Section 1.

3 Quantifiers, Predicates, and Validity 39

didn’t see the knife. Furthermore, if the knife was there on October 10, then the knife was in the
drawer and also the hammer was in the barn. But we all know that the hammer was not in the barn.
Therefore, ladies and gentlemen of the jury, my client is innocent.
Use propositional logic to prove that this is a valid argument.

Section 1.3 Quantifiers, Predicates, and Validit y

Quantifiers and Predicates

Propositional wffs have rather limited expressive power. For example, we would
consider the sentence “For every x, x > 0” to be a true statement about the
positive integers, yet it cannot be adequately symbolized using only statement
letters, parentheses, and logical connectives. It contains two new features, a
quantifier and a predicate. Quantifiers are phrases such as “for every” or “for
each” or “for some” that tell in some sense how many objects have a certain
property. The universal quantifier is symbolized by an upside down A, 4, and
is read “for all,” “for every,” “for each,” or “for any.” Thus the example sentence
can be symbolized by

(4x)(x > 0)

A quantifier and its named variable are always placed in parentheses. The second
set of parentheses shows that the quantifier acts on the enclosed expression, which
in this case is “x > 0.”
The phrase “x > 0” describes a property of the variable x, that of being posi-
tive. A property is also called a predicate; the notation P(x) is used to represent
some unspecified predicate or property that x may have. Thus, our original sen-
tence is an example of the more general form

(4x)P(x)

The truth value of the expression (4x)(x > 0) depends on the domain of ob-
jects in which we are “interpreting” this expression, that is, the collection of ob-
jects from which x may be chosen. This collection of objects is called the domain
of interpretation. We have already agreed that if the domain of interpretation con-
sists of the positive integers, the expression has the truth value true because every
possible value for x has the required property of being greater than zero. If the
domain of interpretation consists of all the integers, the expression has the truth
value false, because not every x has the required property. We impose the condi-
tion that the domain of interpretation contain at least one object so that we are not
talking about a trivial case.
An interpretation of the expression (4x)P(x) would consist of not only the col-
lection of objects from which x could take its value but also the particular property
that P(x) represents in this domain. Thus an interpretation for (4x)P(x) could be
the following: The domain consists of all the books in your local library, and P(x)
is the property that x has a red cover. In this interpretation, (4x)P(x) says that ev-
ery book in your local library has a red cover. The truth value of this expression,
in this interpretation, is undoubtedly false.
 40 Formal Logic

R C C 15 What is the truth value of the expression (5x)P(x) in each of the following interpretations?
P
A
TI
E
a. P(x) is the property that x is yellow, and the domain of interpretation is the collection of
all daffodils.
b. P(x) is the property that x is yellow, and the domain of interpretation is the collection of all flowers.
c. P(x) is the property that x is a plant, and the domain of interpretation is the collection of all
flowers.
d. P(x) is the property that x is either positive or negative, and the domain of interpretation consists
of the integers.

The existential quantifier is symbolized by a backward E, E, and is read

“there exists one,” “for at least one,” or “for some.” Thus the expression

(E x)(x > 0)

is read “there exists an x such that x is greater than zero.”

Again, the truth value of this expression depends on the interpretation. If the
R MI R
domain of interpretation contains a positive number, the expression has the value
E
NDE
all, every, each, any—use 4 true; otherwise, it has the value false. The truth value of (E x)P(x), if the domain
some, one, at least one—
consists of all the books in your local library and P(x) is the property that x has a
use E
red cover, is true if there is at least one book in the library with a red cover.

a ti e 16
Pr
c
c
a. Construct an interpretation (i.e., give the domain and the meaning of P(x)) in which (4x)P(x)
has the value true.
b. Construct an interpretation in which (4x)P(x) has the value false.
c. Can you find one interpretation in which both (4x)P(x) is true and (E x)P(x) is false?
d. Can you find one interpretation in which both (4x)P(x) is false and (E x)P(x) is true?

The predicates we have seen so far, involving properties of a single variable,

are unary predicates. Predicates can be binary, involving properties of two vari-
ables, ternary, involving properties of three variables, or, more generally, n-ary,
involving properties of n variables.

e 20 The expression (4x)(E y)Q(x, y) is read “for every x there exists a y such that
Exampl
Q(x, y).” Note that there are two quantifiers for the two variables of the binary
property. In the interpretation where the domain consists of the integers and Q(x, y)
is the property that x < y, this just says that for any integer, there is a larger integer.
The truth value of the expression is true. In the same interpretation, the expression
(E y)(4x)Q(x, y) says that there is a single integer y that is larger than any integer x.
The truth value here is false.

