Chapter 16

The binomial series

Table 16.1
16.1 Pascal’s triangle
(a + x)0 1
A binomial expression is one that contains two terms
connected by a plus or minus sign. Thus (p + q), (a + x)1 1 1
(a + x)2 , (2x + y)3 are examples of binomial expres-
sion. Expanding (a + x)n for integer values of n from 0 (a + x)2 1 2 1
to 6 gives the results shown at the bottom of the page.
(a + x)3 1 3 3 1
From the results the following patterns emerge:
(i) ‘a’ decreases in power moving from left to right. (a + x)4 1 4 6 4 1
(ii) ‘x’ increases in power moving from left to right.
(a + x)5 1 5 10 10 5 1
(iii) The coefficients of each term of the expansions are
symmetrical about the middle coefficient when (a + x)6 1 6 15 20 15 6 1
n is even and symmetrical about the two middle
coefficients when n is odd. From Table 16.1 the row the Pascal’s triangle corre-
(iv) The coefficients are shown separately in Table 16.1 sponding to (a + x)6 is as shown in (1) below. Adding
and this arrangement is known as Pascal’s tri- adjacent coefficients gives the coefficients of (a + x)7
angle. A coefficient of a term may be obtained as shown in (2) below.
by adding the two adjacent coefficients immedi-
ately above in the previous row. This is shown by
the triangles in Table 16.1, where, for example,
1 + 3 = 4, 10 + 5 = 15, and so on.
The first and last terms of the expansion of (a + x)7 and
(v) Pasal’s triangle method is used for expansions of
a7 and x 7 respectively. The powers of ‘a’ decrease and
the form (a + x)n for integer values of n less than
the powers of ‘x’ increase moving from left to right.
about 8
Hence,

(a + x)7 = a7 + 7a6 x + 21a5 x2 + 35a4 x3 + 35a3 x4

Problem 1. Use the Pascal’s triangle method to
determine the expansion of (a + x)7 + 21a2 x5 + 7ax6 + x7

(a + x)0 = 1
(a + x)1 = a +x
(a + x)2 = (a + x)(a + x) = a2 + 2ax + x 2
(a + x)3 = (a + x)2 (a + x) = a + 3a2 x + 3ax 2 + x 3
3

(a + x)4 = (a + x)3 (a + x) = a + 4a3 x + 6a2 x 2 + 4ax 3 + x 4

4

(a + x)5 = (a + x)4 (a + x) = a + 5a4 x + 10a3 x 2 + 10a2 x 3 + 5ax 4 + x 5

5

(a + x)6 = (a + x)5 (a + x) = a + 6a5 x + 15a4 x 2 + 20a3 x 3 + 15a2 x 4 + 6ax 5 + x 6

6
 The binomial series 123

With the binomial theorem n may be a fraction, a

Problem 2. Determine, using Pascal’s triangle

Section 1
decimal fraction or a positive or negative integer.
method, the expansion of (2p − 3q)5
In the general expansion of (a + x)n it is noted that the
4th term is:
Comparing (2p − 3q)5 with (a + x)5 shows that a = 2p n(n − 1)(n − 2) n−3 3
and x = −3q a x
3!
Using Pascal’s triangle method: The number 3 is very evident in this expression.
For any term in a binomial expansion, say the r’th
(a + x)5 = a5 + 5a4 x + 10a3 x 2 + 10a2 x 3 + · · ·
term, (r − 1) is very evident. It may therefore be rea-
Hence soned that the r’th term of the expansion (a + x)n is:
(2p − 3q)5 = (2p)5 + 5(2p)4 (−3q) n(n − 1)(n − 2) … to(r − 1)terms n−(r−1) r−1
a x
+ 10(2p) (−3q)
3 2 (r − 1)!

