DAR ES SALAAM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND

TECHNOLOGY;
CODE: GTST 05207
NAME; RESEARCH METHODS FOR TECHNICIANS.
LECTURE NOTES:
COURSE OUTLINE:
1. Discuss basic concepts used in research
2. Discuss various types of research
3. Develop research proposal
4. Conduct literature review
5. Identify target population
6. Determine a viable research sample
7. Discuss and design data collection techniques
8. Administer research instruments
9. Outline various methods of data analysis, analyse and
interprete data
10. Compile and disseminate research report.
RESEARCH METHODS FOR TECHNICIANS
What is research?
The term research means to look for, examine, investigate or
explore.
Various researchers have defined research in different ways but
all of them seem to have common intersection that research is

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carried out in order/with an intention of solving problems in the
society or organization. For example, research can be viewed as
a directed and systematic study carried out to discover facts
needed to make appropriate decision. Thus, in order to make
decision you need facts- and you get facts through research. On
the other hand, research is a serious study of the subject that is
intended to discover new facts or new test of ideas {facts=
data}.
According to Orodho and Combo (2002:2) define research as
the process of arriving at the dependable solutions to problems
through the planned systematic collection, analysis and
interpretation of data.
Kerliger (1973; 1) defines research as a systematic, controlled,
empirical and critical investigations of hypothetical propositions
about the presumed relations among natural phenomena.
Tuchman (1978; 1) describes research as a systematic attempt to
provide answers to questions. Keywords in all these definitions
include; process, systematic, collection, analysis and
interpretation. Therefore based on these keywords a research can
be defined as a systematic process of collecting information,
examining it, analysing and interpreting data.
THE AIMS/OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
1. To describe about a certain phenomenon/an issue such as
land issues, water, energy crisis, diseases also issues related
to gender etc.
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 2. To predict about something in future; for stance research
findings from climate change of the certain area can
determine/predict the situation of water and energy crisis of
that area in future.
3. To explain about solution of a problem; though a research
findings one can obtain new ways of addressing certain
problems which exists within our communities.
4. To interpret what is being investigated.

IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH

The main purpose of a research is to inform action, to prove a

theory, and contribute to the developing knowledge in a field or
study. Therefore the research helps;
1. To identify and solve particular problems in our society
through the useful and reliable information obtained
from research findings.
2. Contributes to body of knowledge about a certain issue
such as energy crisis, water crisis, and environment and
population problems.
3. Helps in formulation and development of policies
everywhere in the universe. Policy makers can use the
research findings to formulate appropriate policies that
can be used to address a certain problem within a
society. Also they use research findings in revising the
existing policies such as land, environmental and
population policies just to mention the few.

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 4. Helps to discover new ideas which can be used in
promotion of innovations and creation of new things
/products. For example the use of laptops instead of
using desktops.
5. Helps in making appropriate decisions. It is true that the
research findings helps different actors such as
government officials, non government organizations
(NGOs) and individuals in making decision on
appropriate intervention that will address the needs of the
people.
SCIENTIFIC AND NON-SCIENTIFIC WAYS OF
GETTING KNOWLEDGE
There are scientific and non-scientific ways of getting
knowledge. A research is a scientific way of obtaining
knowledge because it follows scientific methods and procedures
for inquiry while non-scientific ways lack scientific features.
Therefore the scientific elements differentiate research from
non-scientific methods of getting knowledge.

 Non-scientific methods of getting knowledge

Non-scientific methods/ways for acquiring knowledge are
frequently used by people in their daily life experience. They
include;

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 1. Intuition
The term intuition refers to a quick insight without relying on
rational reasoning processes such as facts and data. Good
intuition comes from past knowledge and experience which
allows you to understand how people and the world works.

Therefore through this method/way the knowledge is acquired

from understanding and believing in an idea based on instinct or
through personal insight. When we use our intuition, we are
relying on our guts, our emotions, and/or our instincts to guide
us. Rather than examining facts or using rational thought,
intuition involves believing what feels true. The problem with
relying on intuition is that our intuitions can be wrong because
they are driven by cognitive and motivational biases rather than
logical reasoning or scientific evidence.
2. Logic
The term logic refers to a study of a correct reasoning by making
inferences or is the science that studies the principles of correct
reasoning. For example, since every country has a leader,
Colombia is a country therefore it has a leader (correct).
However, one may arrive at a wrong conclusion due to person’s
limited viewpoint. You cannot think about something you don't
already know. For example, since countries have leaders and
since the leader of Tanzania is a president, therefore the leader
of England is a president too (wrong). This is due to limited
experience of types of country leader titles. Also logic is based
on the notion of coming to the conclusion that; the one who has
stolen the cookie is the one who was in the room at the time (of
which might be right or wrong).
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 3. Authority
Refers to the power or the right to give orders, make decisions
and enforce obedience. Authority is one of the common methods
of acquiring knowledge. This method involves accepting new
ideas because some authority figure states that they are true.
These authorities include parents, the media, doctors, Priests and
other religious authorities, the government, and professors.
While in an ideal world we should be able to trust authority
figures, history has taught us otherwise. Nevertheless, much of
the information we acquire is through authority because we
don’t have time to question and independently research every
piece of knowledge we learn through authority.

4. Experience

People tend to understand events based on their life experience.

Many of students may have believed that all writing boards are
black because they have only ever seen black boards. We are
limited in what we can experience. Moreover, our prior
experiences can alter the way we perceive events.

