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Lesson 3

Introduction to Morphology, Taxonomy &

Dendrology

Tree morphology "represents a study of the development, form, and structure

of plants".

General Classification of Plants

A. Based on Duration
1. Monocarpic- it live only for one growing season. It means that plants
living for only one flowering season and dying thereafter. It includes
annuals, and biennials. Examples: corn, banana, rice, and buri.
2. Caulocarpic - These are plants which after flowering will live through one
season and produce flowers and live throughout its lifetime. Example:
trees, shrubs, palm.

B. Based on Growth Form

1. Herbaceous perennials- The greater part of the plants die after flowering
leaving only a small portion the stock (caudex) close to the soil which will
again produce sprouts. Example: ginger, sweet potato, gladiola
2. Undershrub (Suffroticose/suffrotescent). Plants which branches form a
considerable portion of the foliage, die down after flowering leaving a
more or less perennial woody base. Example: Lamiaceae
3. Shrubs (fruticose/frutescent)- Plants with perennial woody part branching
near the base and does not exceed a man’s height.
Example: Bougainvilla
4. Trees (arborescent/arboreaus). Plants with a single, woody stem,
without branching from the base, attaining more than a man’s height,
and with a definite crown.

C. Based on Habitat

1. Terrestrial plants. Plants that grow on the earth’s

surface. Example: Toog trees, Rain tree, Dao tree.

Centennial Heritage Toog Trees, UPLB

2. Aquatic plants. Plants that grow on or near bodies of
water: marine or freshwater plants. Examples: water
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lily, water hyacinth, azolla.

Purple Tropical Water Lily

3. Aerial plants. Plants that are attached on trees or

stones of great altitude. These are plants growing or
appearing to grow in the air. Examples: Waling-
waling, , Dendrobium, Staghorn fern

Pongapong (Elephant
Dendrobium orchids Foot Yam) Amorphophallus paeoniifolius
4. Epiphytic plants. Plants that are attached to a host
without deriving nourishment from it. Example: Kab-
kab, Pakpak lawin, Oak-leaf fern

Kabkab- Drynaria quercifolia.

5. Parasitic plants. Plants that derives nourishment

from the host plant. Example:

Pongapong (Elephant Foot Yam)

6. Saprophytic plants. Plants that attached to a host

deriving nourishment from dead or decaying matter
and assist in the breakdown of such into humus.
Example: Straw mushroom
Paddy Straw m

ushroom
THE ROOT SYSTEM

It is the part of the plant axis which is typically non-green and found under
the grounds. It developed from radicle – embryonic root.

Functions of the Root:

1. Absorption of water.
2. Support and anchor the plant.
3. Absorption of nutrients.
4. Secrets hormones (cytokine and gibberellins - which controls the growth of
shoots).
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2 Types of Root System

1. Taproots. These 2. Fibrous roots. These

are roots growing are roots that are
straight downward. slender and usually of
different sizes.

* Adventitious roots. These are roots growing from stems or

branches without reaching the ground. It does not arise from
radicle

Specialized Roots:

1. Fleshy/tuberous 3. Prop roots.

roots. These are roots These are roots
which are thick in growing from
diameter, fleshy and stem and
function for storage of entering the soil
food such as sugar and for mechanical
starch. support.
2. Stilt roots. 4. Aerial roots.
These are lateral These are roots of
roots which plants growing in
the air.
originates above
the ground
giving the
appearance that the tree is standing on 5. Aquatic roots.
stilts. Spur roots are stiff short roots These are plants
whose roots
projecting horizontally from the lower
growing in bodies
portion of the trunk. of water.
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THE STEM

The stem (bole/trunk) is the ascending axis of plants. In forest trees, it is

referred to as trunk.

Function:
1. Use for support the branches and leaves.
2. Transport water.
3. Storage for water, sugar and starch.
4. Produces oxygen from photosynthetic stem.