Example 20 illustrates that the order in which the quantifiers appear is

important.
 Section 1.3 Quantifiers, Predicates, and Validity 41

In expressions such as (4x)P(x) or (E x)P(x), x is a dummy variable; that is, the
truth values of the expressions remain the same in a given interpretation if they
are written, say, as (4y)P( y) or (E z)P(z), respectively. Similarly, the truth value
of (4x)(E y)Q(x, y) is the same as that of (4z)(E w)Q(z, w) in any interpretation.
However, (4x)(E x)Q(x, x) says something quite different. In the interpretation of
Example 20, for instance, (4x)(E x)Q(x, x) says that for every integer x, there is an
integer x such that x < x. This statement is false, even though (4x)(E y)Q(x, y) was
true in this interpretation. We cannot collapse separate variables together into one
without changing the nature of the expression we obtain.
Constants are also allowed in expressions. A constant symbol (a, b, c, 0, 1, 2,
etc.) is interpreted as some specific object in the domain. This specification is part
of the interpretation. For example, the expression (4x)Q(x, a) is false in the inter-
pretation where the domain consists of the integers, Q(x, y) is the property x < y,
and a is assigned the value 7; it is not the case that every integer is less than 7.
Now we can sum up what is required in an interpretation.

ef n t on n er re a ion
D
i
i
i
I
t
p
t
t
An interpretation for an expression involving predicates consists of the following:
a. A collection of objects, called the domain of the interpretation, which must
include at least one object
b. An assignment of a property of the objects in the domain to each predicate in
the expression
c. An assignment of a particular object in the domain to each constant symbol in
the expression

Expressions can be built by combining predicates with quantifiers, grouping

symbols (parentheses or brackets), and the logical connectives of Section 1.1. As
before, an expression must obey rules of syntax to be considered a well-formed
formula. Well-formed formulas containing predicates and quantifiers are called
predicate wffs to distinguish them from propositional wffs, which contain only
statement letters and logical connectives.
The expression P(x)(4x) `)E y is not a well-formed formula. Examples of
predicate wffs are

P(x) ~ Q( y) (1)

(4x)[P(x) S Q(x)] (2)

(4x)((E y)[P(x, y) ` Q(x, y)] S R(x)) (3)

and

(E x)S(x) ~ (4y)T( y) (4)


“Grouping symbols” such as parentheses and brackets identify the scope of a
quantifier, the section of the wff to which the quantifier applies. (This is analo-
gous to the scope of an identifier in a computer program as the section of the
program in which that identifier has meaning.) There are no quantifiers in wff (1).
In (2), the scope of the quantifier (4x) is P(x) S Q(x). In (3), the scope of (E y) is
P(x, y) ` Q(x, y), while the scope of (4x) is the entire expression in parentheses
 42 Formal Logic

following it. In (4), the scope of (E x) is S(x) and the scope of (4y) is T( y); paren-
theses or brackets can be eliminated when the scope is clear.
If a variable occurs somewhere in a wff where it is not part of a quantifier and
is not within the scope of a quantifier involving that variable, it is called a free
variable. For example, y is a free variable in

(4x)[Q(x, y) S (E y)R(x, y)]

because of the first occurrence of y, which is neither the variable of a quantifier nor
within the scope of a quantifier using y. A wff with free variables may not have a
truth value at all in a given interpretation. For example, in the interpretation where
the domain is all of the integers, the predicate P(x) means “x > 0”, and 5 means (of
course) the integer 5, the wff

P( y) ` P(5)

has no truth value because we don’t know which element of the domain y refers to.
Some elements of the domain are positive and others are not. The wff

P( y) ~ P(5)

is true in this interpretation even though we don’t know what y refers to because
P(5) is true. In both of these wffs y is a free variable.

e 21 In the wff
Exampl
(4x)(E y)[S(x, y) ` L( y, a)]

the scope of (E y) is all of S(x, y) ` L( y, a). The scope of (4x) is (E y)[S(x, y) ` L( y, a)].
Consider the interpretation where the domain consists of all the cities in the United
States, S(x, y) is the property “x and y are in the same state,” L( y, z) is the property
“y’s name begins with the same letter as z’s name,” and a is assigned the value Albu-
querque. So the interpretation of the entire wff is that for any city x there is a city y in
the same state that begins with the letter A. The wff is true in this interpretation. (At
least it is true if every state has a city beginning with the letter A.)

Pr a ti e 17
c c What is the truth value of the wff

(E x)(A(x) ` (4y)[B(x, y) S C( y)])

in the interpretation where the domain consists of all integers, A(x) is “x > 0,” B(x, y) is “x > y,” and
C( y) is “y ≤ 0”? Construct another interpretation with the same domain in which the statement has the
opposite truth value.