 Research as scientific method of gathering knowledge

Research is scientific because it has scientific
properties/characteristics which are;
Controlled;
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It means that, one should set up a study in a way that minimizes
the effects of other factors affecting the relationship. It should be
noted that; in life there are many factors that affects an outcome.
A particular event is rarely a result of one- to- one relationship
some of the relationships are more complex than others.
Therefore in the study of cause and effect relationships it is
important to be able to link the effects with the causes and the
vice versa.
Rigorous;
Must be sure that the procedures used to find answers to the
questions are relevant, appropriate and justified.
Systematic;
The procedures adopted to undertake an investigation follow a
certain logical sequence. This involves the identification of a
problem, review of a related literature, data collection followed
by data analysis, conclusions and recommendations.
Valid and justifiable;
Whatever you conclude on the basis of your findings is correct
and can be verified by you and others in the engineering field.
Empirical;
Any conclusion on research findings revealed should be drawn
from the information collected from real- life experiences or
observations.

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Critical;
Critical scrutiny of procedures used and methods employed is
crucial to research inquiry. The process of investigation must be
foolproof and free from any drawbacks. The process used and
procedures used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny.
TYPES OF RESEARCH
Research can be looked at from three different perspectives;
1 Application of the findings of the research study
2. Objectives of the study
3. Mode of enquiry used in conducting the study

1. Application perspectives; It can be categorized into two

parts;
(i)Pure or basic/fundamental/primary Research
(ii) Applied research
(i) Pure/ basic research; is conducted for the purpose of
knowledge enrichment thus it involves collection of data that
can be used in formulating developing theories, principles and
laws. For example the findings from the effects of rapid
population to the environment may lead to development of
population policies and enactments of different laws associated
with environment conservation.

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It is also concerned with developing, examining, verifying and
refining of research methods, procedures, techniques and tools
that form the body of research methodology for example;
 Developing a sampling technique that can be applied
to a particular situation or
 Developing a methodology to assess the validity of a
procedure
 And developing the best way to measure people’s
attitudes.

(ii)Applied research; It is a type of research which applies

research techniques, procedures and methods developed in
research methodology to collect information about various
aspects of a situation, issue, problem or a phenomenon.
The information gathered can be used for policy formulation,
administration and enhancement of understanding of a
phenomenon. Most research is therefore applied in this sense.
2. Objective perspective
Any research can be broadly classified as being descriptive, co-
relational, explanatory or exploratory.
(i)Descriptive research; describes a situation, problem,
phenomenon, service or program or provides information about
the living condition of a community, or describes attitudes
towards an issue (ie how things are).

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 (ii) Correlational research attempt to discover/establish the
existence of a relationship/association/interdependence
between two or more aspects of a situation for example;
 What is the relationship between technology and
unemployment
 What is the relationship between stressful living and
the incident of heart attack?
 What is the relationship between fertility and
mortality
(iii) Explanatory research attempts to clarify why and how
there is a relationship between two aspects of a
situation/phenomenon
(ie is there any relationship? Why so?) For example;
 Why stressful living results in heart attacks
 Why a decline in mortality is followed by fertility
decline or
 How the home environment affects children level of
academic performance.
(ii) Exploratory research; is done with the objectives of
either to explore an area where little is known or
investigate the possibilities of undertaking a particular
research study. When research is done to determine its
feasibility it is also called feasibility study or pilot study.
It is done when a researcher wants to explore areas about
which he has little knowledge or no knowledge. It is
usually conducted in a small scale study to determine if it
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 is worth carrying out a detailed investigation. On the
basis of this study a full-scale study is done.

3. Mode of inquiry
Concerns to the process you adopt to find answers to your
research questions. Broadly there are two approaches;
(i) The qualitative research; it involves collection of
information, analyzing and make interpretation by
observing what people do and say. It seeks to analyze the
culture or behavior of people and their groups from the
point of view of those being studied/by using the natural
settings. Qualitative research is flexible and interactive in
such a way that it involves the use of different research
techniques such as interview, focus group discussion and
questionnaires to obtain information required. For
instance if a researcher want to investigate the effect of
abortion on academic performance he/ she should
interview students and teachers within the school to get
their views about effects of abortion.
The analysis is also based on giving description of an
observation situation, the historical enumeration of
events and a description of living condition.

(ii)The quantitative research;

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A study is classified as a quantitative if you want to quantify the
variation of a certain phenomenon, situation, problem or issues.
The information is gathered using predominantly quantitative
variables. (ie variable refers to a factor or characteristics of
interest that researcher would want to hendle/ observe for
istance age, sex etc) For example;
-how many people have a particular problem?
-how many people died with bus accident? How many children
died? How many women died?
Both qualitative and quantitative approaches have strengths and
a weakness, neither one is superior to the other and in most
cases they complement each other. Where possible, they should
be combined to maximise the strengths and minimise the
limitations of each.
RESEARCH VARIABLES
Research variables are defined as factor of characteristics of
interest that a researcher would like to handle, observe,
investigate or manipulate in the research process. e.g age, sex,
height, weight, level of empowerment etc.
In any particular study, variables can play different roles for
example the reaction of people towards the price increase may
vary according to commodity use and availability. An increase
in beer and cigarette prices may be viewed positively by those
who do not drink and smoke but negatively by the consumers.

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Types of variables
Variables can be classified in three categories. It includes the
following;
1. Independent variables; also known as explanatory variables
These are factors which explain variation in the dependent
variables. (In other words these are the causes/causing factors).
For example1 of the title; the impact of price increase on beer
consumption in Tanzania; then, the price increase is the
independent variable. This is because it can explain or affect the
increase or decrease in beer consumption. Example 2, there is a
significant different between academic performance and long
distance from home to school. Then, long distance from home is
independent variable
2. Dependent variables;
Usually there is only one dependent variable, and it is the
outcome results the researcher is attempting to predict. Variation
in the dependant variable is what the researcher is trying to
explain. In the study on “the impact of price increase on beer
consumption in Tanzania” increase or decrease of beer
consumption is the dependant variable. In the study on “high
performance and long distance from home” high perfomance is
the dependant variable.