Specialized Stems

1. Rootstock/rhizome. 6. Bulb. A rounded

A horizontal underground structure
underground stem consisting of a short,
bearing scale-like basal stem bearing
leaves and usually fleshy scale-like leaves
shoots an adventitious that make up the bulk
roots. Example: ginger of the organ. Ex. Onion
bulb - Alleum cepa L
2. Tubers. A fleshy 7. Tendril. A lateral
underground stem climbing organ,
bearing scale-like sometimes stem and
leaves with buds in sometimes leaf. Ex.
their axils. Its Squash Tendrils
functions are: food storage and Cucurbita maxima L.
vegetative propagation.
3. Corm. The fleshy 8. Thorn. A strong
underground base of sharp pointed
the stem. It is usually protective organ
spherical in shape and containing tracers of
functions as food the central tissues
storage and propagation. which grow by addition of layers on the
outside. Ex. Crown of Thorns –
Euphorbia milii
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4. Thorn. A strong 9. Prickle. A sharp

sharp pointed protective organ
protective organ that is lateral
containing tracers of extension of the
the central tissues cortex and
which grow by addition of layers on the epidermis (the outer part of
outside. Ex. Crown of Thorns – Euphorbia external organ). Ex. Prickly pear
milii cactus
5. Cladophyll.. A stem 10. Culm. The stem of
having the appearance grasses and sedges.
and function of a leaf.

Bark Patterns and Classification

Smooth Pimply Scribbly Scaly

Scaly Almaciga Flaky bark Grid-cracked Dimpled bark

tree

Bumpy bark Fissured Thorny Bark Shaggy Bark

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Mode of Branching of Plants

1. Decurrent. These are plants without terminal limbs but with several
ascending branches.
2. Excurrent. Composed of several limbs with a terminal limbs outstripping
all others in vigor and in height growth.

THE PLANT LEAF

A leaf (plural leaves) is the principal lateral appendage of the vascular plant
stem, usually borne above ground and specialized for photosynthesis.
The leaves and stem together form the shoot. Leaves are collectively referred to as
foliage, as in "autumn foliage".

A. Parts of a Leaf
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1. Blade/lamina. The expanded portion of the leaf that is green in

color. It is also known as leaf blade. The edge of the leaf blade is
known as margin of the leaf. The shape or form of the leaf lamina
is important characteristics for classifying leaf.
2. Leaflets/pinnae. The individual blades of a compound leaf.
3. Pinnules. The tertiary divisions of a compound leaf or tertiary
divisions of a leaf which is twice or thrice pinnate.
4. Petiole. The supporting stalk of a leaf.
5. Petiolule. The supporting stalk of a leaflet in a compound leaf.
6. Rachis. The common petiole on which the leaflets of a compound
leaf are inserted.
7. Veins. The vascular bundles of a leaf.
8. Midrib. The central vein of a leaf.
9. Stipules. The leaf-like appendages at the base of the leaf.

B. General Shape/Outline of Leaves

C. Leaf Surface Features

Most leaves are flattened and have distinct upper (adaxial) and lower
(abaxial) surfaces that differ in color, hairiness, the number of stomata
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(pores that intake and output gases), the amount and structure of
epicuticular wax and other features.
1. Barbed. Surface feature with rigid 18. Lepidote/squamose. Clothed with
points or short lateral bristles that scales.
points down. 19. Membranous. With a thin papery
2. Bullate. The surface of the leaf is membrane on the side.
prominently raised between the veins. 20. Pellucid. Translucent.
3. Canescent. The surface of the leaf 21. Pilose. Hairy, with rather long
are becoming entirely covered with simple hairs.
grayish hairs. 22. Puberulent. With short, minute,
4. Ciliate. The edges of the leaf are downy hairs.
fringed with hairs, like eyelashes. 23. Pubescent. Covered with soft,
5. Circinate. The leaf inwardly coils short hairs.
upon itself. 24. Pulverulent. As if dashed with
6. Cirrhose. The leaf having tendrils. powder.
7. Coriaceous. The leaf is firm and 25. Punclate. Marked with dots or
tough, like the consistency of a translucent or waxy glands.
leather. 26. Rufous. Reddish with various
8. Farinose. The leaf is covered shades.
with meal-like powder. 27. Scabrous/scabrid. The leaf
9. Fimbriate. With a bordered long surface is rough and sandpapery.
slender processes. 28. Squamulose/scurfy. Leaf covered
10. Ferrugineous. The leaf is covered with minute scales.
with rust-like powder. 29. Stellate. Leaf covered with a
11. Floccose. The hairs are scattered star-shaped.
in bunches, and rubbing-off easily. 30. Tomentose. Leaf covered with
12. Fuscous. A dusky brown rather soft, short hairs.
than gray. 31. Uncinate. Leaf with a hook at the
13. Glabrous. Smooth without any hair. tip, as some hairs or spines.
14. Glabrate/glabrescent. Becoming 32. Velutinous. Velvety
glabrous or nearly so. 33. Verrucose. Warty leaf.
15. Grandular. Furnished with glands 34. Villous. Leaf beset with long weak
or of the nature of glands. hairs.
16. Glaucous. With a white to bluish 35. Viscid. Leaf are sticky
waxy bloom. Hispid. With stiff and bristly hairs.
17. Hirsute. With moderately coarse,
stiff hairs.
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D. Leaf margins
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E. Leaf Apex