Translation
Many English language statements can be expressed as predicate wffs. For ex-
ample, “Every parrot is ugly,” is really saying, “For any thing, if it is a parrot,
 Section 1.3 Quantifiers, Predicates, and Validity 43

then it is ugly.” Letting P(x) denote “x is a parrot” and U(x) denote “x is ugly,” the
statement can be symbolized as

(4x)[P(x) S U(x)]

Other English language variations that take the same symbolic form are, “All par-
rots are ugly,” and, “Each parrot is ugly.” Notice that the quantifier is the univer-
sal quantifier and the logical connective is implication; 4 and S almost always
belong together. The wff (4x)[P(x) ` U(x)] is an incorrect translation because it
says that everything in the domain—understood here to be the whole world—
is an ugly parrot. This says something much stronger than the original English
statement.
Similarly, “There is an ugly parrot,” is really saying, “There exists something
that is both a parrot and ugly.” In symbolic form,
R MI R
E
NDE
Think (E x)[P(x) ` U(x)]
4S
and Variations are, “Some parrots are ugly,” and, “There are ugly parrots.” Here the
E` quantifier is the existential quantifier and the logical connective is conjunction; E
and ` almost always belong together. The wff (E x)[P(x) S U(x)] is an incorrect
translation. This wff is true as long as there is anything, call it x, in the domain
(the whole world) that is not a parrot, because then P(x) is false and the implication
is true. Indeed, this wff is true if there are no parrots in the world at all!
To translate an English statement into a wff, it may help to first write an in-
termediate English language statement and then symbolize that statement. We did
this with the parrot examples.
The word “only” seems particularly troublesome in translations because its
placement in a sentence can completely change the meaning. For example, the
English statements

1. John loves only Mary.

2. Only John loves Mary
3. John only loves Mary.

say three entirely different things. Using the predicate symbols J(x) for “x is John,”
M(x) for “x is Mary,” and L(x, y) for “x loves y,” they can be rewritten as

1. If John loves any thing, then that thing is Mary.

or
1. For any thing, if it is John then, if it loves anything, that thing is Mary.

(4x)(J(x) S (4y)(L(x, y) S M( y))

2. If any thing loves Mary, then that thing is John.

or
2. For any thing, if it is Mary then, if anything loves it, that thing is John.

(4x)(M(x) S (4y)(L( y, x) S J( y))

3. If John does any thing to Mary, then that thing is love.

or
 44 Formal Logic

3. For any thing, if it is John then, for any other thing, if that thing is Mary,
then John loves it.

(4x)(J(x) S (4y)(M( y) S L(x, y))

In each case, the consequent of the implication is the word following “only” in the
original English statement.

e 22 Given the predicate symbols

Exampl
D(x) is “x is a dog”
R(x) is “x is a rabbit”
C(x, y) is “x chases y”

Table 1.15 shows examples of an English statement, an intermediate English state-

ment, and a wff translation. Note that in wff 2, the connective associated with E
is ` and the connective associated with 4 is S. In wff 3, the first version shows
two implications associated with the two 4 quantifiers. The second version is
equivalent because of the tautology [A ` B S C ] 4 [A S (B S C )]. This ver-
sion may appear to violate the rule that universal quantifiers should be used with
implication, not conjunction, but this tautology provides another way to write two
implications. The second version also shows more clearly that “dogs,” the word
following “only,” is the conclusion.

b e 1.15
Ta
l
nglish Statement Intermediate Statement Wff
E
1. All dogs chase For any thing, if it is a dog, (4x)[D(x) S (4y)(R( y) S C(x,y))]
 
all rabbits. then for any other thing, if
that thing is a rabbit, then
the dog chases it.
2. Some dogs There is some thing that (E x)[D(x) ` (4y)(R( y) S C(x,y))]
 
chase all rabbits. is a dog and, for any other
thing, if that thing is a rab-
bit, then the dog chases it.
3. Only dogs chase For any thing, if it is a rabbit (4y)[R( y) S (4x)(C(x,y) S D(x))]
 
­
rabbits. then, if anything chases it,
that thing is a dog.
For any two things, if one is (4y)(4x)[R( y) ` C(x,y) S D(x)]
a rabbit and the other chas-
es it, then the other is a dog.

Often more than one wff exists that is a correct representation of an English state-
ment, as seen with statement (3) in Table 1.15. Also wff (2) is equivalent to

(E x)[D(x) ` (4y)([R( y)]′ ~ C(x, y))]

because of the implication equivalence rule that says (R S C ) 4 (R′ ~ C ), even

though here R and C are predicates instead of just statement letters.
 Section 1.3 Quantifiers, Predicates, and Validity 45

In addition, it is legitimate to “slide” a quantifier over a predicate that does not
involve the variable of that quantifier. Because D(x) does not involve y, we could
slide the universal quantifier in wff (2) to the front (but not past the existential
quantifier), giving the equivalent wff

(E x)(4y)[D(x) ` (R( y) S C(x, y))] (a)

In wff (a), we still have grouping symbols around R( y) S C(x,y). Without the
grouping symbols, this wff becomes

(E x)(4y)[D(x) ` R( y) S C(x, y)] (b)

which, according to the order of precedence of connectives, is equivalent to

(E x)(4y)[(D(x) ` R( y)) S C(x, y)]

A quick truth table exercise shows that D ` (R S C ) is not equivalent to

(D ` R) S C, so wff (b) is not equivalent to wff (a) and thus does not represent
statement (2) in the table.