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3. Extraneous variables
It refers to as any variable other than the independent variable
that could cause change in the dependent variable. It is also
defined as any variable that you are not intentionally studying in
your research but they can threaten the internal validity of your
results. For example if a teacher wants to test the hypothesis that
there is a relationship between students’ performance in English
and their hard work. In this case hard work is an independent
variable while performance in English language is a dependent
variable. However, intelligence may as well affect their
performance in English. Then, since it is not related to the
purpose of the study and it affects the results, it will be termed
as extraneous variable.

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 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
The research process is like a journey which a researcher takes
from the initial point to the last point of the study. This process
entails steps which are logically arranged to enable a researcher
meet the targeted objective(s). There are two main parts which a
researcher needs to develop in order to complete the research
process. The research has to develop a research proposal at the
beginning of the process and end with a research report as the
final document showing the results and implications of the
research done.

RESEARCH PROPOSAL
To propose means, to put forward, suggest, intend or advice.
Research proposal is referred as the request to implement a
certain program or a study. It may also be referred to as a
suggestions, intentions, plans or schemes. Proposal shows what
is to be done, where, when, how and for what reasons. It is the
researcher’s guide towards getting a solution to the research
problem. The research proposal includes three main chapters;
1. Introduction which consists;
i. The background to the study
ii. Statement of the research problem
iii. Aims and objective of the study
iv. Hypothesis
v. Scope of the study
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 vi. Significance of study
2. Review of the related literature
3. Research methodology
Other parts
Reference and appendices
QUALITIES OF AN EFFECTIVE PROPOSAL
An effective research proposal clear states;
 What is being proposed; what the project is about?
 How it will be carried out
 When it will be carried out
 How much it will cost
RESEARCH TOPIC SELECTION;
The term topic refers to subject, issue or area under discussion.
The topic (subject) one selects to research is essential in the
success of the research of the project. This is mainly because
one’s interest in the topic will sustain the research. If the
researcher is interested in a particular area, he/she will enjoy
reading materials related to that subject, and will put much time
and effort into the work. Also the researcher will be keen on
collecting the required data, analyzing it and finding out the
results. Therefore it is imperative that the researcher selects the
topic of his or her interest. The following are some of the steps
that should be followed in topic selection;

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(a) Identify what interests or puzzles one in an area of
study;
There are many issues in life that puzzle or interest a researcher.
These may be social, economic, health political or cultural
issues. However it is important to identify a puzzling aspect in
one’s area of study. This not only enables the researcher to go
in- depth in one’s professional area but also to defend the
researched work with authority. For example in identifying an
area of study, doctor may be puzzled as to why, despite
awareness creation on malaria prevention and the provisions of
mosquito nets to a certain district, malaria prevalence was still
high. A student in the department of religious studies may be
puzzled at the mushrooming of churches in Tanzania. It is
therefore, there are fertile grounds in which students can identify
research topics.
(b) Identify keywords for the topic; the researcher should then
narrow down to the real aspect puzzling him/her and express
it in specific words. For example if the doctor is puzzled by
malaria prevalence, “the key words may be awareness
creation verses malaria prevalence”. Therefore the researcher
has to think of what to concentrate on based on these words.
(c) Formulate the topic; the researcher has to identify
specifically what he/she want to concentrate on to make the
study to be more focused. Also the researcher has to search
for related materials to the research topic selected. This will

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 assist the researcher to develop clarity over the topic selected
also helps in formulating a research problem later on.

Qualities of an effective research topic

A good research topic has the following qualities;
(a)It is researchable; that means it is a subject where the research
instruments can be easily formulated and the study population
be sampled.
(b)It captivates the interest of the researcher; the topic selected
should be one that the researcher has an interest on it.
(c) It makes a contribution to knowledge; a good research topic
is one in which the researcher is aware that the findings of the
study will contribute to the body of knowledge.
(d)It is clear and focused; it has to be narrowed down and be
specific.
It should be noted that topic selection is vital in proposal writing
as it contributes to the success of the research. The researcher
should therefore ensure that she is conversant with the topic to
be researched, interested in the topic and required materials and
resources are available.
Challenges encountered in topic selection;
There are various challenges encountered in topic selection and
some have resulted in researchers abandoning the project
halfway, or the project taking longer to be completed than the
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anticipated time. The following are some of the problems
encountered in topic selection.
Choosing a topic that is too wide; a researcher must
understand the dimension of his or her topic hence narrow it
down to limit the scope. For example “the effects of drought.
This topic may be a problematic since the effects of drought and
its intensity varies by region to region. The impact of drought in
mbeya may not be similar to its impact in Dar es salaam.
Therefore a researcher needs to be specific and clear on what
exactly he/she wants to investigate in relation to drought.
Choosing the topic that is too complex; at a time a researcher
may choose the topic which is too complex. For example a study
on consumer reaction to price increase”; This can be complex
based on the fact that it requires large population samples. Also
it may require many person/ experts to undertake that research
also different approaches to be employed hence increase
expenses.
Poor timing; most research works have a limited time span for
which data should be collected and presented. Failure to adhere
to the time given may lead to disqualifications or penalties.
Therefore if for some reasons, gathering of information will take
many months or even years, then the topic may not be suitable.
Limited accessibility to materials and respondents; it is
common for some source materials not to be made available for
some years. For example, a study based on AIDS patients at

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Muhimbili National Hospital may not be easily accessible. Even
patients may feel an invention of privacy hence refuse to
respond. The researcher should therefore ensure that he/she is
certain about the topic to be researched, interested with, and the
required materials are available.