F. Leaf Bases

Types of Venation

G. Leaf Venation

Leaf venation is the arrangement of veins or vascular strands in

lamina of the leaf. The arrangement of veins in a leaf is called
the venation pattern; monocots have parallel venation, while
dicots have reticulate venation.
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The two basic patterns of leaf venation.

1. Parallel/closed. With veins nearly parallel to each other from the

base to the apex and are connected by transverse veinlets.
2. Netted/open. With veins and veinlets forming a network.
2.1 Arcuately veined. With secondary veins curbed and running
almost parallel to the leaf margin for some distance.
2.2 Dischotomous veined. With veins appearing nearly parallel but
actually forked at intervals, featured by a two-way branching of its
veins and veinlets.
2.3 Palmately veined. With three or more veins radiating from the
base.
2.4 Pinnately veined. Having a prominent secondary veins
branching off at intervals.
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THE FLOWER

The flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is

the reproductive structure found in flowering plants (plants of the division
angiosperms). The biological function of a flower is to facilitate reproduction,
usually by providing a mechanism for the union of sperm with eggs.

1. Peduncle. The stalk of individual flowers.

2. Receptacle. It is the stem portion, and is found at the base in the center
of the flower. The internodes are short and the number of leaves is small.
3. Sepals. It forms the outermost whorl of the floral structure. They mostly
green in color and similar to foliage leaves. They are collectively known
as Calyx. Calyx function as a protector of the flower parts.
4. Petals. Petals are larger than the sepals, brightly colored, leaf-like,
broad and are thin organs. They are collectively known as Corolla. They
are the most attractive part of the flower and provides additional
protection to the flowers.
5. Involucre. A group of bracts taken collectively. Bract is a more or less
modified leaves subtending a flower.
6. Stamens. They are the male part of the flower and produces pollen. It
consists of filament and an anther, They are collectively known as
Androecium. Parts of stamens are: Ovary. The expanded basal portion of
the pistil containing one or more ovules.
6.1 Style. The slender stalk an top of the ovary.
6.2 Stigma. The sticky tip of the pistil which will contain pollen grains.
6.3 Ovule. The structure that will be fertilized as a seed.
7. Pistil. The female reproductive organ of a flower. A group of pistils is
collectively known as Gynoecium.
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8. Bract. Flower consists of a stalk and is called pedicel.

9. Perianth. A collective term for the sepals and petals.

A. Floral Variations

1. Complete 6. Pistillate
Flower. A Flower. A
flower with flower where
calyx, corolla, the only
stamen, and actively
one or more functioning sex
pistils. It has both male and female organ is the
reproductive organs, petals, sepals pistil.
and all other flower structures
present in one flower. They are all
perfect flowers.
2. 7. Monoecious
Incomplete Species. A
Flower. A species in
flower which the
lacking staminate and
either a calyx, corolla, stamen or pistillate
pistil. flowers are borne on the same
individual although frequently on
different branches.
3. Imperfect
Flower. A 8. Dioecious Species. A species
flower that where the staminate flowers occurs
lacks either on one individual and the pistillate
stamens or flower appears on another.
pistil.
4. Perfect 9. Polygamous Species. When both
Flower. A bisexual or hermaphrodite perfect and unisexual flowers are
flower. borne on the same individual.
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B. Flower Arrangement

Floral design or flower arrangement is the art of using plant

materials and flowers to create an eye-catching and balanced
composition or display.