Translation from an English statement into a predicate wff is a little harder

than translation into a propositional wff, partly because of the added expressive-
ness of the verbal form and partly because there can be multiple correct predicate
wffs. Here is a summary of translation tips:

• Look for the key words that signify the type of quantifier:
for all, for every, for any, for each: use a universal quantifier
for some, there exists: use an existential quantifier.
• English sometimes uses “understood” universal quantifiers. For example,
“Dogs chase rabbits,” is understood to mean, “All dogs chase all rabbits.”
• If you use a universal quantifier, the connective that goes with it is almost
always implication.
• If you use an existential quantifier, the connective that goes with it is
almost always conjunction.
•
­
Whatever comes after the word “only” is the conclusion of an implication;
that is, it comes after “then” in an “if–then” statement.
• You are most apt to arrive at a correct translation if you follow the order
of the English words.

e 23 Let’s do a couple of examples in great detail. The first is

Exampl
All giraffes are tall.
The property of being a giraffe and the property of being tall are unary predicates.
We’ll use G(x) for “x is a giraffe” and T(x) for “x is tall”. Following the sentence
structure, we first see “All,” which tells us that there’s a universal quantifier, so the
wff begins with
(4x)( … )
46 Formal Logic

All what? All giraffes, so

(4x)(G(x) … )
Because of the universal quantifier, we expect to use the implication connective,
so now we have
(4x)(G(x) S … )
Thinking of the implication as an “if–then,” we have “if a giraffe, then … .” Then
what? Then it's tall. The final wff is
(4x)(G(x) S T(x))
The second example is
Only giraffes are taller than elephants.
The property of being a giraffe and the property of being an elephant are unary
predicates, and we’ll use G(x) and E(x) to represent them. But “taller than” is a
property that compares two things, so it’s a binary predicate; T(x, y) will mean “x
is taller than y”. There are no obvious quantifier key words, so we understand that
we are talking about all giraffes and all elephants (universal quantifiers). The word
“giraffes” follows the word “only,” so the property of being a giraffe is going to
be the conclusion of an implication and the overall form will be “if xxx, then a
giraffe.” Indeed, if something is taller than an elephant, then it’s a giraffe. Putting
in the universal quantifiers, “if any thing is taller than any elephant, then that thing
is a giraffe,” or (even more tortured English), “for any thing, if it is an elephant,
then for any other thing, if it’s taller than the elephant, then it’s a giraffe.” Now we
can pretty much translate directly into a wff. “For any thing, if it is an elephant,
then” becomes
(4x)(E(x) S … )
and, “for any other thing, if it's taller than the elephant, then,” adds a second im-
plication to the wff:
(4x)(E(x) S (4y)(T( y, x) S … ))
Notice that we introduced y here, a second variable, because we’ve already given
x the elephant property. Also, we’ve written T( y, x), not T(x, y), because we want
this new thing to be taller than the elephant, and our definition of the taller predi-
cate was that the first variable was taller than the second. We are ready for the final
conclusion—this new thing is a giraffe.
(4x)(E(x) S (4y)(T( y, x) S G( y)))
As in Table 1.15(3), a tautology allows us to also write this wff as
(4x)(4y)(E(x) ` T( y, x) S G( y))
“For any two things, if one is an elephant and the other is taller than the elephant,
then the other thing is a giraffe.”
With some practice, you won’t have to go quite this slowly!
 Section 1.3 Quantifiers, Predicates, and Validity 47

P ractice
18 Using the predicate symbols S(x) for “x is a student,” I(x) for “x is intelligent,” and M(x)
for “x likes music,” write wffs that express the following statements. (The domain is the
collection of all people.)

­
a. All students are intelligent.
b. Some intelligent students like music.
c. Everyone who likes music is a stupid student.
d. Only intelligent students like music.

PRACTICE 19 Using the predicate symbols F(x) for “x is a fruit,” V(x) for “x is a vegetable,” and S(x,y) for
“x is sweeter than y,” write wffs that express the following statements. (The domain is the
whole world.)
a. Some vegetable is sweeter than all fruits.
b. Every fruit is sweeter than all vegetables.
c. Every fruit is sweeter than some vegetable.
d. Only fruits are sweeter than vegetables.

Negating statements with quantifiers, as in negating compound statements,

requires care. The negation of the statement, “Everything is beautiful,” is, “It is
false that everything is beautiful,” or, “Something is nonbeautiful.” Symbolically,

[(4x)A(x)]′ is equivalent to (E x)[A(x)]′

Note that, “Everything is nonbeautiful,” or (4x)[A(x)]′, says something stronger

than the negation of the original statement.
The negation of, “Something is beautiful,” is, “Nothing is beautiful,” or,
“Everything fails to be beautiful.” Symbolically,
­
[(E x)A(x)]′ is equivalent to (4x)[A(x)]′

In English, the statement, “Everything is not beautiful,” would often be misinter-

preted as, “Not everything is beautiful,” or, “There is something nonbeautiful.”
However, this misinterpretation, symbolized by (E x)[A(x)]′, is not as strong as the
negation of the original statement.