Research title
It refers to heading, lebel or tag. The title of the proposal
describes what the study is about. For example of title “abortion
in Tanzania: An examination of its causes and effects on female
students in secondary schools/ college students” indicates that
the study is about abortion. Also indicates that the study will
analyse the causes and the effects of abortion. It can also
indicate from the title that the respondents will be female
students in secondary and colleges.
Qualities of a good title;
An effective research title should portray the following
qualities;
1. It should be brief and specific for example “the impact of
drug abuse on education” it is easier to identify
independent and dependent variables also the title becomes
clear and focused. It should be in line with the set of
objectives; the title is the summary of what the study is

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 about. Therefore the words used should clearly reflect the
focus of the study.
2. It should be clear and unambiguous. The title should not
lead to various interpretations of the study. For example of
a title “Crime in Kenya” is a wide title which opens in
various interpretations. This is because there is various
forms of crime.
3. The title should portray an issue that is researchable. The
aspects in question should be measurable.
4. It should be catchy (attractive). It should not contain too
many words. For example the title “The effects of free
primary education on the academic performance of boys
and girls in boarding and day schools in Tanzania. It can
be summarized as “the effect of free primary education on
academic performance

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

In research the term “background” refers to the setting or
position of the study. It is a brief overview of the problem the
researcher aspires to tackle. Background information plays a
major role in research. This includes the following;
 It intends to indicate where the problem lies
 Historical background of the problem needed to be
captured well/ origin of the problem.

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  The researcher tries to convince the reader that there is
an issue/problem that needs solution.
 It shows the reader that the researcher known the study
area as he/she is familiar with what has preceded.
Statement of the problem
 It attempts to focus on the study by providing direction to
the research.
 It indicates demarcation of the study
 It indicates clearly that there is a problem that needed to be
solved or a gap of knowledge to be filled.
Research Objectives
Objectives are intentions or purpose stated in specific
measurable terms. They tell what the researchers want to
achieve at the end of the study. They state specific tasks that
will be carried out by researcher to accomplish the aims of the
study.
1. General objectives: these are overall broad goals to be
achieved in your study. It states what the researcher expects
to achieve by the end of the study in general terms.

2. Specific objectives: these are detailed objectives which

describes what will be researched during the study.
Example of general and specific objectives;

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Example 1; Research statements; “A study to assess the effects
of internent usage on behaviour pattern among diploma students
at DIT.
General objectives; To assess the effects of interment usage on
behaviour pattern among diploma students at DIT.
Specific objectives;
 To assess the level of internet usage among undergraduate
students.
 To assess the effects of interment usage on behaviour
pattern among diploma students.
 To correlate the level of internet usage with the behaviour
pattern of the diploma students.
Example 2;
Example 2; Research statements; “evaluation of factors
affecting the value of painting in DIT buildings;
General objectives; To evaluate factors affecting the value of
painting in DIT buildings;

Specific objectives;
 To find out the causes of color pilling.
 To find out whether a type of color paint can affect the
quality of painting
 To find out if weather condition affects the color quality.

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  To find out whether the maintenance is done on time

Guidelines of writing objectives

The following are guideline of writing specific objectives;
 Reflection
Involves analyzing the aim of the study, the topic and title
before formulating the specific objectives. Specific
objectives should relate to all these aspects.
 Formulation
Researcher should write down the specific objectives ensuring
that they are measurable and if accomplishable will answer the
research questions.
 Evalution
After the formulation of the objectives; the researcher should
attempt to answer the following questions; Do the objectives
address all parts of research problem? Do the objectives
measures what is being researched? Are the objectives feasible?
If too ambition, could the scope of the study be reduced?
Answers to these questions will assist the researcher to
formulate effective objectives.
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
It can be referred to as a proposed explanation for a certain
phenomena. It is also defined as tentative prediction of the
result, which are capable of being tasted using scientific
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methods. Hypotheses are there to be tested statistically and are
employed in quantitative studies that entail empirical
observations. On testing hypothesis can be accepted or rejected.
That is accepting the null hypothesis means rejecting the
alternative hypothesis and vice versa.
Therefore a researcher who is carrying out quantitative study is
supposed to state the hypothesis that he/she will test later on and
make inferences.

Concept relating testing of Hypothesis;

Hypothesis can be categorized into two parts
1. Null hypothesis (Ho)
2. Alternative hypothesis(Ha)
Null hypothesis
 It is denoted by (Ho).
 It is a type of hypotheses used in statistics which is stated in
a negative form. It indicates that there is no relationship/
difference between two measured variables of a certain
phenomena.
 On testing hypothesis can be accepted or rejected. That is
accepting the null hypothesis means rejecting the
alternative hypothesis and vice versa.
For example; if the researcher wants to show that there is a
difference which exist in national examination performance

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among students in public and private schools, then the
researcher must prove that there are no difference.
Other examples are:
Ho: - There is no significance difference between an individual
success in life and his/her academic certificate.
Ho: - Decline of industries in Tanzania is not due to raw
materials.
Ho: - High illiteracy rate does not contribute to business failure
among women in Tanzania
Ho: - There is no relationship between low income received by
an employee and fraud committed.
Alternative hypothesis
It is denoted by (Ha).
It refers to a type of hypotheses used in statics that propose that
there is a significance relationship between the observed
variables.
It is stated in positive to indicate the actual expectations. -In
research, the null hypothesis is stated, and if rejected, the
alternative hypothesis is accepted.
Examples
Ha: - There is a significance difference between an individual
success in life and his/her academic certificate.