+ 10(2p)2 (−3q)3 If a = 1 in the binomial expansion of (a + x)n then:

+ 5(2p)(−3q)4 + (−3q)5 n(n − 1) 2

(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x
2!
i.e. (2p − 3q)5 = 32p5 − 240p4 q + 720p3 q2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3
+ x +···
− 1080p2 q3 + 810pq4 − 243q5 3!
which is valid for −1 < x < 1
When x is small compared with 1 then:
Now try the following exercise
(1 + x)n ≈ 1 + nx

Exercise 62 Further problems on Pascal’s

triangle
16.3 Worked problems on the
1. Use Pascal’s triangle to expand (x − y)7 binomial series
 
x 7 − 7x 6 y + 21x 5 y2 − 35x 4 y3
+ 35x 3 y4 − 21x 2 y5 + 7xy6 − y7 Problem 3. Use the binomial series to determine
the expansion of (2 + x)7
2. Expand (2a + 3b)5 using Pascal’s triangle.
 
32a5 + 240a4 b + 720a3 b2
The binomial expansion is given by:
+ 1080a2 b3 + 810ab4 + 243b5
n(n − 1) n−2 2
(a + x)n = an + nan−1 x + a x
2!
n(n − 1)(n − 2) n−3 3
16.2 The binomial series + a x + ···
3!
When a = 2 and n = 7:
The binomial series or binomial theorem is a formula
for raising a binomial expression to any power without (7)(6) 5 2
(2 + x)7 = 27 + 7(2)6 + (2) x
lengthy multiplication. The general binomial expansion (2)(1)
of (a + x)n is given by: (7)(6)(5) 4 3 (7)(6)(5)(4) 3 4
+ (2) x + (2) x
n(n − 1) n−2 2 (3)(2)(1) (4)(3)(2)(1)
(a + x)n = an + nan−1 x + a x
2! (7)(6)(5)(4)(3) 2 5
+ (2) x
n(n − 1)(n − 2) n−3 3 (5)(4)(3)(2)(1)
+ a x
3! (7)(6)(5)(4)(3)(2)
+ (2)x 6
+ · · · + xn (6)(5)(4)(3)(2)(1)
where, for example, 3! denote 3 × 2 × 1 and is termed (7)(6)(5)(4)(3)(2)(1) 7
+ x
‘factorial 3’. (7)(6)(5)(4)(3)(2)(1)
 124 Engineering Mathematics

i.e. (2 + x)7 = 128 + 448x + 672x2 + 560x3

Problem 7. Evaluate (1.002)9 using the binomial
Section 1

+ 280x4 + 84x5 + 14x6 + x7 theorem correct to (a) 3 decimal places and (b) 7
  significant figures
1 5
Problem 4. Expand c − using the n(n − 1) 2
c (1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x
binomial series 2!
n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3
 5    2 + x + ···
1 1 (5)(4) 3 1 3!
c− =c 5
+ 5c −
4
+ c −
c c (2)(1) c (1.002)9 = (1 + 0.002)9
 3
(5)(4)(3) 2 1 Substituting x = 0.002 and n = 9 in the general expan-
+ c −
(3)(2)(1) c sion for (1 + x)n gives:
  (9)(8)
(5)(4)(3)(2) 1 4 (1 + 0.002)9 = 1 + 9(0.002) + (0.002)2
+ c − (2)(1)
(4)(3)(2)(1) c
  (9)(8)(7)
(5)(4)(3)(2)(1) 1 5 + (0.002)3 + · · ·
+ − (3)(2)(1)
(5)(4)(3)(2)(1) c = 1 + 0.018 + 0.000144
 5
1 10 5 1 + 0.000000672 + · · ·
i.e. c − = c5 − 5c4 + 10c − + 3− 5
c c c c = 1.018144672 . . .
Hence, (1.002) = 1.018, correct to 3 decimal places
9
Problem 5. Without fully expanding (3 + x)7 ,
determine the fifth term = 1.018145, correct to
7 significant figures
The r’th term of the expansion (a + x)n is given by:
n(n − 1)(n − 2) . . . to (r − 1) terms n−(r−1) r−1 Problem 8. Determine the value of (3.039)4 ,
a x
(r − 1)! correct to 6 significant figures using the binomial
Substituting n = 7, a = 3 and r − 1 = 5 − 1 = 4 gives: theorem
(7)(6)(5)(4) 7−4 4
(3) x (3.039)4 may be written in the form (1 + x)n as:
(4)(3)(2)(1)
i.e. the fifth term of (3 + x)7 = 35(3)3 x 4 = 945x4 (3.039)4 = (3 + 0.039)4
  