P 20 Which of the following statements expresses the negation of, “Everybody loves somebody
ractice
­
sometime”?
a. Everybody hates somebody sometime.
b. Somebody loves everybody all the time.
c. Everybody hates everybody all the time.
d. Somebody hates everybody all the time.
 48 Formal Logic

Validity
The truth value of a propositional wff depends on the truth values assigned to the
statement letters. The truth value of a predicate wff depends on the interpretation.
Choosing an interpretation for a predicate wff is thus analogous to choosing truth
values in a propositional wff. However, there are an infinite number of possible
interpretations for a predicate wff and only 2n possible rows in the truth table for
a propositional wff with n statement letters.
A tautology is a propositional wff that is true for all rows of the truth table.
The analogue to tautology for predicate wffs is validity—a predicate wff is valid
if it is true in all possible interpretations. The validity of a wff must be derived
from the form of the wff itself, since validity is independent of any particular in-
terpretation; a valid wff is “intrinsically true.”
An algorithm exists to decide whether a propositional wff is a tautology—
construct the truth table and examine all possible truth assignments. How can we
go about deciding validity for predicate wffs? We clearly cannot look at all pos-
sible interpretations, because there are an infinite number of them. As it turns out,
no algorithm to decide validity for any wff exists. (This does not mean simply that
no algorithm has yet been found—it means that it has been proved that there is no
such algorithm.) We must simply use reasoning to determine whether the form of
a particular wff makes the wff true in all interpretations. Of course, if we can find
a single interpretation in which the wff has the truth value false or has no truth
value at all, then the wff is not valid.
Table 1.16 compares propositional and predicate wffs.

b e 1.16
Ta
l
Propositional Wffs Predicate Wffs
Truth values True or false, depending on True, false, or perhaps (if the
truth value assignments to wff has a free variable) neither,
statement letters depending on interpretation
“Intrinsic truth” Tautology—true for all truth Valid wff—true for all
value assignments interpretations
­
Methodology Algorithm (truth table) to No algorithm to determine
determine whether wff is a whether wff is valid
tautology
­
Now let’s try our hand at determining validity for specific wffs.

e 24 a. The wff
Exampl
 
(4x)P(x) S (E x)P(x)
is valid. In any interpretation, if every element of the domain has a certain prop-
erty, then there exists an element of the domain that has that property. (Remember
that the domain of any interpretation must have at least one object in it.) Therefore,
­
 Section 1.3 Quantifiers, Predicates, and Validity 49

whenever the antecedent is true, so is the consequent, and the implication is there-
fore true.
b. The wff

(4x)P(x) S P(a)

is valid because in any interpretation, a is a particular member of the domain and

therefore has the property that is shared by all members of the domain.
c. The wff

(4x)[P(x) ` Q(x)] 4 (4x)P(x) ` (4x)Q(x)

is valid. If both P and Q are true for all the elements of the domain, then P is true
for all elements and Q is true for all elements, and vice versa.
d. The wff

P(x) S [Q(x) S P(x)]

is valid, even though it contains a free variable. To see this, consider any inter-
pretation, and let x be any member of the domain. Then x either does or does not
have property P. If x does not have property P, then P(x) is false; because P(x)
is the antecedent of the main implication, this implication is true. If x does have
property P, then P(x) is true; regardless of the truth value of Q(x), the implication
Q (x) S P(x) is true, and so the main implication is also true.
e. The wff

(E x)P(x) S (4x)P(x)

is not valid. For example, in the interpretation where the domain consists of the
integers and P(x) means that x is even, it is true that there exists an integer that is
even, but it is false that every integer is even. The antecedent of the implication is
true and the consequent is false, so the value of the implication is false.

We do not necessarily have to go to a mathematical context to construct an

interpretation in which a wff is false, but it is frequently easier to do so because
the relationships among objects are relatively clear.

a ti e 21 Is the wff valid or invalid? Explain.

