U 1 nit

THE CONCEPT OF GEOGRAPHY

AND MAP-READING
Unit Outcomes
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
ÞÞ recognize the concept, scope and branches of geography
ÞÞ express the meaning, historical development, uses and types of maps
ÞÞ compute field distance and areas of irregular shaped figures, construct
and interpret statistical diagrams.

Main Contents
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE CONCEPT OF GEOGRAPHY
1.2 INTRODUCTION TO THE CONCEPT OF MAP-READING
FF Unit Summary
FF Review Exercise
 Grade 9 Geography
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 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, you will learn about the concept of geography and map reading.
The major topics to be covered include the meaning of geography, scope of
geography, branches of geography, what makes geography a science, meaning
of map, historical development of maps, uses of maps, classification of maps,
magnetic declination, linear and areal scales, how to find the scale of a map,
measurement of regular and irregular shaped areas and statistical diagrams.

Geography, as a branch of knowledge, has been defined by different people.

The ancient Greeks and Romans defined it as the description of the earth. The
Germans in the 18th century defined it as a science that deals with the relationship
between people and their environment. In the mid 20th century, it became a spatial
science dealing with the arrangement and distribution of things and phenomena
over the surface of the earth.

The differences in these definitions reflect the fact that geography had various
scopes during its historical development. Initially it was considered as a general
earth science; geography has now become a science that examines “place and
space” on the Earth’s surface in relation to location, distribution, arrangement,
interaction, causes and effects of (things and) phenomena. Modern geography
is a spatial temporal-areal science.

Nowadays, geography has two main branches of study - physical and human.

The most important tools that geographers use are maps. Like the science of
geography itself, maps have evolved over the centuries. They have changed from
simple sketches to complex representations such as spatial data compilations,
which you will study in later grades.

Start-up Activity
Examine carefully Figure 1.1 and
try to understand their linkage
with the subject Geography.

Figure 1.1 Geographic profiles

Introduction 
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1.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE CONCEPT OF
GEOGRAPHY
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
ÞÞ define the term geography;
ÞÞ describe the development of geography as a discipline;
ÞÞ determine the scope of geography;
ÞÞ identify the branches of geography; and
ÞÞ identify the characteristics that make the subject of geography a science.

Key Terms
³³ Spatial ³³ Development
³³ Geography ³³ Science
³³ Scope

1.1.1 Meaning of Geography

What is geography? Do you think that geography has a single universally
accepted definition? Why?

From the ancient Greeks to modern-day geographers, geography has been defined
differently. However, the various definitions share some common ideas.

Here are some of the most important definitions that geographers have proposed:
FF Eratosthenes (276-196 BC) – Geography is the description of the earth.
FF Concise Oxford Dictionary (1964) – Geography is the science of the
earth’s surfaces.
FF Hartshorne, R. (1899-1992) – Geography is a branch of knowledge
that is concerned with the provision of an accurate, orderly and rational
description of distributions on the surface of the earth.
FF Yeates, M. (1968) – Geography is a science that is concerned with the
rational development and testing of theories that explain and predict
the spatial distribution and locations of (things and) phenomena on the
surface of the earth.

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As you can see, each of these definitions includes the idea that geography studies
the earth. Most of them specify the surface of the earth.
At this level, we will define geography as a branch of science that studies the
earth’s surface and the distribution, arrangement and interaction of natural and
human features and their causes and effects.

1.1.2 The Scope of Geography

What is scope? How wide is geography’s scope?
FF Scope means the range and variety Note
of contents which are included in a
subject or field of study. Geography’s The earth’s surface consists of:
scope is very wide. As the scope is ÂÂhydrosphere – It includes
dynamic, it changes often as new all the bodies of water, i.e.,
oceans, rivers, lakes and
discoveries and ideas enter the field. others.
FF Geography studies a great many ÂÂbiosphere – This refers to all
physical and human features of the living organisms in and on the
earth’s surface.
world. Its focus includes their causes, ÂÂatmosphere – It includes all
effects, and interactions. As indicated aspects of air composition
above, the subjects that geography surrounding our planet.
examines include features in the ÂÂlithosphere – It is the solid
layer of rocks which covers the
hydrosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere entire surface of the planet.
and biosphere.
Geography has undergone profound changes in its scope and focus:
FF In ancient times, geography was considered to be the mother of many
other sciences, including philosophy and the earth sciences.
FF In the 16th century, geography began to emphasize location, focusing on
questions of where, why and what.
FF In the mid 18th century, European geographers, especially Germans,
considered the relationship between geography with philosophy. This
approach caused geography to focus on the relationship between human
and the natural environment. Alexander Von Humboldt and Carl Ritter
were among the major contributors to this approach.
FF In the 19th century, geographical societies and research groups formed.
They enhanced the role of geography as a discipline.
FF In the late 20th century, geography became a spatial science.

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1.1.3 Branches of Geography
What are the two branches of geography? Can you list some of the fields of
geography that fall into each of the two branches?