  0.039 4
1 10 = 3 1+
Problem 6. Find the middle term of 2p − 3
2q
= 34 (1 + 0.013)4
In the expansion of (a + x)10 there are 10 + 1, i.e. 11 (4)(3)
(1 + 0.013)4 = 1 + 4(0.013) + (0.013)2
terms. Hence the middle term is the sixth. Using the (2)(1)
general expression for the r’th term where a = 2p, (4)(3)(2)
1 + (0.013)3 + · · ·
x = − , n = 10 and r − 1 = 5 gives: (3)(2)(1)
2q = 1 + 0.052 + 0.001014
 
(10)(9)(8)(7)(6) 1 5 + 0.000008788 + · · ·
(2p) 10−5
−
(5)(4)(3)(2)(1) 2q = 1.0530228
 
1 correct to 8 significant figures
= 252(32p5 ) −
32q5
Hence (3.039)4 = 34 (1.0530228)
 
1 10 p5 = 85.2948, correct to
Hence the middle term of 2q − is −252 5
2q q 6 significant figures
 The binomial series 125

Now try the following exercise

(b) State the limits of x for which the expansion

Section 1
is valid
Exercise 63 Further problems on the
binomial series
(a) Using the binomial expansion of (1 + x)n , where
1. Use the binomial theorem to expand (a + 2x)4 n = −3 and x is replaced by 2x gives:
 4 
a + 8a3 x + 24a2 x 2 1
= (1 + 2x)−3
+ 32ax 3 + 16x 4 (1 + 2x)3
2. Use the binomial theorem to expand (2 − x)6 (−3)(−4)
= 1 + (−3)(2x) + (2x)2
  2!
64 − 192x + 240x 2 − 160x 3
(−3)(−4)(−5)
+ 60x 4 − 12x 5 + x 6 + (2x)3 + · · ·
3!
3. Expand (2x − 3y)4 = 1 − 6x + 24x2 − 80x3 +
 
16x 4 − 96x 3 y + 216x 2 y2
(b) The expansion is valid provided |2x| < 1,
−216xy3 + 81y4 1 1 1
  i.e. |x| < or − < x <
2 5 2 2 2
4. Determine the expansion of 2x +
x
⎡ ⎤
32x 5 + 160x 3 + 320x + 320 Problem 10.
⎢ x ⎥ 1
⎣ 160 32 ⎦ (a) Expand in ascending powers of x as
+ 3 + 5 (4 − x)2
x x far as the term in x 3 , using the binomial
5. Expand (p + 2q) as far as the fifth term
11
theorem.
 11 
p + 22p10 q + 220p9 q2 (b) What are the limits of x for which the
+ 1320p8 q3 + 5280p7 q4 expansion in (a) is true?
 q 13
6. Determine the sixth term of 3p +
3 1 1 1
=  2 =  x 2
[34 749 p8 q5 ] (a)
(4 − x) 2 x
4 1− 42 1 −
7. Determine the middle term of (2a − 5b)8 4 4
[700 000 a4 b4 ] 1  x −2
= 1−
8. Use the binomial theorem to determine, cor- 16 4
rect to 4 decimal places: Using the expansion of (1 + x)n
(a) (1.003)8 (b) (0.98)7
[(a) 1.0243 (b) 0.8681] 1 1  x −2
= 1 −
(4 − x)2 16 4
9. Evaluate (4.044)6 correct to 3 decimal places.   x
[4373.880] 1
= 1 + (−2) −
16 4
(−2)(−3)  x 2
+ −
2! 4

16.4 Further worked problems on (−2)(−3)(−4)  x 3
+ − + ...
the binomial series 3! 4
 
1 x 3x2 x3
= 1+ + + + ···
Problem 9. 16 2 16 16
1 x
(a) Expand in ascending powers of x as (b) The expansion in (a) is true provided < 1,
(1 + 2x)3 4
i.e. |x| < 4 or −4 < x < 4
far as the term in x 3 , using the binomial series.
 126 Engineering Mathematics