Pr
c
c
(4x)[P(x) ~ Q(x)] S (4x)P(x) ~ (4x)Q(x)
 50 Formal Logic

Sect on 1.3 Re view

i
ec n ue M n Ide
T
h
iq
s
ai
as
• Determine the truth value of a predicate wff in a
W • The truth value of predicate wffs depends on the
given interpretation. interpretation considered.
• Translate English language statements into predi-
W • Valid predicate wffs are “intrinsically true”—true
cate wffs, and vice versa. in all interpretations.
• Recognize a valid wff and explain why it is valid.
• Recognize a nonvalid wff and construct an inter-
W
pretation in which it is false or has no truth value.
e c e 1.3
Ex
r
is
s
1. What is the truth value of each of the following wffs in the interpretation where the domain consists of the
integers, O(x) is “x is odd,” L(x) is “x < 10,” and G(x) is “x > 9”?
a. (E x)O(x) c. (E x)[L(x) ` G(x)]
b. (4x)[L(x) S O(x)] d. (4x)[L(x) ~ G(x)]
2. What is the truth value of each of the following wffs in the interpretation where the domain consists of the
integers, A(x) is “x < 5” and B(x) is “x < 7”?
a. (E x)A(x) c. (4x)[A(x) S B(x)]
b. (E x)[A(x) ` B(x)] d. (4x)[B(x) S A(x)]
3. What is the truth value of each of the following wffs in the interpretation where the domain consists of the
integers?
a. (4x)(E y)(x + y = x) e. (4x)(4y)(x < y ~ y < x)
b. (E y)(4x)(x + y = x) f. (4x)[x < 0 S (E y)( y > 0 ` x + y = 0)]
c. (4x)(E y)(x + y = 0) g. (E x)(E y)(x2 = y)
d. (E y)(4x)(x + y = 0) h. (4x)(x2 > 0)
4. What is the truth value of each of the following wffs in the interpretation where the domain consists of the
real numbers?
a. (4x)(E y)(x = y2) c. (E x)(4y)(x = y2)
b. (4x)(4y)(x = y2) d. (E x)(E y)(x = y2)
5. Give the truth value of each of the following wffs in the interpretation where the domain consists of
the states of the United States, Q(x, y) is “x is north of y,” P(x) is “x starts with the letter M,” and a is
“Massachusetts.”
a. (4x)P(x)
b. (4x)(4y)(4z)[Q(x, y) ` Q( y, z) S Q(x, z)]
c. (E y)(E x)Q( y, x)
d. (4x)(E y)[P( y) ` Q(x, y)]
e. (E y)Q(a, y)
f. (E x)[P(x) ` Q(x, a)]
6. Give the truth value of each of the following wffs in the interpretation where the domain consists of
people, M(x, y) is “x is the mother of y”, F(x) is “x is female”, M(x) is “x is male.”
a. (4x)(E y)(M( y, x)) d. (E x)(E y)(M(x, y) ` M( y))
b. (E x)(4y)(M(x, y)) e. (E x)(4y)(M(x, y) S F( y))
c. (4x)(4y)(M(x, y) S M( y))
 Section 1.3 Quantifiers, Predicates, and Validity 51

7. For each wff, find an interpretation in which it is true and one in which it is false.
a. (4x)([A(x) ~ B(x)] ` [A(x) ` B(x)]′)
b. (4x)(4y)[P(x, y) S P( y, x)]
c. (4x)[P(x) S (E y)Q(x, y)]
8. For each wff, find an interpretation in which it is true and one in which it is false.
a. (E x)[A(x) ` (4y)B(x, y)]
b. [(4x)A(x) S (4x)B(x)] S (4x)[A(x) S B(x)]
c. (E x)[P(x) ~ Q(x)] ` (4x)[P(x) S Q(x)]
9. Identify the scope of each of the quantifiers in the following wffs and indicate any free variables.
a. (4x)[P(x) S Q( y)] c. (E x)[(4y)P(x, y) ` Q(x, y)]
b. (E x)[A(x) ` (4y)B( y)] d. (E x)(E y)[A(x, y) ` B( y, z) S A(a, z)]
10. Explain why each of the following expressions is written incorrectly.
a. (E )(Q(x) ` P(x)
b. (4y)(Q( y) P( y))
c. (4x)(4y)Q(x) S P( y)
11. Which of the following sentences are equivalent to the statement
All circles are round.
a. If it’s round, it’s a circle.
b. Roundness is a necessary property of circles.
c. Something that isn’t round can’t be a circle.
d. Some round things are circles.
12. Which of the following sentences are equivalent to the statement

Cats are smarter than dogs.

a. Some cats are smarter than some dogs.
b. There is a cat that is smarter than all dogs.
c. All cats are smarter than all dogs.
d. Only cats are smarter than dogs.
e. All cats are smarter than any dog.
13. Using the predicate symbols shown and appropriate quantifiers, write each English language statement as
a predicate wff. (The domain is the whole world.)
D(x): x is a day

S(x): x is sunny

R(x): x is rainy

M: Monday

T: Tuesday

a. All days are sunny.
b. Some days are not rainy.
c. Every day that is sunny is not rainy.
d. Some days are sunny and rainy.
 52 Formal Logic

e. No day is both sunny and rainy.

f. It is always a sunny day only if it is a rainy day.
g. No day is sunny.
h. Monday was sunny; therefore, every day will be sunny.
i. It rained both Monday and Tuesday.
j. If some day is rainy, then every day will be sunny.
14. Using the predicate symbols shown and appropriate quantifiers, write each English language statement as
a predicate wff. (The domain is the whole world.)
B(x): x is a ball

R(x): x is round

S(x): x is a soccer ball

a. All balls are round.
b. Not all balls are soccer balls.
c. All soccer balls are round.
d. Some balls are not round.
e. Some balls are round but soccer balls are not.
f. Every round ball is a soccer ball.
g. Only soccer balls are round balls.
h. If soccer balls are round, then all balls are round.
15. Using the predicate symbols shown and appropriate quantifiers, write each English language statement as
a predicate wff. (The domain is the whole world.)
M(x): x is a man