You have studied the definition of geography, and you have considered its scope.
Next you will learn about the main parts of geography – its branches.
They are:
FF Physical geography
FF Human geography
Climatology

Geomorphology

Physical geography Soil geography

Biogeography

Oceanography
Branches
of
Geography Cultural geography

Population geography

Human geography Economic geography

Political geography

Urban geography

Historical geography

What does physical geography study?

i Physical Geography: This branch of geography studies the distribution of

the natural features of the world, such as climate, landforms, soil, vegetation,
and drainage systems. Physical geography also considers causes, effects
and interactions of these features.

Physical geography includes the following specialized fields of study:

FF Climatology: studies factors that create climate and examines the
variation and distribution of climate and related causes and effects.
FF Geomorphology: studies the distribution of landforms (such as
mountains and plains) and the forces that change them.
FF Soil geography: studies the distribution of soils and their characteristics.

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FF Biogeography: studies the distribution of plants and animals in relation
to the environments that they inhabit.
FF Oceanography: studies the location, causes and effects of ocean
currents, waves and tides.
What does human geography study? Do you know the sub-branches of human
geography?
ii Human Geography: This branch of geography studies the distribution and
influence of human aspects of our world, including cultures, population
settlement, economic activities and political systems.

Human geography includes these specialized fields of study:

FF Cultural geography: studies the distribution and interactions of
cultures, including peoples’ beliefs and customs. It also examines the
movement, expansion and interaction of cultures on the surface of the
earth.
FF Population geography: studies the distribution, growth and structure
of population.
FF Economic geography: studies production, consumption and exchange and
the spatial distribution of goods and services and factors affecting them.
FF Political geography: studies the distribution of political systems and
the ways people use them to exercise power and make decisions.
FF Urban geography: studies the development and characteristics of
towns, cities and other urban centers.
FF Historical geography: is the study of the geography of the past and how
places or regions change over time.

Activity 1.1
Discuss the following in small groups.
1 Geography studies the distribution and influence of human aspects of our
world including cultures, population, economic activities and political systems.
Do you agree or disagree with this statement? Why?
2 Some people say geography is concerned only with the study of place names.
DO you agree or disagree to such idea? Why?
3 Some people say geography has a limited scope. Do you agree or disagree with
such idea? Why?

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1.1.4 Geography as a Science
What is science? What makes geography a science?

Science is a system of acquiring knowledge through scientific methods.

These methods involve observation, identification, description, experimental
investigation, and theoretical explanation of phenomena.

Geography investigates facts and relationships related to physical and social

phenomena, and examines their distribution across the world and changes over
time.

The main tools geography uses to gather and analyze information are observation,
systematic description, systematic recording and mapping. As you can see from
its subject matter and methodologies, geography is a subject that bridges the
natural and social sciences.

Activity 1.2
In pairs, discuss the following questions:
1 Do you appreciate learning geography? Why?
2 Is geography a science? Why?
3 What are the areas of the study of geography?
4 Write a short report on the relationships between geography and natural and
social science.

 Exercise 1.1
I Determine which of the sentences is True or False.
1 Geography studies physical and human features of the world.
2 Cultural geography studies the distribution of population and factors that
affect their distribution.
3 Human geography deals with human-made features on the earth’s surface,
such as settlements, economic activities and conservation measures.
4 The scope of geography means the extent of geography as a field of study.

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II Choose the correct answer.
5 The branch of geography that studies landforms and the forces that shape
them is known as:
A Biogeography C Geomorphology
B Oceanography D Soil geography
6 It is the solid layer of rocks which covers the entire surface of the planet.
A Hydrosphere C Biosphere
B Atmosphere D Lithosphere
7 One of the following is not a branch of human geography
A Political geography C Biogeography
B Urban geography D Historical geography
8 It is a branch of human geography that studies the distribution, growth and
structure of population.
A Cultural geography C Political geography
B Historical geography D None of the above
9 One of the following is a branch of physical geography:
A Climatology C Oceanography
B Soil geography D All are correct
III Give short answers to the following questions.
10 What are the two major branches of geography?
11 What is the serious concern of geographical study?
12 Which branch of geography studies the distribution of plants and animals
in relation to the environments that they inhabit?
13 What does political geography study?
14 What does physical geography study?

1.2 INTRODUCTION TO THE CONCEPT OF

MAP-READING
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
ÞÞ explain the meaning of a map;
ÞÞ appreciate the historical development of maps;
ÞÞ state the basic uses of maps;

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ÞÞ categorise maps based on scales and purposes;
ÞÞ distinguish the conventional signs and symbols used to represent different
features on maps;
ÞÞ identify some of the marginal information given on maps;
ÞÞ convert linear scale to areal scale;
ÞÞ calculate the scale of a map;
ÞÞ calculate the areas of regular and irregular shaped figures by referring to
the scale of a map;
ÞÞ construct statistical diagrams using simple line graphs, bar graphs and pie
charts based on the provided data.