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Ha: - Decline of industries is a result of raw material
Ha: -High illiteracy contributes to business failure among
women in Tanzania
Ha:- there is a positive relationship between low income
received by an employee and fraud committed.
Characteristics of research by hypothesis
1. Should be clear and precise
2. Should be capable of being tested.
3. Should state relationship between variables.
4. Should be specific and limited in scope.
5. Should be stated in simple terms so that is easily
understood by all concerned.
6. It should be consistent with most known facts.
7. Must explain the facts that give rise to the need for
explanation.
Importance of research hypothesis
 To guide the researcher and keep him/her in a right track.
 Indicate the type of data required.
 It defines which facts are relevant and which are not.
 It indicates the scope of research / research boundaries.
 It contributes to the theory development.

Research questions
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 These are specific questions that guide data collection in the
field. They are issues that a researcher seeks to answer and they
are developed in line with research objectives which in turn
focus on the research problem.
In most cases a researcher can have a choice to use research
questions or hypothesis or both questions and hypotheses.
It depends on the nature of research approach used. If the study
proposed is qualitative in nature then a researcher will have to
opt for research questions. If study is quantitative the researcher
will have to choose using the hypothesis. And if the study has
employed a mixed design both qualitative and quantitative
approaches then the researcher will have to use both research
questions and hypotheses.

Scope and limitation of the study

 Scope of the study aims to indicate the boundaries or limits
of the study in term of subject, methods used, theory,
population sample, geographical area, and the period to be
covered by the study.
 Limitation of the study; this part is not necessary to be
included because it depends with the guidelines provided
by the organization or institution or preference of your
supervisor or promoter. However some researchers say that
it is logical to foretell the limitations in the proposal in
order to plan in advance on how best to address them

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Rationale/Significance of the study
 It meant to show the importance of the study completed.
 Indicate beneficiaries and how are they going benefit with
complied findings.

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REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE
This is the process of collecting, reading and studying other
research works related to the study. It involves examining
documents such as books, magazine, journals government
reports and dissertations that have a bearing on the study being
conducted.
Importance of literature review in research
a. It sharpens and deepens the theoretical foundation of the
research.
b. It gives the researcher insight into what has already been
done in the selected field; pinpoint its strengths and
weakness.
c. It enables the researcher to know the kind of additional data
needed in the study. This helps avoid duplication of work.
d. An understanding the previous works help the researcher to
develop significant problem which will provide further
knowledge in the field of the study.
e. Wide reading exposes the researcher to a variety of
approaches of dealing with research issues.
f. It helps in developing analytical framework or a basis for
analyzing and interpreting data.
Guidelines in formulating an effective literature review.
a. Identify key issues to be addressed by literature review.
- Like research topic, title, the relationship between
independent and dependent variables and objectives.
b. Formulating a preliminary statement of the problem
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 - Help the researcher to start to identify source of
information relevant to the research topic.

c. Identifying sources of Information

Sources of information can be books, journals articles,
conference proceeding. Government/ corporate reports
magazine and newspaper, theses and dissertation.

d. Analyzed critically the articles identified.

After identifying the articles to be used, the researcher should
critically analyze each book or article selected by reflecting of the
following;

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-Has the author formulated a problem/ issue? Is it clearly
defined?
-Has the author evaluated the literature to the problem/issue-Is
there an objective basis to the reasoning or is the author
merely proving what he or she already believe?
-How does the author structure the argument, for examples
does it establish cause – effect relationship?
-How does the book or articles relate to the specific objectives
or questions the researcher is attempting to study?

e.Classify and code the article

-By taking and paraphrasing any relevant literature that
the researcher would like to include in the literature
review. The researcher should mark with some codes for
easy retrieval. The details of the source e.g author, title
date of publication, and the publisher.
f. Create an outline for the review
-By identifying main point.
-By differentiating each main heading into logical
subheadings. Points that are similar should be grouped
together.
g. Synthesize the information gathered
-By analyzing each reference in terms of the research
variables.
-By analyzing all reference identified for the relationship
or different between them.
h. Write the review of related literature

32
 - Orodho (2003) indicates that in reviewing literature, the
author should do the following;
-Select studies that relate most directly to the problem at
hand.
-Tie together the results of the studies so that their relevance
is clear.
-Indicate that the research reviewed is incomplete or requires
extension
-Organize the review along major points relevant to the
problem.
-Give the leader some indication of the relevant importance
of the result from the
Studied Reviewed.

EVALUATION
After carrying out the review and writing, the researcher
should reflect the following
a) How effective was the information search?
- The research should reflect on whether the search
was wide enough to ensure he/she had found the
relevant materials.
- The researcher should also reflect on whether the
numbers of source used are appropriate in tackling
the issue under discussion.
b) Has the literature used been critically analyzed?

33
 The researcher should find out whether he/she has
followed through a set of concepts and questions,
comparing items to each other. The researcher should
find out whether instead of just listing and
summarizing items, he /she has assessed them,
discussing their strengths and weaknesses.
c) Will the reader find the literature review relevant,
appropriate, and useful?
Research should reflect on the relevance of the
information given to the readers.
d) Does the literature help to clarify the research
problem?
The literature should help to help put the research
problem into perspective.
Challenges faced in the formulation of literature review
a. Failure to connect the reviewed studies with the
current study. Some of the researcher hardly relates
the previous study to the current study. They have to
show what other researcher have done in terms of
theories, methodologies and show its influence to the
current study.
b. Poor presentation. The review should be organized
according to major points relevant to the research
problem
c. Large quantities of studies of review; some researchers
attempt to read and review all the materials related to
the topic of which it is impossible. The researcher
should therefore read abstracts of the selected articles,

34
 and select materials that are most relevant to his/her
study.
d. Lack of documentation; a researcher should note down
some important points in the course of reading. This is
due to the fact that some used to read the whole article
without taking some important points hence forget to
pick down some important points
e. Lack of referencing some researchers rarely note down
the references in their work while reading, therefore
researcher should always put references into their
writing.

f. Failure to review current studies. The researcher

should attempt to analyze studies carried less than five
years ago in relation to his/her study.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This chapter provides the details about the research methods
and techniques used in data collection and data analysis for
the study. Research methodology refers to the approach the
researcher takes in carrying out a research project (Ormrod
(2001).
Research methodology is organized under the following sub-
sections; research design, research site, population, sampling
technique, research instruments, data collection procedures
and data analysis.