The expression is valid when |2t| < 1,

Problem 11. Use the binomial theorem to expand
Section 1

√
4 + x in ascending powers of x to four terms. 1 1 1
i.e. |t| < or − < t<
Give the limits of x for which the expansion is valid 2 2 2
√ √
  1 − 3x 1 + x
3

√ x Problem 13. Simplify  x 3

given
4+x = 4 1+ 1+
4 2
 that powers of x above the first may be neglected
√ x
= 4 1+
4 √ √
 x  21
3
1 − 3x 1 + x
=2 1+  x 3
4 1+
2
Using the expansion of (1 + x)n , 1 1
 x −3
= (1 − 3x) 3 (1 + x) 2 1 +
 x  21 2
        x 
2 1+ 1 1

4
   ≈ 1+ (−3x) 1 + (x) 1 + (−3)
1 x (1/2)(−1/2)  x 2 3 2 2
=2 1+ +
2 4 2! 4 when expanded by the binomial theorem as far as the
   x term only,
(1/2)(−1/2)(−3/2) x 3  
+ + ···  x 3x
3! 4 = (1 − x) 1 + 1−
  2 2
x x2 x3  
=2 1+ − + − ··· x 3x when powers of x higher
8 128 1024 = 1−x+ −
2 2 than unity are neglected
x x2 x3
=2+ − + − ··· = (1 − 2x)
4 64 512
√
x 1 + 2x
This is valid when < 1, Problem 14. Express √ as a power series
4
3
1 − 3x
as far as the term in x 2 . State the range of values of
x
i.e. <4 or −4 < x < 4 x for which the series is convergent
4
√
1 1 + 2x
= (1 + 2x) 2 (1 − 3x)− 3
1 1
Problem 12. Expand √ in ascending √
1 − 2t 3
1 − 3x
3
powers of t as far as the term in t . State the limits  
1 1
of t for which the expression is valid (1 + 2x) = 1 +
2 (2x)
2
(1/2)(−1/2)
+ (2x)2 + · · ·
1 2!
√ x2
1 − 2t =1+x− + · · · which is valid for
2
= (1 − 2t)− 2
1
1
  |2x| < 1, i.e. |x| <
1 (−1/2)(−3/2) 2
=1+ − (−2t) + (−2t)2
(1 − 3x)− 3 = 1 + (−1/3)(−3x)
1
2 2!
(−1/2)(−3/2)(−5/2) (−1/3)(−4/3)
+ (−2t)3 + · · · + (−3x)2 + · · ·
3! 2!
using the expansion for(1 + x)n = 1 + x + 2x 2 + · · · which is valid for
3 5 1
= 1 + t + t2 + t3 + · · · |3x| < 1, i.e. |x| <
2 2 3
 The binomial series 127
√
1 + 2x
Hence √

Section 1
3
1 − 3x 6. Expand (2 + 3x)−6 to three terms. For what
values of x is the expansion
⎡  valid? ⎤
1 1
= (1 + 2x) 2 (1 − 3x) 3 1 189 2
⎢ 64 1 − 9x + x ⎥
  ⎣ 4 ⎦
x2 2
= 1+x− + · · · (1 + x + 2x 2 + · · ·) |x| <
2 3
x2 7. When x is very small show that:
= 1 + x + 2x 2 + x + x 2 −
2 1 5
(a) √ ≈1+ x
neglecting terms of higher power than 2 (1 − x) 1 − x
2 2
5 (1 − 2x)
= 1 + 2x + x2 (b) ≈ 1 + 10x
2 (1 − 3x)4
1 1 √
The series is convergent if − <x< 1 + 5x 19
3 3 (c) √ ≈1+ x
3
1 − 2x 6