Key Terms
³³ Latitude ³³ Remote sensing
³³ International Grid Reference (IGR) ³³ Global Positioning System (GPS)
³³ National Grid Reference (NGR) ³³ Geographical Information System (GIS)
³³ Magnetic declination ³³ Longitude

Start-up Activity
What is the actual distance between points X and Y?

Figure 1.2 Map of Africa

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1.2.1 Meaning of Map
What is a map? Do you remember what you have learned in previous grades
about map?
Here is a simple definition:
A map is a simplified, diminished, plain representation of all or part of the
earth’s surface as viewed from vertically above.
Here are the main features of maps:
FF A map represents all or part of the earth’s surface.
For example, a map might show a city such as Addis Ababa, the entire
world, or a section of a garden.
FF A map is a two-dimensional (plane) representation.
For example, a map might be printed on a piece of paper.
FF Maps show the earth’s surface as if it were seen from directly above.
This view is called a bird’s-eye view.
FF All maps are smaller than the area they represent.
FF Maps are drawn to scale. In other words, the features shown on a map
have the same relative proportions as they do in reality.
For example, if one mountain’s diameter is twice as large as that of
another mountain, the first mountain would be shown on a map as twice
as large as the second.
FF Maps are simplified representations.
FF Most maps use generally accepted symbols to represent natural,
artificial or cultural features of the area they represent. They also use
conventional notations to provide background information such as the
map’s title, date and scale.

Activity 1.3
Discuss the following question and perform the following tasks in your group.
1 What does this mean: “A map is a two-dimensional plane representation”?
2 Compare and contrast maps and globes.
3 Prepare sketch map of your locality and show on the map the settlement
pattern in the locality.

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1.2.2 Historical Development of Maps
Describe the historical development of maps. How do traditional and modern
map-making differ from each other?

Maps are among our oldest tools. People created maps even in primitive times.
For instance, men and women sketched their routes to hunting, fishing and
gathering grounds.

Today, we also prepare maps, for many purposes. However, map-making has
passed through many stages of development since its beginning. The two main
stages of the historical development of map-making are:
ÂÂ Traditional map-making
ÂÂ Modern map-making

A Traditional map-making
What are the major features of traditional map-making? How did people
represent the environment on maps in the past?

The art of traditional map-making is as old as the human race. Traditional maps
have been made in many ways. For example, early map materials included sticks,
shells, clay tablets, parchment, paper and solid plates of silver.

Many traditional maps were locational. For example, they have shown the
locations of water holes and hunting grounds and have included paths that led to
these places.

Focus
In traditional map-making, collecting measurements of distances,
directions, areas and locations was one of the greatest challenges. Each
measurement was be made by hand, through field work in the area being
mapped. This process was laborious and tiresome. Often the accuracy of
the resulting information is imperfect and therefore not fully dependable.

Another main difference between traditional and modern maps is that a

traditional map might include drawings of three-dimensional objects. As a result,
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a traditional map might be somewhat pictographic (or physiographic) rather than
strictly diagrammatic. Most traditional maps are sketch maps. For example, look
at this ancient world map that Eratosthenes drew.

Eratosthenes (276 BC-194 BC)

Eratosthenes was a Greek mathematician,
geographer and astronomer.

In 200 BC, Erastosthenes adopted a word

geography, which means a description
of the earth.
Figure 1.3 Eratosthenes’ map

B Modern map-making
When did modern map-making start? What features characterize modern
map-making? What is the role of GIS in modern map-making?

The modern science of map-making has its basis in the 17th century. The various
developments that took place during the Renaissance gave way to accurate map-
making (cartography). Furthermore, advancements in science and technology
resulted in the invention of better cameras and airplanes specially designed to
take aerial photographs. Today, map-makers have diverse opportunities to acquire
spatial information. In addition to aerial photography, satellite imagery provides
a wealth of information.

Nowadays, computers have come to be “close friends” of map-makers. This is

because they have become in valuable in making maps. In the last three decades
of the 20th century computers have been seen as integral part at almost every stage
of the cartographic process. They play roles in the collection, storage, analysis,
and presentation of data, and even in the mapping and reproduction of maps.
This makes the Geographic Information System (GIS) indispensable to modern
map-making.

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A GIS needs a geographic database of, for example, a digital record of geographic
information. The first step in developing a GIS is to create the geographic database
from such sources as maps, field surveys, aerial photographs, satellite imagery,
and so forth.

Generally, modern map-making is fast and uses modern ways and means of
collecting information, such as specially designed airplanes, remote sensors and
the Global Positioning System (GPS).

Activity 1.4
In a small group, discuss the following questions.
1 What are the major characteristics of modern map-making?
2 What are the components of GIS?

1.2.3 Uses of Maps

Why are maps very important in geography? What are the major uses of maps?

As you know, the map is geography’s most important tool. It is also one of the
most flexible tools in terms of the information it presents and the uses we can
make of it. For example, it can present very simple information or highly detailed
results from a complicated geographical investigation. Maps are basically used
for identifying locations, distance, area and direction.