1. Axillary. When flowers appear on the axis of the leaf.

2. Terminal. When flowers appear on the terminal portion of the plant and
terminates the growth of the season.
3. Inflorescence. A cluster of flowers and serves as the mode of floral
arrangement.

THE PLANT FRUITS

Fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants formed from the

ovary after flowering. Fruits are the means by which angiosperms disseminate
seeds. (Wikipedia)

A. General Classification of Fruits

1) Coniferous Fruits
1. Those which consist of a single seed, partially or wholly surrounded
by a fleshy aril or pulpy substance; and
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2. Those which are composed of a number of woody, leathery or

fleshy scales. Each one are composed of one or more seeds and
characteristically arranged about a central axis to form a cone.
The principal unit of a cone is the cone scale (corpile). The scale is
attached to a central woody axis and maybe spirally inserted or decussately
arranged in a pair or pairs at right angle to the next pair above or below.
They maybe either thin or thick, flexible or rigid, broader than long,
narrow, oblong or peltate (sickle-shaped). The expose portion of the cone
scale in a matured unopened cone is known as apophyses.

2) Angiosperm Fruits
1. Simple fruit. A fruit which originated from a single pistil.
2. Compound fruit. A fruit formed from two or more pistils.

Both fruits may either be dry or fleshy. Dry fruits may be

papery, leathery or woody. The mature dry fruit of some species split
along a definite line of suture to release their seeds, while those of
other species lack this feature. A fruit releasing its seeds in this
manner is said to be dehiscent; while the one lacking sutures is
indehiscent.

B. Classification of Fruits based on Composition

1. Simple Fruit. A fruit which originated from a single ovary. A simple fruit
always develops from a single ovary containing one or more carpels and
may not include additional modified accessory floral (perianth) structures
2. Compound Fruit. A fruit which originated from two or more ovaries.
These fruits develop from an inflorescence (flower cluster) fused into a
single entity. Examples: pineapple, jackfruit, fig. NOTE: Each
hexagonal bump on a pine apple is an individual fruit.
2.1 Aggregate fruit. A number of ovaries belonging to a single flower and
massed in the surfaced of a single receptacle is an aggregate fruit.
These are clusters of fruits that developed from two or more
simple pistils of a single flower. Each pistil has developed into a
true fruit (drupelet). Many so called “berries” are aggregate
fruits. Examples: blackberry, raspberry
1.1 Multiple fruit. A fruit where a number of ovaries of several flowers
are more or less coalesced into a mass.
1.2 Accessory fruit. Fruit that develops with the participation of other
flower parts; the receptacle is usually involved. Examples:
strawberry, apple (pome), watermelon (pepo)
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PLANT TAXONOMY

Plant Taxonomy is the oldest branch of forestry. It is the branch of Botany

that deals with the classification, identification and nomenclature of plants. Carl
von Linnae, (Latinized Carolus Linnaeus) a Swede Botanist, is the father of modern
day Taxonomy both on flora and fauna.

Functions:
The three functions of Plant Taxonomy are:
1. Classification
2. Identification
3. Nomenclature
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Hierarchy of Plant Classification

1. Kingdom – Before domains were introduced, kingdom was the highest taxonomic
rank.
2. Phylum – (plural: phyla) is the next rank after kingdom; it is more specific than
kingdom, but less specific than class.
3. Class – the most general rank proposed by Linnaeus; phyla were not introduced
until the 19th Century.
4. Order – it is more specific than class.
5. Family – is, in turn, more specific. Botanically speaking, it consist of closely
related genera.
6. Genus – (plural: genera) is even more specific than family. Genus (genera) is a
collection of closely related species. Genus with only one species are called
monotype. It is the first part of an organism’s scientific name using binomial
nomenclature; the second part is the species name.
7. Species –it is the most specific major taxonomic rank. It is a collection of
individuals so similar that they suggest common parentage and produce like
progeny.