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RESEARCH DESIGN
It is referred to a set of methods and procedures used in
collecting and analysing information in order to solve the
research problem
A design is used to structure the research, to show how all of
the major parts of the research project work together to
address the research problem.
Orodho (2003) defined a research design as the scheme,
outline or plan that is used generates answers to research
problem. Kothari, 2003 defines Research design as it
constitutes the blue print for the collection, measurement and
analysis of data.
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN;
Research design can be categorised in the following terms;
DESCRIPTIVES DESIGN
The major purpose of descriptive research is to provide the
descriptions of the state of affairs as it exist. Descriptive
survey can be used when collecting information about
people’s attitudes, opinions, habits or any other social issues
in the communities. They involve measurement,
classification, analysis, comparison and interpretation of data.
Kerlinger (1969) point out that the descriptive studies are not
only restricted to fact findings, but may result in the
formulation of the important principles of knowledge and
solution to significant problems.

36
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Refers as a systematic research study in which the investigator
directly manipulates/control some factor and holds other
factors constant and observe the effect of independent
variables on dependent variable. That means to carefully
investigate the effects of “X” on “Y”
When an experiment design is employed, the researcher
attempts to control / or manipulate the variables in the study
to establish the effects they create to the dependent variables.
This can be done by changing or holding variable(s) constant
in experiment. The manipulated variable is known as
independent and the one we intend to observe or measure its
effects is called dependent variables. In short the experimental
research design intends to establish the cause and effect
relationship between an independent and dependent variables.

CORRELATIONAL DESIGN
This design enables the researcher to assess the degree of
relationship between two or more variables
For example you compare the examination performance of a
group of university students who prepare their own meals
every day and those who eat at the cafeteria.
A CASE STUDY
A case study is an intensive description and analysis of a
certain issue/object/unit/situation. It is the way of organising
information and looking at the object to be studied as a whole.
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In a case study, great deal can be learned from the few
selected case studies concerning about the certain
phenomena/issue.
This method helps in making in-depth, investigation of the
problem at hand.
CROSS CULTURAL RESEARCH DESIGN
This is used to compare the behaviour patterns of different
cultures. Using this design you can perceive how various
cultures perceive certain educational and social outcomes. For
example you can compare the performance of students in
English in rural and urban schools and find out to what extent
cultural variations influence students’ performance.
Guidelines in selecting research design
The following are essential guidelines the researcher should
adhere to while selecting a research design
a) Identify research questions to be addressed by the study;
the researcher should identify and reflect on the research
questions raised in the study. Reflection should include
brainstorming on issues such as;
 Do the questions raised in the study require collecting
information by interviewing or questionnaires? If the
response is positive then the researcher will use a
survey/design.
 Do the questions raised in the study require systematic
manipulation of independent and dependent variables?
If the answer is yes, then the researcher will use
experimental design.
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  Does the study require the research to assess the
degree of the relationship between two or more
variables? If the answer is yes, then a correlation
design will be used.
 Does study seek to compare the behavior patterns of
different cultures? If the answer is positive then a
cross cultural research design will be applicable.
b) After identifying the research design to be used, read
materials related to that design to understand its
advantage and disadvantages.

RESEARCH SITES
Research site is a place where people conduct research.
Common research sites include hospitals, universities,
research institutes and field research allocations.
The selection of a research site is essential. It influences the
usefulness of the information produced. The idea is to start
with a large population and through progressive elimination,
end up with the actual site where the data is collected (Orodho
and Kombo, 2002).
Example of sample study allocation.
Christobel Blinden Mission (CBM) Germany, the Ministry of
Health , the Ministry of Education and the local community
and its leaders. The Makuru slum is an informal settlement
area, which has been in existence for the last 30 years. It
covers an area of 14 square kilometers. It is continuation of

39
the Kibera slums. It lies along Nairobi river from the Mater
Hospital in South B estate to Outer Ring Road in Embakasi.

POPULATION
A population refers to a group of individuals, objects or items
from which the samples are taken for measurements.
{Example a population of students}
Also it can be referred to the larger group from which the
sample is taken.
It is very important for the researcher to determine the study
population on which the study is going to be carried out as
well as the demographic features such as age, gender and the
class/status of that population. This is due to the fact that the
greater the diversities and differences that exists in the
population the greater the researcher’s sample size should be.
Thus capturing the variability in the population allows for
more reliability of the study.
Qualities of an effective population sample
 Diversity. The greater the diversity and differences that
exists in the population sample the higher the
applicability of the research findings to the whole
population.
 Representative. It is important for the researcher to
identify and select respondents that fulfill the questions
the research is addressing. for example, if the study is on
the effect of the slum environment of the basic education,

40
 it is important that the majority of the population of the
respondents is from the slum environment.
 Accessibility .an effective population sample is one that
accessible to the researcher.
 Knowledge .an effective population sample should have
some ideas of the topic being investigated.

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 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES;
Sample; refers to any sub-set or sub-group of the population.
Or is the small part taken from the whole population.
Sampling is the act, process or techniques of selecting a
suitable sample, or representative part of population for the
purpose of determining parameters or characteristics of the
whole population.
SAMPLE SIZE
The exact number of the item selected from a population to
constitute a sample. It recommended using a large sample size
to be able to generalize your findings. This is because the
large the sample sizes the lower the likely error in
generalizing to population.