Location: With the help of a map it is possible to locate a place in reference to

another place. For example, Ethiopia’s location can be expressed in terms of its
neighbouring countries, external land masses and water bodies.

It is also possible to locate a place using astronomical grid references – parallels

and meridians. For example, the absolute location of Ethiopia is 3oN-15oN latitude
and 33oE-48oE longitude.

Distance: It is possible to calculate the distance between two or more places on

a map. This is done by using the scale of the map. For example, the air distance
between Bahir Dar and Addis Ababa can be calculated by using a map of Ethiopia.

Area: The area of a place, a country, a region, a continent, a sub-continent or the

whole world can be calculated from a map. This is done by measuring the length
and the width of the given place on the map and by converting them to ground
distances with the help of the scale of the map.

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Direction: A map can enable us to identify the direction and bearing of any place
on the map. This is accomplished by referring to another place. For example,
a map of Ethiopia can help us to find the direction and bearing of Mekele by
referring to Addis Ababa.

In addition to these, maps can be used to:

FF Show the distribution of physical and human phenomena on the
earth’s surface: distribution maps show the locations of phenomena on
the earth’s surface. For example, we use distribution maps for Ethiopia
to show the presence of human and animal populations, minerals, and
vegetation. Similarly, we use distribution maps to show patterns of
settlement, temperature, and health conditions.
FF Show surface configuration: topographic maps give information
about variations in height on the earth’s surface. For example, they
show heights and depths of valleys, plains and mountains.
FF Offer visual comparisons: because the earth’s surface is vast, it
is difficult to compare places by direct observation. For example, it
would be difficult to compare the distribution of landforms in Ethiopia
and Kenya, even from an airplane. However, by offering us relatively
small but accurate representations of the two countries, maps solve this
problem completely.
FF Support development planning: Maps can provide planners with
vital information to plan for the future. For example, maps can show
current conditions and ongoing trends, and they can help us predict a
nation’s socioeconomic conditions. Such information is invaluable to
the country’s planners as they analyze possibilities and livelihoods and
then prepare for the future.

Activity 1.5
Look at the map in Figure 1.2 and perform the following tasks and answer the
following question.
1 Write down the relative location of Ethiopia.
2 Which neighbouring country is located south of Ethiopia?

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1.2.4 Classification of Maps
How many types of maps do you know? Do you think that all maps are one and
the same? Why?

Although most maps have similar characteristics, they can differ from one another
in many ways.
This topic teaches you how to classify maps in terms of the following features:
FF Focus and level of detail (purpose) – the amount of information they
present about their subjects, especially their ability to show small
details.
FF Scale – the size of the area for which they give information and,
therefore, the scope of the information that they give about these areas.

Classification Based on Purpose:

Maps can be classified as general-purpose or specific-purpose.

General-Purpose Maps
What are general-purpose maps? What are they used for? List uses of
topographic maps.

A general-purpose map is a map that shows the features of a place in a relatively

general way. It provides a wide range of information about the place it represents.
General-purpose maps are not topical. Instead, they tend to contain a little of many
kinds of information at a relatively low level of detail. Topographic information
of each kind in lesser detail. A topographic map is a good example of this. It can
illustrate both physical and human-made features of the earth.

Focus
General-purpose maps are prepared to provide a wide range of information
about different features of an area. They contain a little information of
each kind about the area they represent. Their ability to provide different
information is their advantage, whereas their weakness is to show limited
detailed information.

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Specific−Purpose Maps
What kind of map is a specific-purpose map? How does it differ from a general-
purpose map?

Specific-purpose maps are often called thematic maps or topical maps. We use
these terms because specific-purpose maps emphasize on a single topic. These
maps show detailed information about their subjects. Thematic maps can show
almost any kind of information that varies from place to place, such as population
distribution, rainfall and temperature patterns, and the distribution of types of soil
or vegetation.
FF Soil maps
FF Vegetation maps
FF Climate maps

Focus
Specific-purpose maps are thematic/topical maps. They usually show a
high level of detail and have a deep focus on their subjects. Many specific-
purpose maps are created for specialists in particular subjects.

Classification by Scale
Scale is a ratio that shows the degree to which the area that is mapped has been
reduced. Based on scale differences, maps can be classified into:
FF Large-scale maps FF Small-scale maps
FF Medium-scale maps

Let us now consider each of these types of map in more detail.

Large-Scale Maps ≥ 1:50,000

What are large scale maps?

Large-scale maps present small areas in detail with great accuracy.

Large-scales are greater than or equal to 1:50,000. A large-scale map, such as the
map of Addis Ababa, shows the city in considerable detail.
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Large scale maps present a relatively small area and show its features in consider-
able detail. For example, at a scale of 1:5,000, a map of a city can include many
features – such as buildings. The map can also include many details, such as the
bends in highways.