TREE PHYTOGRAPHY

Tree Phytography is the art and science of describing plants by words or

images depicting appearances accurately and usually furnishing a means to
distinguish one kind from the other.
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A. DENDROLOGY

Dendrology (xylology) is the science and study of wooded

plants (trees, shrubs, and lianas), specifically, their taxonomic classifications.
However, in common practice, the term has come to mean “taxonomy” of trees,
shrubs and vines (liana). Taxonomy is chiefly concerned with the classification,
nomenclature and identification of natural objects. This phases of taxonomy
encompasses “Tree Phytography”. As it is used by taxonomists, dendrology usually
includes tree habits and ranges (Harlow, et. al. 1976).

B. NOMENCLATURE

A system of naming plants, animals or objects or group of plants, animals or

objects based on the International Code for Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN), an
international body responsible for the naming of plants based on certain standard
criteria. Based on the criteria, there are three names for a species:

1. Local names. A name known only in the region or locality.

2. Common names. A name known in the country.
3. Scientific names. An international name of the plant.

Common names have been based on:

1. Habitat. A place where plants are acclimatized (e.gMountain tapinag- grown
on mountain)
2. Distinctive features. Prominent characters (e.g. Tailed-leaf panau)
3. Geographic distribution. Provenance of the species (e.g.Benguet pine)
4. Similarity with more known species. Synonyms to other plants (e.g
Malaalmaciga-similar to Almaciga)
5. Use of the tree. Economic importance (e.g Pencil cedar-manufacture of
pencils)
6. In Commemoration. In memory of someone (e.g Vidal’s lanutan)
7. Adaptations from other languages. Different languages (e.g. Agoho del
monte-An Spanish name meaning Agoho of the mountains)
8. Genus or species. Genera and specific epithet.
Examples: Adina- based from Adina multiflora

Scientific names. Due to great confusions in common names, it is of primordial

importance to have a universal system which could be used not only within the
confines of a single country but throughout the whole world as well.
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It is called the Scientific Name/International name/Binomial name)

which has three parts, namely:

1. Generic name-genus- e.g.-Pterocarpus

2. Specific epithet – species name e.g.-indicus
3. Author’s name- person who classified e.g.-Willd.

How to Write a Scientific Name

The system of nomenclature used today is based on the binomial system of

nomenclature, developed by Linnaeus in the late 1700's. The binomial system of
nomenclature is structured so that the scientific name of a plant consists of two
names: (1) the genus or generic name, and (2) the specific epithet or species name.
There are rules to follow when writing a scientific name.

Genus Name
1. The genus name is written first.
2. The genus name is always underlined or italicized.
3. The first letter of the genus name is always capitalized.
Example: Sansevieria or Sansevieria

Specific Epithet
1. The specific epithet is written second.
2. The specific epithet is always underlined or italicized.
3. The first letter of the specific epithet name is never capitalized.
Example: trifasciata or trifasciata

Scientific Name
The scientific name of this plant would appear as follows:
Sansevieria trifasciata or Sansevieria trifasciata

Policies in the use of scientific names as governed under the ICBN states that:

1. Plant could have but one valid scientific name;

2. Name should be the oldest usable one beginning with Linnaeus “Species
Plantarum” (1753);
3. Two different species or genera could not bear the same name; and
4. The genetic and specific combinations should be succeeded by the name
or names of their authors
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Reference

Anonymous, 1981. Hand-outs Compilation. Nueva Viscaya State University,

College of Forestry, Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya.

BD Editors. 2017. Taxonomy. Retrieved on October 2020 from

https://biologydictionary.net/taxonomy/

Cadiente, M. M. JR. 2002. Lecture Manual in Tree Morphology, Taxonomy, and

Dendrology. Don Mariano Marcos Memorial State University, Institute of
Agroforestry and Watershed Management, Bacnotan, La Union.

