 ∈ ℕ, then adding 2 𝑘 + 1 − 1 = 2𝑘 + 1 to both
sides, we get
1 + 3 + 5 + ⋯ + 2𝑘 − 1 + 2 𝑘 + 1 − 1 = 𝑘 2 + (2𝑘 + 1)
= 𝑘 2 + (2𝑘 + 1)
= (𝑘 + 1)2
Hence, 𝑃(𝑘 + 1) is true.
Therefore, ∀𝑛 ∈ ℕ, 1 + 3 + 5 + ⋯ + 2𝑛 − 1 = 𝑛2 .
Divisibility
Definition. If a and b are integers, then
a divides b if an = b for some integer n. In
this case, a is a factor or a divisor of b.
Example 3. Prove that ∀𝑛 ∈ ℕ, 9𝑛 −1 is divisible by 8.
Proof: Let 𝑃 𝑛 be 9𝑛 − 1 is divisible by 8
𝑖 Let 𝑛 = 1, then 91 − 1 = 8 is divisible by 8. Hence 𝑃(1) is true.
𝑖𝑖 Let 𝑃 𝑘 be true, suppose that 9𝑘 − 1 is divisible by 8 for some
𝑘 ∈ ℕ , then by divisibility definition we can write 9𝑘 − 1 = 8𝑚,
where 𝑚 ∈ ℕ. Thus 𝑘+1 𝑘
9 −1=9∙9 −1
= 9 ∙ 9𝑘 + (−9𝑘 + 9𝑘 ) − 1
= (9 ∙ 9𝑘 − 9𝑘 ) + (9𝑘 −1)
= 9𝑘 (9 − 1) + (9𝑘 −1)
= 8 ∙ 9𝑘 + 8𝑚, 𝒃𝒚 𝑫𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑫𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
= 8(9𝑘 + 𝑚)
Hence, 𝑃(𝑘 + 1) is true.
Therefore, ∀𝑛 ∈ ℕ, 9𝑛 − 1 is divisible by 8
 Example 4. Show that ∀𝑛 ∈ ℤ+ , 𝑛 >1: 3𝑛 > 2𝑛 + 1.
Proof: Let 𝑃 𝑛 be 3𝑛 > 2𝑛 + 1.
𝑖 Let 𝑛 = 2, then 32 > 2 2 + 1, that is 9 > 5. Hence 𝑃(2) is true.
𝑖𝑖 Let 𝑃 𝑘 be true, suppose that 3𝑘 > 2𝑘 + 1 for some
𝑘 ∈ ℤ+ , 𝑘 >1 , then
𝒌+𝟏 3𝑘+1 = 3𝑘 ∙ 3
𝟑 > 𝟐(𝒌 + 𝟏) + 𝟏
> 2𝑘 + 1 ∙ 3, by IA
= 3 ∙ 2𝑘 + 3
> 2𝑘 + 3 𝑜𝑟 2(𝑘 + 1) + 1
Hence, 𝑃(𝑘 + 1) is true.
Therefore,∀𝑛 ∈ ℤ+ , 𝑛 >1: 3𝑛 > 2𝑛 + 1.
 Example 5. Show that ∀𝑛 ∈ ℤ+ , 𝑛 > 4: 2𝑛 > 𝑛2 .
Proof: Let 𝑃 𝑛 be2𝑛 > 𝑛2 .
𝑖 Let 𝑛 = 5, then 25 > 52 , that is 32 >25. Hence 𝑃(5) is true.
𝑖𝑖 Let 𝑃 𝑘 be true, suppose that 2𝑘 > 𝑘 2 for some 𝑘 ∈ ℤ+ , 𝑘 > 4 ,
then 2𝑘+1 = 2 ∙ 2𝑘
= 2 𝑘 + 2𝑘
𝟐𝒌+𝟏 = (𝒌 + 𝟏)𝟐 > 𝑘 2 +𝑘 2 = 𝑘 2 +𝑘 ∙ 𝑘
> 𝑘 2 +4𝑘 = 𝑘 2 +2𝑘 + 2𝑘

> 𝑘 2 +2𝑘 + 2(4)

> 𝑘 2 +2𝑘 + 1 𝑜𝑟 (𝑘 + 1)2

Hence, 𝑃(𝑘 + 1) is true.

Therefore, ∀𝑛 ∈ ℤ+ , 𝑛 > 4: 2𝑛 > 𝑛2 .
Example 5. Prove that ∀𝑛 ≥ 4, 𝑛 ∈ ℕ: 𝑛! > 2𝑛 .
Proof: Let 𝑃 𝑛 be 𝑛! < 2𝑛 . ..
𝑖 Let 𝑛 = 4, then 4! > 24 . . Thus, 24 > 16. Hence 𝑃(4) is true.
𝑖𝑖 Let 𝑃 𝑘 be true, suppose that 𝑘! > 2𝑘 for some 𝑘 ∈ ℕ and 𝑘 ≥
4 , then (𝑘 + 1)! = 𝑘 + 1 𝑘!
> 𝑘 + 1 2𝑘 , by IA
> 4 + 1 2𝑘 , since 𝑘 ≥ 4

= 5 2𝑘 ,
> 2 2𝑘 , or 2𝑘+1
Hence, 𝑃(𝑘 + 1) is true.
Therefore, ∀𝑛 ≥ 4, 𝑛 ∈ ℕ: 𝑛! > 2𝑛 .
 Type of questions to be solved by PMI
1. Statements giving expression about summation or
multiplication of special series.
2. Statements to show the divisibility of an expression by a
certain natural numbers.
3. Statements containing signs of inequality.