Medium-Scale Maps 1:50,000 - 1:250,000

What are medium-scale maps?

These are maps that are prepared with scales that range between 1:50,000 and
1:250,000. Medium-scale maps cover wider areas than large scale maps, but
cover smaller areas than small-scale maps. They are also able to present more
detailed information than small-scale maps but are less detailed than large-scale
ones.

Small-Scale Maps ≤ 1:250,000

What are small-scale maps?

Small-scale maps are those which are prepared with scales less than or equal to
1:250,000. These small–scale maps cover wider areas than large and medium
scale maps.

Focus
Large-Scale maps Small-Scale Maps
ÂÂ Scale: ≥ 1: 50,000 ÂÂ Scale: ≤ 1:250,000
ÂÂ Cover small areas ÂÂ Cover large areas
ÂÂ Contain highly detailed information ÂÂ Contain less-detailed information
Medium-Scale Maps
ÂÂ Scale: between 1:50,000 and 1:250,000
ÂÂ Cover medium sized areas
ÂÂ Contain moderately detailed information

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Activity 1.6
In pairs, discuss the following questions.
1 Do you know how a map-maker can reduce the size of ground objects while
making maps?
2 Compare and contrast large and small scale map?
3 Compare the scale of 1 : 25,000 with 1 : 250,000. Which one is a smaller scale?
Why?

1.2.5 Marginal Information of Maps

What is a map’s margin? What are the most common types of information that
are found in the margin of a map?

Maps are used to convey information. To read maps effectively, map users need
information about the map. Such information is presented in the map’s margins
and is known as marginal information.
Marginal information includes:
FF Title of the map: Gives the map’s name. For example, “Soil Map”
explains that the map presents information about soil.
FF Year of publication: identifies the year in which the map was published.
Because this information tells you how old the map is, you might be able
to judge whether the map’s contents are current or might be out of date.
FF Author: identifies the copyright owner of the map and indicates who (or
what organization) has prepared the map.
FF Place of publication and publisher: tells where the map was published
and identifies the organization that published the map.
FF Scale: This information indicates the extent to which the area that is
represented in the map has been reduced.
FF Legend/Key: explains the meaning of the signs and symbols used in the
map.
FF Type of projection: tells the kind of projection used in making the map.
FF Direction or orientation (North) arrow: Shows the north direction on
the map.
FF The magnetic declination (variation): is the difference between
Magnetic North and True North. This will be explained later in this
unit.
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Conventional Signs and Symbols
How do maps show different features of the earth? What do map-makers use
to represent the different physical and human features on maps?

Geographers have developed a standard set of symbols and other graphic

conventional signs to represent features shown on maps. Conventional signs and
symbols are those signs and symbols that are used on maps through the agreement
of all map-makers of the world. They are used to represent the same detail on a
map in all the countries of the world.

Signs and symbols help the map reader to understand maps. Therefore, the map
reader has to look first at the key or legend of the map.

When you create a map, the symbols you select should satisfy the following
requirements.
FF They should be uniform throughout the map.
FF They should be easy to read and understand.
FF The space occupation, orientation and size of the symbols should be
constant.

Here are some of the symbols and conventional signs that are widely used and
understood worldwide:
FF cities and towns are indicated by dots or patches of shading;
FF streams and bodies of water are often printed in blue; and
FF political boundaries are shown by dot lines/solid lines.
Table 1.1: Conventional signs and symbols

Symbol Description

All-weather road

Bridge

Permanent lake

Plantation
Mine

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Map Scale
What is map scale? Why do we need map scales?

The scale of a map is the ratio between the measurement of distance on the map
and the corresponding measurement on the earth’s surface.

For instance, the ratio of the map distance between two cities on a map and
the actual distance between the two corresponding cities on the earth is
the scale to which that map is drawn.

Grid References
What is a grid reference? Why is it important? What is the difference between
a geographic grid and a national grid reference?

A map grid is a set of imaginary lines that divides the earth’s surface into regular
grids.

There are two major map grid systems:

ÂÂ International (Geographic) Grid System
ÂÂ National Grid System

The International (Geographic) Grid System shows the absolute locations of

places on the surface of the earth.

Its references are made up of:

FF parallels or lines of latitude – define locations north and south of the
equator. They are horizontal lines of the grid.

FF meridians or lines of longitude – define locations east and west of an

imaginary north-south map line called the Prime Meridian. They are
vertical lines of the grid.

Latitude: When looking at a map, latitude lines run horizontally. Lines of latitude
are also known as parallels since they are parallel and are an equal distant from
each other. Each degree of latitude is approximately 111 km apart. Degrees of
latitude are numbered from 0° to 90° north and south. Zero degree is the equator,
the imaginary line which divides our planet into the northern and southern
hemispheres. 90° north is the North Pole and 90° south is the South Pole.

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Longitude: The vertical lines of longitude are also known as meridians. They
converge at the poles and are widest at the equator (about 111 km apart). Zero
degrees longitude is located at Greenwich (0°). The degrees continue 180° east
and 180° west where they meet and form the International Date Line in the Pacific
Ocean.