SAMPLING DESIGN AND (TYPES OF SAMPLING

DESIGN)
The term sampling design refers to that part of the research
plan that indicates how cases are to be selected for
observation. Sampling designs are divided into two parts;
a) Probability sampling
b) Non-probability sampling

PROBABILITY SAMPLING

42
 It is type of sampling where every member in the
population has a probability or a chance of being selected to
form a sample. It is not biased in nature.

The key component behind all probability sampling

approaches is randomization, or random selection. In
probability sampling people, places or things are randomly
selected. Various methods have been established to
accomplish probability sampling. These includes;
1) Simple random sampling
2) Stratified random sampling
3) Systematic random sampling
4) Cluster random sampling

SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

 Is a probability of sampling whereby each member of the
target population has equal chance of being included in
the sample.
 This method is referred to as simple random sampling as
no complexities are involved

Advantages;
 It permits the researcher to apply research data which
have been obtained to be generalized to a large
population.

43
  It also permits the researcher to apply inferential
statistics to the data and provide equal opportunity of
selection for each element of the population.
 It allows all individuals in the defined population to have
equal chance of being selected as a member sample.
Disadvantage
 Bias in selection is common.
 It is not the most statistically efficient method of
sampling. The researcher may, not get good
representation of subgroups in a population.
 Some samples may be over or under represented.
 Non response error is high. Some members selected may
have moved to other areas.

SYSTEMATIC RANDOM SAMPLING

Is a type of sampling used when a large population is
involved.
 It Involves selecting the sample at regular interval from
the sampling frame, i.e , every nth term.
For example if the sample size of 400 elements is to be
selected from the target population of 2000 elements, the
determination of getting sample can be done by dividing
target population by sample size that is; 2000/400=5. This
means that every fifth element in the entire population is to be
selected.
 It is employed when both total population and sample
size are known.
44
  The element of the population in the sample frame must
be arranged in order i.e 0,1,2,3 and so on. Then the
required members from the list are chosen at a regular
interval after determine a starting point by using random
sampling techniques.
 This method is regarded as a complex random sampling
because the element of randomness is introduced by
using random numbers to pick the first element to start
with.
 To determine the interval at which member start will be
draw the following formula is using
Interval =Total population
Sample size
Advantage
 It is less tedious and more time saving when you have
large population.
 It saves cost in comparison to simple random sampling
techniques
 It also has spread of the subjects over the population
while in a simple random sampling there is possibility of
picking members which are close together
 Bias is minimized
 Large population can be analyzed.
Disadvantages
 The method has to be used in care because if there is a
hidden periodicity in the population, systematic sampling
will prove failure.

45
STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING
 It is a sampling technique whereby the population is
divided into subgroups and then simple random sampling
is conducted. This method is appropriate when the
researcher is interested on issues related to gender or age
disparities in the population. The sample is selected in
such a way as to ensure that certain subgroups in the
population are represented in the sample in proportion to
their number in the population.

 Those element having similar characteristics are grouped

into same stratum.
 The population can be divided into sub- population such
as gender (male or female). marital ( married , single
divorce, widowed) , age, occupation , level of
education ,level of income and religion or basing on
other characteristics depending on the nature of the
study.
Advantages
 This method enables to represent not only the overall
population, but also key subgroups of population,
especially small minority groups.
Disadvantages
 If not careful stratified, bias can occur resulting in some
groups of the population being unrepresented.
CLUSTER RANDOM SAMPLING

46
  The technique is used when the population is dispersed
across a wide geographical area for example, the
population of countries, regions and provinces.

 This method allows for the division of the study

population into clusters. For instance, a survey of all
schools in Tanzania will require the researcher to visit all
the regions. But by using cluster sampling method one
can choose two districts per each region which would
then be visited for the survey.
Advantage
The advantage of this method is that it needs a detailed
sampling frame for the selected clusters only rather than for
the entire target area.
Disadvantage
 There is a risk of missing on important sub-groups.
 Lack of complete representation of the target population.

NON PROBABILITY SAMPLNG

Is a biased sampling procedure in that it does not provide any
basis for estimating the probability that each item in the
population has a chance of being includes in the sample.
Various methods have been established to accomplish non-
probability sampling. These includes;
1. Purposive sampling Deliberate or judgment or
2. Quota sampling
3. Snowball sampling

47
 4. Convenience sampling

PURPOSIVE SAMPLING
 In this sample method, the researcher purposely targets a
group of people believe to be reliable for the study
 Purposive sampling sometimes is known as judgments
sampling because the decision with regard to which
element/item should be included or excluded in the
sample rests on the researcher judgment or intuition.
 Purposive sampling can be used with both quantitative
and qualitative studies.
 It is particularly relevant when you concerned with
exploring the universe and understanding the audience.
 This method is less expensive and quick for selecting
sample but its major weakness is bias. This because it is
not upon the probability mode and hence the researcher
does not have a real basis for making inferences to a
large population.

CONVENIENCE / ACCIDENTAL SAMPLING

 It involves selecting respondents primarily on the basis
of their availability and willingness to respond
( Shaughness 2000).
 Respondents are people who just happen to be walking
by, or show a special interest in your research.
 It should be noted that whenever you use this method
there is a great chance of bias therefore the findings may
not be representative.
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QUOTA SAMPLING
 This sampling begins by dividing the population into
relevant strata such as age, gender, martial. Education,
income or geographic area.
 The total sample is allocated among the strata in direct
proportional to their estimated or actual size of the
population.
 Once a researcher identifies the people to be studies, they
have to resort to haphazard or accidental sampling
because no effort is usually made to contact people who
are difficult to reach in quota.
 The problem of this method is that bias intrudes on
sampling frame work. This is because the researcher
allowed self –select respondents which are subjected to
bias such as interviewing friends in excessive proportion
or concentrating on areas where there are large numbers
of potential respondents.
SNOWBALL SAMPLING
 This method is employed when you’re not certain that
respondents have relevant information for your study, but
you know a few of them. You will interview or provide
to those few and then ask them to identify others who are
likely to have required data.
 Generally this method begins with a few people or cases
and then gradually increases the sample size as new
contacts are mentioned by the people you started out
with.