8. If x very small such that x 2 and higher powers

Now try the following exercise may√be neglected, determine the power series
√  
x+4 3 8−x 31
for  4 − x
Exercise 64 Further problems on the 5
(1 + x)3 15
binomial series
9. Express the following as power series in
In Problems 1 to 5 expand in ascending powers of x ascending powers of x as far as the term in
as far as the term in x 3 , using the binomial theorem. x 2 . State in each case the range of x for which
State in each case the limits of x for which the series the series
 is valid. 
is valid. 1−x (1 + x) 3 (1 − 3x)2
(a) (b) √
1 1+x 1 + x2
1. [1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + · · · , |x| < 1] ⎡ 1 ⎤
(1 − x) (a) 1 − x + x 2 , |x| < 1
⎢ 2 ⎥
  ⎣ ⎦
1 1 − 2x + 3x 2 − 4x 3 + · · · , 7 2 1
2. (b) 1 − x − x , |x| <
(1 + x)2 |x| < 1 2 3

1
3.
(2 + x)3 ⎡  ⎤
1 3x 3x 2 5x 3 16.5 Practical problems involving
⎣8 1 − 2 + 2 − 4 + · · · ⎦ the binomial theorem
|x| < 2
Binomial expansions may be used for numerical approx-
√ imations, for calculations with small variations and in
4. 2+x ⎡  ⎤
√ x x2 x3 probability theory.
⎣ 2 1 + − + − · · · ⎦
4 32 128
|x| < 2 Problem 15. The radius of a cylinder is reduced
by 4% and its height is increased by 2%. Determine
1 the approximate percentage change in (a) its
5. √
1 + 3x volume and (b) its curved surface area, (neglecting
⎡ ⎤
the products of small quantities)
3 27 2 135 3
⎢ 1 − x + x − x + · · · ⎥
⎣ 2 8 16 ⎦
1
|x| < Volume of cylinder = πr 2 h
3
Let r and h be the original values of radius and height.
 128 Engineering Mathematics

The new values are 0.96r or (1 − 0.04)r and 1.02 h or bl 3

≈ (1 + 0.035)(1 − 0.075), neglecting powers
Section 1

(1 + 0.02)h 12
(a) New volume = π[(1 − 0.04)r]2 [(1 + 0.02)h] of small terms
= πr 2 h(1 − 0.04)2 (1 + 0.02) bl 3
≈ (1 + 0.035 − 0.075), neglecting products
12
Now (1 − 0.04)2 = 1 − 2(0.04) + (0.04)2
of small terms
= (1 − 0.08), neglecting powers
of small terms bl 3 bl 3
≈ (1 − 0.040) or (0.96) , i.e. 96% of the
Hence new volume 12 12
≈ πr 2 h(1 − 0.08)(1 + 0.02) original second moment of area

≈ πr 2 h(1 − 0.08 + 0.02), neglecting products Hence the second moment of area is reduced by
of small terms approximately 4%
≈ πr 2 h(1 − 0.06) or 0.94πr 2 h, i.e. 94% of the
original volume
Problem 17. The resonant frequency  of a
Hence the volume is reduced by approxi- 1 k
vibrating shaft is given by: f = , where k is
mately 6% 2π I
the stiffness and I is the inertia of the shaft. Use the
(b) Curved surface area of cylinder = 2πrh. binomial theorem to determine the approximate
percentage error in determining the frequency using
New surface area
the measured values of k and I when the measured
value of k is 4% too large and the measured value
= 2π[(1 − 0.04)r][(1 + 0.02)h]
of I is 2% too small
= 2πrh(1 − 0.04)(1 + 0.02)
≈ 2πrh(1 − 0.04 + 0.02), neglecting products
Let f , k and I be the true values of frequency, stiffness
of small terms and inertia respectively. Since the measured value of
≈ 2πrh(1 − 0.02) or 0.98(2πrh), i.e. 98% of the stiffness, k1 , is 4% too large, then
original surface area
104
k1 = k = (1 + 0.04)k
Hence the curved surface area is reduced by 100
approximately 2%
The measured value of inertia, I1 , is 2% too small, hence