Parallels and meridians are imaginary lines. Latitudes are angular distances
measured to the north and south of the equator in degrees, minutes and seconds.
Longitudes are also angular distances, but they are measured to the east and west
of the Greenwich meridian.

Try to explore how lines of latitudes and longitudes create a grid network on the
following map.

180OW 150OW 120OW 90OW 60OW 30OW 0O 30OE 60OE 90OE 120OE 150OE 180OEO
90 N

60ON

30ON

0O

30OS

60OS

90OS

Figure 1.4 The Geographic Grid System

The National Grid Systems: is used on maps of individual countries and regions
within them. Its references differ from those of the International (Geographic)
Grid System.

The National Grid System uses eastings and northings. Eastings are lines that are
drawn from north to south. Northings are lines that are drawn from east to west.

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Eastings and northings in the National Grid System originate from the “False
Grid Origin” that lies at the southwestern corner of the place they cover. While
the values of eastings increase eastwards, the values of northings increase
northwards. Eastings and northings are measured in kilometres.

In Ethiopia, there are two ways of giving national grid reference. They are four-
digit and six-digit grid reference. Eastings are always given before northings.

For example, the six-digit grid reference of letter A is 490970.

470000 480000 490000 500000

990000
990000

980000
980000

970000
970000

A
960000

960000
950000
950000

470000 480000 490000 500000

Figure 1.5 Map of Addis Ababa

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Magnetic Declination
What is magnetic declination? What is magnetic north? What about true north?

The earth has north and south geographic poles at the northern and southern
convergence points of the meridians. It also has north and south magnetic poles.

Magnetic compasses that are used in navigation point towards the north magnetic
pole, rather than the geographic North Pole.

Magnetic declination is the difference between magnetic north and true north. It
is the angle between magnetic north and true north from a particular point on the
earth’s surface.

The position of the north magnetic pole moves over time. Therefore, the
declination factor must be updated from time to time. However, a relatively new
navigation device, the gyrocompass, is adjusted so that it points to the geographic
North Pole directly that it does not need this compensating factor.
The amount, direction, and annual change of the variation for most localities on
the surface of the earth has been determined, and this data is recorded.

Figure 1.6 Magnetic Declination

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Activity 1.7
Perform the following tasks in your group.
1 Find a political map of Ethiopia and discuss the marginal information in the
class.
2 Sketch a map of your school compound. Use a scale and symbols.

1.2.6 The Relationship Between Linear and

Areal Scale
What is linear scale? What about areal scale? Is it possible to convert one into
the other? How?
FF Map scale can be linear or areal.
FF Linear scale expresses the ratio of map distance to ground distance. It
is the most common scale type.
FF Areal scale shows the relationship between map area and ground area.

Areal scale is the square of linear scale. For example, if a map has a linear scale
of 1 cm to 6 km, then the areal scale of the map is (1 cm)2 to (6 km)2, which means
1 cm2 to 36 km2.

( )
2
2 Distance on the map
Areal Scale = (Linear Scale) =
Distance on the Ground

To calculate linear scale from areal scale, you put the areal scale into a square
root. For instance, if the areal scale of a map is 1 cm2 to 36 km2, then the linear
scale of the map is the square root of the given areal scale, as shown below.

Map Area
Linear Scale = Areal scale =
Ground Area
1 cm 2
= = 1 cm to 6 km
36 km 2

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Focus
Areal scale is the square of linear scale. On the other hand, linear scale is
the square root of areal scale. Therefore, if a certain linear scale is doubled,
then its areal scale equivalent would be four times larger than its original
scale.

Activity 1.8
Perform the following tasks.
1 Find the areal scale for the following:

a 1 cm to 2 km c 5 cm to 25 km
b 1 : 100,000 d 3 cm to 9 km
2 Find the linear scale for the following:

a 4 cm2 to 400 km2 c 5 cm2 to 500 m2

b 4 cm2 to 16 km2 d 1 cm2 to 4 km2

1.2.7 How to Find the Scale of a Map

Is it possible to calculate the scale of a map when it is not given? How?
In principle, every map should show the scale to which it has been drawn. If the
scale is not shown, we can calculate it.

There are two ways of finding a map scale, if it is not given:

A By using the known distance between two points on the map

This method is used if the ground distance between two points or places shown
on the map is given. Then use the following procedure to obtain the scale:
i Measure the distance between the two points on the map in centimeters.
ii Divide the obtained distance on the map by the ground distance to obtain
the ratio between the two. This gives you the scale of the map.

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To understand this better see the following example.

Let us say, if the straight-line distance between Addis Ababa and Mekele is 555 km.
Using Figure 1.7, calculate the scale of the map:

Figure 1.7 Map of Ethiopia

ÂÂ Using the distance between Addis Ababa and Mekele:

i Measure the distance between Addis Ababa and Mekele by using a
ruler approximately 3 cm.
The given air distance between the two places is 555 km.
ii Find the ratio between the distance on map and the actual distance.
This is the scale.