Cadiente, M. M. JR. 2012. Rearranged and Alphabetized Field Checklist of Species

in FOBS 102. Don Mariano Marcos Memorial State University, Institute of
Agroforestry and Watershed Management, Bacnotan, La Union

Cadiente, M. M. JR. 2015. Compendium in Tree Morphology, Taxonomy and

Dendrology (FOBS 102). Don Mariano Marcos Memorial State University,
Institute of Agroforestry and Watershed Management, Bacnotan, La Union.
226 pages

Meche, M. (n.d.) Hoor 202 Laboratory 3: Plant Identification and Taxonomy. Texas
A&M University. Retrieved on October 2020, from
http://generalhorticulture.tamu.edu/h202/labs/lab3/sciname.html

Razalan, M. T. 1980. A Handbook on Tree Morphology and Taxonomy. College of

Forestry, Nueva Vizcaya State University, Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya. pp 106
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Lesson 4:

Introduction to Tree Physiology

Tree Physiology is considered as the science which deals with the study of
the internal processes within th0e plant body. These include both the chemical and
physical processes which affect plant growth and development. There are many
physiological processes performed by plants to live a normal and healthy life.
Failure or any aberrations, however, will eventually affect the over-all functioning
of the whole system. Some physical processes are absorption, transpiration and
translocation while chemical processes are photosynthesis, respiration,
assimilation and protein synthesis.

PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESSESS

a. Photosynthesis: synthesis by green plants of carbohydrates from

carbon dioxide and water, by which the chlorophyll-containing tissues
provide the basic food materials for other processes. Photosynthesis occurs in
the chloroplast of the leaves, which contain the green pigment called
chlorophyll. Photosynthesis is broken down into two major reactions: the
light and dark reaction. The light reaction occurs in the grana of
chloroplast and is further broken down into photosystems
b. Nucleic acid metabolism and gene expression: regulation of which genes are
expressed and the degree of expression of a particular gene to influence nearly all
biochemical and most physiological processes (which usually depends on primarily
gene produce, proteins).
c. Nitrogen metabolism: incorporation of inorganic nitrogen into organic
compounds, making possible the synthesis of proteins and protoplasm.
d. Lipid orfat metabolism: synthesis of lipids and related compounds.
e. Respiration: oxidation of food in living cells, releasing the energy used in assimilation,
mineral absorption, and other energy-consuming processes involved in both
maintenance and growth of plant tissues. The conversion of food (carbohydrates,
proteins and fats) into CO2, H20 and the release of energy (ATP).
There are two types of respiration:
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1. Aerobic (requiring oxygen)

2. anaerobic (does not require oxygen)

f. Assimilation: conversion of foods into new protoplasm and cell walls.

g. Accumulation of food: storage of food in seeds, buds, leaves, branches, stems, and
roots
h. Accumulation of minerals: concentration of minerals in cells and tissues by an active
transport mechanism dependent on expenditure of metabolic energy
i. Absorption: Intake of water and minerals from the soil and oxygen and carbon
dioxide from the air. Absorption generally occurs in the roots of plants but may also
occur in leaves or in young stems. The mechanisms for absorption of roots of plants
can be Passive and active.
Passive absorption mechanisms do not require the use of plant's energy. For example,
water and nutrients can enter the roots by diffusion if the concentration of the nutrients
water in the soil is greater than their concentration inside the roots.
Active absorption mechanisms require that the plant spends energy in the 10_ Adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), which is produced during the process of respiration. Active
absorption requires the activation of center a protein which bounds with the nutrient to
allow them to pass through the semi-permeable membrane.
j. Translocation: movement of water, minerals, foods and hormones from sources to
utilization or storage sites. Translocation in plants can be upward or downward.
Upward translocation happens when nutrients and water are absorbed by the roots and
move in the upward direction passing through the xylem.
The downward translocation involves the movement of sugar from the leaves into the
roots through the phloem.
k. Transpiration: loss of water in the form of vapor.
I. Growth: irreversible increase in plant size involving cell division and expansion.
m. Reproduction: initiation and growth of flowers, fruits, cones, and seeds.
n. Growth regulation: complex interactions involving carbohydrates, mineral nutrients.
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The Necessities of Life

The following is brief discussion of six key requirements for trees.