W(x): x is a woman

T(x): x is tall

a. All men are tall.
b. Some women are tall.
c. All men are tall but no woman is tall.
d. Only women are tall
e. No man is tall.
f. If every man is tall, then every woman is tall.
g. Some woman is not tall.
h. If no man is tall, then some woman is not tall.
16. Using the predicate symbols shown and appropriate quantifiers, write each English language statement as
a predicate wff. (The domain is the whole world.)
A(x): x is an animal

B(x): x is a bear

H(x): x is hungry

W(x): x is a wolf

a. Bears are animals.
b. No wolf is a bear.
 Section 1.3 Quantifiers, Predicates, and Validity 53

c. Only bears are hungry.
d. If all wolves are hungry, so are bears.
e. Some animals are hungry bears.
f. Bears are hungry but some wolves are not.
g. If wolves and bears are hungry, so are all animals.
h. Some wolves are hungry but not every animal is hungry.
17. Using the predicate symbols shown and appropriate quantifiers, write each English language statement as
a predicate wff. (The domain is the whole world.)
P(x): x is a person

T(x): x is a time

F(x, y): x is fooled at y

a. You can fool some of the people all of the time.
b. You can fool all of the people some of the time.
c. You can’t fool all of the people all of the time.
18. Using the predicate symbols shown and appropriate quantifiers, write each English language statement as
a predicate wff. (The domain is the whole world.)
L(x): x is a lion

R(x): x roars

P(x): x is a predator

Z(x): x is a zebra

E(x, y): x eats y

a. All lions are predators.
b. Some lions roar.
c. Only lions roar.
d. Some lions eat all zebras.
e. All lions eat all zebras.
19. Using the predicate symbols shown and appropriate quantifiers, write each English language statement as
a predicate wff. (The domain is the whole world.)
G(x): x is a game

M(x): x is a movie

F(x, y): x is more fun than y

a. Any movie is more fun than any game.
b. No game is more fun than every movie.
c. Only games are more fun than movies.
d. All games are more fun than some movie.
20. Using the predicate symbols shown and appropriate quantifiers, write each English language statement as
a predicate wff. (The domain is the whole world.)
C(x): x is a child

T(x): x is a toy

 54 Formal Logic

V(x): x is a vegetable

W(x, y): x wants y

a. Every child wants toys.
b. Only children want toys.
c. Some child wants only toys.
d. No child wants vegetables.
21. Using the predicate symbols shown and appropriate quantifiers, write each English language statement as
a predicate wff. (The domain is the whole world.)
J(x): x is a judge

L(x): x is a lawyer

W(x): x is a woman

C(x): x is a chemist

A(x, y): x admires y

a. There are some women lawyers who are chemists.
b. No woman is both a lawyer and a chemist.
c. Some lawyers admire only judges.
d. All judges admire only judges.
e. Only judges admire judges.
f. All women lawyers admire some judge.
g. Some women admire no lawyer.
22. Using the predicate symbols shown and appropriate quantifiers, write each English language statement as
a predicate wff. (The domain is the whole world.)
C(x): x is a Corvette

F(x): x is a Ferrari

P(x): x is a Porsche

S(x, y): x is slower than y

a. Nothing is both a Corvette and a Ferrari.
b. Some Porsches are slower than only Ferraris.
c. Only Corvettes are slower than Porsches.
d. All Ferraris are slower than some Corvettes.
e. Some Porsches are slower than no Corvette.
f. If there is a Corvette that is slower than a Ferrari, then all Corvettes are slower than all Ferraris.
23. Using the predicate symbols shown and appropriate quantifiers, write each English language statement as
a predicate wff. (The domain is the whole world.)
B(x):x is a bee

F(x): x is a flower

L(x, y): x loves y

a. All bees love all flowers. d. Every bee hates only flowers.
b. Some bees love all flowers. e. Only bees love flowers.
c. All bees love some flowers. f. Every bee loves only flowers.
 Section 1.3 Quantifiers, Predicates, and Validity 55

g. No bee loves only flowers. j. Every bee hates some flowers.
h. Some bees love some flowers. k. Every bee hates all flowers.
i. Some bees love only flowers. l. No bee hates all flowers.
24. Using the predicate symbols shown and appropriate quantifiers, write each English language statement as
a predicate wff. (The domain is the whole world.)
S(x): x is a spy novel

L(x): x is long

M(x): x is a mystery

B(x, y): x is better than y

a. All spy novels are long.
b. Not every mystery is a spy novel.
c. Only mysteries are long.
d. Some spy novels are mysteries.
e. Spy novels are better than mysteries.
f. Some mysteries are better than all spy novels.
g. Only spy novels are better than mysteries.
25. Give English language translations of the following wffs if
L(x, y): x loves y

H(x): x is handsome

M(x): x is a man

P(x): x is pretty

W(x): x is a woman

j: John

k: Kathy

L(x, y): x loves y

a. H( j) ` L(k, j)
b. (4x)[M(x) S H(x)]
c. (4x)(W(x) S (4y)[L(x, y) S M( y) ` H( y)])
d. (E x)[M(x) ` H(x) ` L(x, k)]
e. (E x)(W(x) ` P(x) ` (4y)[L(x, y) S H( y) ` M( y)])
f. (4x)[W(x) ` P(x) S L( j, x)]
26. Give English language translations of the following wffs if
M(x): x is a man