Distance measured on the map

Scale =
Ground distance

3 cm to 555 km = 1 cm to 185 km = 1 : 18,500,000.

B By using latitudes
In this method, the scale of the map can be obtained by using the values of
latitudes.

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For example, let us calculate the scale of Figure 1.7 by using the 5 and 10o N
o

latitude lines:
1 The degree difference between the two latitudes is 5o (10o – 5o).
2 The distance that 5o represents is 555 km (111 km × 5).
3 The distance between the two latitudes on the map is approximately 3 cm.
4 The scale of the map is, therefore:
Distance on the Map 3 cm
Scale = = = 1 cm to 185 km
Ground Distance 555 km
1: 18,500,000

Focus
1o latitude is about 111 km
This relationship is derived from the circumference of
the earth – 40,000 km.
If 360o = 40,000 km
1o = ?
1o × 40, 000kms
= = 111 km
360o

Activity 1.9
Answer the following questions in your group.
1 The ground distance between two places is 100 km. If this distance is represented
by 5 cm on a map, what is the scale of the map?
2 If two places on the ground that are located 5o north and 10o north are shown
10 cm apart on a given map, what is the scale of the map?

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1.2.8 The Measurement of Regular and
Irregular Shaped Areas
Do you think that we can tell how large an area is from a map? If so, how can
we measure it?

Some areas have regular or geometric shapes, such as rectangles, triangles, circles
and squares. Others have irregular or non-geometric shapes.

This procedure is important for measuring areas on maps:

1 Measure the area of the feature on the map;
2 If the map scale is linear, convert it to areal;
3 Using the areal scale, convert the area on the map to actual ground
area by using cross multiplication.

Measuring Regular-Shaped Areas

A regular shape is a geometrical shape such as a circle, triangle or square. If you
are measuring an area with a regular shape, use the mathematical formula for its
geometric shape. Then calculate the ground area by using the map’s areal scale.
The following table gives you some of geometric formulae for calculating the
areas of regular shapes.

Table 1.2: Geometrical formula

Regular-shaped areas Mathematical formula

A = S2;
Square
where A = area, and S = side
A = l × w;
Rectangle
where A = area, l = length, and w = width
A = ½ bh;
Right angle triangle
where A = area, b = base, and h = height
A = πr2;
Circle
where A = area, and r = radius. (π = 3.14 )

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4 cm

2 cm
Farm land

Scale = 1 cm to 2 km
Figure 1.8 A sketch map of a farm

What is the ground area of the farmland?

In the above sketch, the farm has a regular shape.

FF Measure the length and width of the rectangle on the map. Obtain
its area on the map by multiplying the length by the width (area of
rectangle = l × w ). This gives you the area of the farm on the map.
FF Change the linear scale, which is 1 cm to 2 km, into areal scale by
squaring it. This gives you the areal scale :1 cm2 to 4 km2.
FF Convert the map area into ground area by using cross multiplication.
In other words, if 1 cm2 is to 4 km2, then what will 8 cm2 be?
This gives you the ground area of the farm 32 km2.

Without changing the given linear scale into areal scale, it is possible to calculate
the area.

2 cm × 2 km 4 cm × 2 km
=L = 4 km =
and W = 8 km
1cm 1cm

Area = L × W
Area = 4 km × 8 km
= 32 km2
Therefore, the area of the farm land is 32 km2.

Measuring Irregular-Shaped Areas

If the feature to be measured has an irregular shape, its area cannot be directly
calculated by using mathematical formulae. For example, the lake in Figure 1.9 has
an irregular shape. In such cases, we can use the grid square method to measure
the area of the lake on the map.

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To better understand this, let us see how the area of the lake is measured. (See
Figure 1.9)

Lake

Scale = 1 cm to 2 km
Figure 1.9 A sketch map of a lake

In order to find the area of the lake, we follow the following steps:
1 Copy the boundary of the lake.
2 Draw grid lines at a uniform interval (for example, 1 cm apart) over
the lake.
3 Count the number of grid squares within the lake:
KK number of full squares = 4
KK number of ¾ squares = 5 × ¾
KK number of ½ squares = 4 × ½
KK number of ¼ squares = 1 × ¼
Thus, total number of squares = 4 + 5 × ¾ + 4 × ½ + 1 × ¼ = 10
4 Calculate the approximate area of the lake.
a First, find the area of one square by using the scale.
area = S2 = 1 cm × 1 cm = 1 cm2 or 2 km × 2 km = 4 km2
b Then, calculate the total area of the lake.
If one square = 4 km2
10 square = ?
The approximate area of the lake is 40 km square.

Activity 1.10
Answer the following questions in your group.
1 The base and height of a right angle triangle are 3 cm and 6 cm, respectively.
The scale is 1 cm to 2 km. What is the ground area of the right angle triangle?
2 The radius of a circle is 4 cm. The scale is 1 cm to 5 km. What is the ground area
of the circle.