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RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
Research instruments include the following
a) Questionnaires
b) Interview schedules
c) Observation
d) Focused group discussions.
e) Observation

In formulating research instruments the researcher should

ensure the following;
(a) The objectives of the study are clear for the researcher to
anticipate the type of information needed.
(b) The population sample; the researcher should be aware
that some types of instruments are suitable to some
groups of people due to factors such as the literacy level,
profession and culture.
(c) Geographical distribution for stance the countrywide
study may require the use of postal questionnaires and
telephone interviews.
(d) A researcher should be careful about the questions he/she
asks. That is to make sure of beginning with non
threatening questions. Also use simple language.

QUESTIONNAIRES;
It is the research instrument that gathers data over a large
sample. Questions are normally written on a piece of papers.
There are two types of questionnaires; (a) closed-ended
questionnaires (b) open-ended questionnaires.
50
Advantages;
Informations can be collected from a large sample and
diverse respondents.
 Since they are presented in paper format there is no
opportunity for interviwer bias.
 It serves time
 Research assistants with minimum training/supervision
can be used to administer the questionnaire.
 Confidentiality is maintained.
Disadvantages;
 Response rate can be quite low.
 The researcher has no time to make clarification.
 There is no opportunity to ask for further information
related to answers given.
 It is selective ;only literate people can be involved.
Interviews;
These are questions asked orally.
The questions are of two types as follows;
(a) Unstructured interview questions; these are in form of
conversation
(b) Structured interview questions; the researcher asks
each respondent similar questions.

Unstructured interviews;

51
In this approach, the researcher has some idea in mind of the
topics to be covered and my use some sort of topic list as a
reminder. Also in this approach there is neither specific
question to be asked nor possible answers are pre-defined.
Advantages;
 Unstructured interviews are flexible as there are no
predefined questions. Respondents are free to respond to
an issue thus the researcher can gather a lot of
information.
 The respondents feel to be part of the team since no
rigidity is enforced. Researchers are therefore freely to
participate in research.
 It is useful for studying sensitive topics such as sexuality
and abortion.
 It gives in-depth information.
 The researcher may raise some of important points which
are not included in the questions.
Disadvantages
 They are time consuming since a respondent can dwell
on one issue for a long time.
 It is difficult to systematize data. Respondents can
comment on issue already discussed.
 Irrelevancies can be displayed by the respondents.
 If not carefully handled, it can get out of control hence
respondents getting too emotional.

Semi-structured interview;
52
These interviews are based on the use of an interview guide.
They are written list of questions or topics that need to be
covered by the interview.
Advantages
Semi-structured interview has the following advantages;
 They are flexible because they consist of both open
and closed-ended questions.
 By using both the open and closed-ended approach the
researcher gets a complete and detailed understanding
of the issue under research.
Disadvantages
Semi-structured interviews have the following disadvantages
 They can be time consuming due to the open ended
questions
 Analysis of data may be problematic.

Structured interviews;
These involve subjecting every informant/respondent in a
sample to the same stimuli, for instance asking each
respondent similar question, as in the case of survey.
Advantages
Structured interviews have the following advantages;
 Since each informant is subjected to similar questions,
the reliability of the information gathered is high.
53
  It gives the in-depth information about a particular thing
basing on researcher’s interests as the researcher seeks
information on specific issues.
 It saves time since the respondents answer what has been
asked by the researcher.
Disadvantages
Structured interviews portrays the following disadvantages;
The researcher may miss some important points which were
not included in the questions formulated.
It is too formal since the researcher can not questioning and
the respondents simply provides answers to the given
questions.
FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION
A focus group is a group usually comprised of 6-8 individuals
who share certain characteristics, which are relevant for the
study. The discussion is carefully planned and designed to
obtain information on the participant’s beliefs and perceptions
on a defined area of interest. The following are the criteria for
selecting focus group participants;
 The topic to be discussed is decided beforehand.
 There is predetermined list of open ended questions.
 Focus of discussion relies on the topics presented.
OBSERVATION
This is a tool that provides information about actual
behaviour. This instrument involves direct observation which

54
allows the researcher to put behaviour in context and thereby
understand it better. Also an investigator participates in any
activity appropriate to the status which is assumed under the
culture of study.
DATA COLLECTION
 Data collection refers to the gathering of information to
serve or prove some facts
 In data collection the researcher must have a clear vision
of the instruments to be used, the respondents and the
selected area.
 Data collection is important in research as it allows for
dissemination of accurate information and development
of meaningful programs
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
a) Primary data.
b) Secondary data.

PRIMARY DATA
 Primary data is information gathered directly from
respondents.
 Data is collected from the existing source.
 It involves creating new data.

Collecting of primary data

I. Questionnaires
II. Interviews
55
 III. Focused group discussions
IV. Observation
V. Experimental study
SECONDARY DATA
 Secondary data means data that is already available.
 It involves gathering data that already has been collected
by someone else.
Secondary data may be available in;
a) Various publications of the central, state, or local
government
b) Various publications of foreign government or
international bodies and their subsidiary organization.
c) Technical and trade journals
d) Books, magazines and newspaper.
e) Report and published of various organizations connected
with business and industry, banks, exchange etc.
f) Report prepared by scholars, universities, economists in
different fields.
g) Public records and statistic, historical document and
other sources of published information.

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