Problem 16. The second moment of area of a 98

I1 = I = (1 − 0.02)I
bl 3 100
rectangle through its centroid is given by .
12
Determine the approximate change in the second The measured value of frequency,
moment of area if b is increased by 3.5% and l is
reduced by 2.5% 
1 k1 1 21 − 21
f1 = = k I
2π I1 2π 1 1
New values of b and l are (1 + 0.035)b and (1 − 0.025)l
respectively. 1
[(1 + 0.04)k] 2 [(1 − 0.02)I]− 2
1 1

New second moment of area =

2π
1 1
(1 + 0.04) 2 k 2 (1 − 0.02)− 2 I − 2
1 1 1 1
= [(1 + 0.035)b][(1 − 0.025)l]3 =
2 2π
bl 3 1 1 −1
k 2 I 2 (1 + 0.04) 2 (1 − 0.02)− 2
1 1
= (1 + 0.035)(1 − 0.025)3 =
12 2π
 The binomial series 129

i.e. f1 = f (1 + 0.04) 2 (1 − 0.02)− 2

1 1

Section 1
6. The electric field strength H due to a magnet
      
1 1 of length 2l and moment M at a point on its
≈f 1+ (0.04) 1 + − (−0.02) axis distance x from the centre is given by:
2 2
 
≈ f (1 + 0.02)(1 + 0.01) M 1 1
H= −
2l (x − l)2 (x + l)2
Neglecting the products of small terms,
Show that is l is very small compared with x,
2M
f1 ≈ (1 + 0.02 + 0.01) f ≈ 1.03 f then H ≈ 3
x
7. The shear stress τ in a shaft of diameter
Thus the percentage error in f based on the measured kT
D under a torque T is given by: τ = .
values of k and I is approximately [(1.03)(100) − 100], πD3
Determine the approximate percentage error
i.e. 3% too large
in calculating τ if T is measured 3% too small
and D 1.5% too large. [7.5% decrease]
Now try the following exercise 8. The energy W stored in a flywheel is given
by: W = kr 5 N 2 , where k is a constant, r is
the radius and N the number of revolutions.
Exercise 65 Further practical problems
Determine the approximate percentage change
involving the binomial theorem
in W when r is increased by 1.3% and N is
1. Pressure p and volume v are related by decreased by 2%. [2.5% increase]
pv3 = c, where c is a constant. Determine the 9. In a series electrical circuit containing induc-
approximate percentage change in c when p tance L and capacitance C the resonant fre-
is increased by 3% and v decreased by 1.2%. 1
quency is given by: fr = √ . If the values
[0.6% decrease] 2π LC
of L and C used in the calculation are 2.6% too
2. Kinetic energy is given by 21 mv2 . Determine
large and 0.8% too small respectively, deter-
the approximate change in the kinetic energy
mine the approximate percentage error in the
when mass m is increased by 2.5% and the
frequency. [0.9% too small]
velocity v is reduced by 3%.
[3.5% decrease] kr 4
10. The viscosity η of a liquid is given by: η = ,
νl
3. An error of +1.5% was made when measuring where k is a constant. If there is an error in r
the radius of a sphere. Ignoring the products of +2%, in ν of +4% and l of −3%, what is
of small quantities determine the approximate the resultant error in η? [+7%]
error in calculating (a) the volume, and (b) the
surface area. 11. A magnetic pole, distance x from the plane of
[(a) 4.5% increase (b) 3.0% increase] a coil of radius r, and on the axis of the coil, is
subject to a force F when a current flows in the
4. The power developed by an engine is given kx
by I = k PLAN, where k is a constant. Deter- coil. The force is given by: F =  ,
(r 2 + x 2 )5
mine the approximate percentage change in where k is a constant. Use the binomial theo-
the power when P and A are each increased rem to show that when x is small compared to
by 2.5% and L and N are each decreased by kx 5kx 3
1.4%. [2.2% increase] r, then F ≈ 5 − 7
r 2r
5. The radius of a cone is increased by 2.7% 12. The flow
 of water through a pipe is given by:
and its height reduced by 0.9%. Determine the (3d)5 H
approximate percentage change in its volume, G= . If d decreases by 2% and H by
L
neglecting the products of small terms. 1%, use the binomial theorem to estimate the
[4.5% increase] decrease in G. [5.5%]