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1.2.9 Statistical Diagrams
What is “statistics”? What are statistical diagrams?
Statistics is a branch of mathematics that deals with the collection, organization,
and analysis of numerical data. “Statistics” also refers to a collection of numerical
information about a particular feature. Information such as the amount of crop
that is produced, the growth rate of population, or the number of unemployed
people in an area are all statistical figures because they present situations in terms
of numbers.

In geography, such statistical figures are presented by using statistical diagrams.

Statistical diagrams are pictorial representations of numerical information. Charts,
graphs and diagrams are examples of statistical diagrams. By using statistical diagrams,
geographers make information easier to present and understand. It is easier to make
comparisons, see trends (changes over time) and draw conclusions. Statistical diagrams
are particularly important tools for presenting large amounts of statistical data.

In this section, you will learn about some of these statistical diagrams:
ÂÂ Simple line graphs
ÂÂ Simple bar graphs
ÂÂ Pie charts

Simple Line Graph

What is a line graph?

A line graph uses lines to show changes over time. It is also used to show the
relationship between two sets of information/phenomena.

The line graph shown in Figure 1.10, illustrates the data presented in Table 1.3. It
shows the changes in population size of Africa from 1750 to 2050.

The graph can also help you to compare periods of actual and projected population
growth on the African continent.
In the graph, the x-axis represents years, and the y-axis represents population
size.
Steps used to draw a line graph:
1 The horizontal axis is normally used to represent an independent variable,
i.e. time, while the vertical axis to represent dependent variable, such as
temperature and other qualities or values.
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2 The base of the vertical scale should be at zero, and the top should be
slightly higher than the maximum value to be recorded on it.
3 Use small crosses or dots to mark values, when plotting the graph.

Table 1.3: Growth of the African Population (1750-2050)

Year 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 2050
Population
106 107 111 133 228 797 1,846
(x millions)
Source: Microsoft Encarta (2008)

Growth of the African Population

(1750 - 2050)
2000
Population size

1500
1000
500
0
1750
1800
1850
1900
1950
2000
2050

Year

Figure 1.10 Growth of the African Population (1750 - 2050)

As we have already indicated, similar line graphs can be used to present a variety
of data in relation to time – for example, changes in temperature, employment,
and production.

Simple Bar Graph

What is a bar graph?

A bar graph is another graphical tool for displaying statistical data. It uses
horizontal or vertical bars to show different amounts of the same item or different
values for the same phenomenon. The heights or lengths of the bars on a graph
are proportional to the quantities they represent.
Such a graph might show how amounts or values differ from place to place or as
they change over time.

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For example, a bar graph can be used to show the number of people living in each
continent or to show how rainfall varies from month to month in a certain place.
The following bar graph has been prepared based on the data given in Table 1.4.
It shows how the world’s population is distributed in six regions of the world.
Steps used to draw a simple bar graph.
1 The horizontal scale usually represent the independent variable, more
specifically when the time element is of significant, such as when graphing
mean monthly rainfall or annual production.
2 All bars must start at zero and bar graphs drawn for the purposes of
comparison must be drawn on the same scale.
3 When vertical bars are drawn, the time sequence should be from left to right.
4 The width of the bar is a matter of choice. However, avoid bars that are too
thick or too thin.
5 The value of each bar can be assessed more easily if a space or gap is left
between each bar.

Table 1.4: World Population by Region (2009)

L. America and
Region Africa Asia Europe N. America Oceania
the Caribbean
Population
999 4,117 738 580 341 36
(in millions)
Source: Population Reference Bureau (2009)

World Population Distribution

by Region (2009)
Population in million

4500
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0

Region

Figure 1.11 World population by region (2009)

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As indicated earlier, bar graphs, like the one in the previous example, let you
compare a single feature as it exists in different places or as it changes over time.
For example, they can represent such statistical data as annual rainfall distribution
on a monthly basis. The mean monthly distribution of rainfall in Addis Ababa can
be shown as follows. The graph in Figure 1.12 has been drawn using the data
given in Table 1.5.

Table 1.5: Monthly average rainfall of Addis Ababa, 2009

Month J F M A M J J A S O N D

Rainfall (mm) 21.3 2.7 28.4 80.6 58.9 82.6 349.9 388.3 112.9 45.8 44.4 0.0

Source: CSA Ethiopian Statistical Abstract, 2009

Monthly Distribution of
Rainfall in Addis Ababa, 2009.
400
Rainfall (mm)

300

200

100

0
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Months of the year

Figure 1.12 Monthly Average Rainfall of Addis Ababa

Using the graph, you can identify which months are the wettest and which are
the driest.

Pie Chart
What is a pie chart? What are they used for?

Pie charts are circle graphs. They use segments of the circle to show the sizes of
the items that make up its subject. The segments are shaped like the slices of a
pie.
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