W(x): x is a woman

i: Ivan

p: Peter

W(x, y): x works for y

a. (E x)(W(x) ` (4y)(M( y) S [W(x, y)]′))
b. (4x)[M(x) S (E y)(W( y) ` W(x, y))]
c. (4x)[M(x) S (4y)(W(x, y) S W( y))]
 56 Formal Logic

d. (4x)(4y)(M(x) ` W( y, x) S W( y))
e. W(i, p) ` (4x)[W( p, x) S (W(x))′])
f. (4x)[W(x, i) S (W(x))′]
27. Three forms of negation are given for each statement. Which is correct?
a. Some people like mathematics.
1. Some people dislike mathematics.

2. Everybody dislikes mathematics.

3. Everybody likes mathematics.

b. Everyone loves ice cream.
1. No one loves ice cream.

2. Everyone dislikes ice cream.

3. Someone doesn’t love ice cream.

c. All people are tall and thin.
1. Someone is short and fat.

2. No one is tall and thin.

3. Someone is short or fat.

d. Some pictures are old or faded.

1. Every picture is neither old nor faded.

2. Some pictures are not old or faded.

3. All pictures are not old or not faded.

28. Three forms of negation are given for each statement. Which is correct?
a. Nobody is perfect.
1. Everyone is imperfect.

2. Everyone is perfect.

3. Someone is perfect.

b. All swimmers are tall.
1. Some swimmer is not tall.

2. There are no tall swimmers.

3. Every swimmer is short.

c. Every planet is cold and lifeless.
1. No planet is cold and lifeless.

2. Some planet is not cold and not lifeless.

3. Some planet is not cold or not lifeless.

d. No bears are hungry.
1. Only bears are hungy.

2. All bears are hungry.

3. There is a hungry bear.

29. Write the negation of each of the following statements.
a. Some Web sites feature audio.
b. Every Web site has both audio and video.
c. Every Web site has either audio or video.
 Section 1.3 Quantifiers, Predicates, and Validity 57

d. Some Web sites have neither audio nor video.
e. Every Web site either has text or else has both audio and video.
30. Write the negation of each of the following statements.
a. Only students eat pizza.
b. Every student eats pizza
c. Some students eat only pizza.
31. Write the negation of each of the following statements.
a. Some farmer grows only corn.
b. All farmers grow corn.
c. Corn is grown only by farmers.
32. Write the negation of each of the following statements
a. Some child fears all clowns.
b. Some children fear only clowns.
c. No clown fears any child.
33. Explain why each wff is valid.
a. (4x)(4y)A(x, y) 4 (4y)(4x)A(x, y)
b. (E x)(E y)A(x, y) 4 (E y)(E x)A(x, y)
c. (E x)(4y)P(x, y) S (4y)(E x)P(x, y)
d. A(a) S (E x)A(x)
e. (4x)[A(x) S B(x)] S [(4x)A(x) S (4x)B(x)]
34. Give interpretations to prove that each of the following wffs is not valid:
a. (E x)A(x) ` (E x)B(x) S (E x)[A(x) ` B(x)]
b. (4x)(E y)P(x, y) S (E x)(4y)P(x, y)
c. (4x)[P(x) S Q(x)] S [(E x)P(x) S (4x)Q(x)]
d. (4x)[A(x)]′ 4 [(4x)A(x)]′
35. Decide whether each of the following wffs is valid or invalid. Justify your answer.
a. (E x)A(x) 4 ((4x)[A(x)]′)′
b. (4x)P(x) ~ (E x)Q(x) S (4x)[P(x) ~ Q(x)]
36. Decide whether each of the following wffs is valid or invalid. Justify your answer.
a. (4x)A(x) S ((E x)[A(x)]′)′
b. (4x)[P(x) S Q(x)] ` (E x)[P(x) ~ Q(x)] S (E x)[P(x) ` Q(x)]
c. (4x)[P(x) ~ Q(x)] S (4x)P(x) ~ (E y)Q( y)
37. From Example 24c, we know that (4x)[P(x) ` Q(x)] 4 (4x)P(x) ` (4x)Q(x) is valid. From Prac-
tice 21, we know that (4x)[P(x) ~ Q(x)] 4 (4x)P(x) ~ (4x)Q(x) is not valid. From Exercise 34a, we
know that (E x)[P(x) ` Q(x)] 4 (E x)P(x) ` (E x)Q(x) is not valid. Explain why (E x)[P(x) ~ Q(x)] 4
(E x)P(x) ~ (E x)Q(x) is valid.
38. A predicate wff is in prenex normal form if all the quantifiers appear at the front of the wff. Write each of
the following expressions as an equivalent wff in prenex normal form.
a. (4x)P(x) ` (4y)Q( y)
b. (4x)(P(x) S (4y)[Q( y) S W(x, y)])
c. (E x)P(x) ` (E x)Q(x)