1. Sugars supplied by photosynthesis. Air and water are chemically recombined to

form glucose, which stores energy captured from the sun. Oxygen is a byproduct.
2. Water is required for most metabolic activities and serves as a vehicle to carry
materials through a tree. A large tree may move as much as 50-100 gallons of water
on a hot summer day.
3. Nutrients. It’s not how much of a particular nutrient exists in the environment,
it’s a matter of how available the nutrient is to the tree. For example, the
atmosphere is largely composed on nitrogen, but trees can only use nitrogen in
forms that have been altered by soil bacteria and other organisms. The major
chemical elements used by plants are: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus,
potassium, nitrogen, sulfur, calcium, iron, and magnesium. You might be able to
remember this by a jingle formed using the abbreviations for these elements: C H O
P K N S Ca Fe Mg . . . "see hopkins café, might good."
4. Hormones and enzymes. These chemicals are critical in the controlling the
timing and activity of physiological processes. They are usually produced in the
roots or leaves. We don’t often think of plants having "hormone" deficiencies, but
hormones are critical to the survival of any organism, including trees.
5. Mycorrhizae. Pronounced "my-core-HI-zee", this is a group of beneficial fungi
associated with most tree roots. It represents an ecologically symbiotic relationship
where the fungi receive food from the tree and the trees receive greatly enhanced
nutrient and water absorption. Mycorrhizae will also protect tree roots from other
invading fungi. There tends to be very specific species relationships between
fungus and tree.
6. Environmental factors. A tree needs an appropriate mix of precipitation,
temperature, sunlight, and soils in order to thrive. These factors need to occur at
the right time. Each tree species has a different set of environmental
requirements. Changing climate will lead to changing environmental factors, which
can lead to changes in forest ecosystems.
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Tree Growth

A tree will draw nutrients and minerals from the soil, break them down and
put them back together to form compounds and chemicals that we recognize as a
tree. The most common material made by a tree is "cellulose." Cellulose is a
complex sugar that is the main component of wood and many other plant
tissues. It’s also an extremely useful material for lots of human uses, such as food
products, paper, strengthener in plastics and concrete, clothing, and other things.
Wood is the answer to the tree challenge of pushing a crown as high as possible to
obtain the best light-capturing position as possible, while maintaining a connection
with water and nutrient supplies in the soil.
Where does a tree grow? In three places.
 At the twig tips (meristem).
 At the root tips (meristem).
 Around the outside of the trunk, branches,
and roots (cambium).
One region of tissue expansion or tree growth is at
the tips of both twigs and roots, called the
"meristem." This is unspecialized tissue that can
form wood, buds, or flowers. Each year, trees will
lengthen twigs and roots, produce flowers and
fruit, and grow new buds. The meristem and
newly produced tissues are rich with nutrients and A tree with growth zones
are often the target of attack by diseases, insects, illustrated, branch meristem,
and animals. Deer, for example, are Michigan’s root meristem, cambium.
most significant browser. In areas of high
populations, deer can destroy years of growth on
small trees and entirely eliminate regeneration.

TYPES OF PLANT GROWTH

1. Primary Growth – it is responsible for the elongation of a plant especially in the stem
and root not only for main stem but also in its branches.
2. Secondary Growth - the growth responsible for the increase in diameter or girth of
the plant. The tissue responsible for this type of growth is vascular cambium.
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Most of a tree trunk, branch, or root is dead

wood. The living part is only a narrow band on the
outside edge. This living layer is produced by thin
bands of regenerating tissue called
"cambium." Cambium produces new wood on the
inside and new bark on the outside. The cambium
grows only from the inside out, not up or down the
length of a trunk, branch, or root. For awhile, the
new wood and bark are living. The wood actively
transports many materials up and down the tree and
performs other functions. After the wood dies, it still serves as a transport route
for several years. Eventually, even that function is diminished and the wood serves
primarily as structural support.
Each year the cambium produces TWO distinct rings of tissue. In the spring,
a layer of thinner-walled cells are grown. In the summer, a layer of thicker-celled,
sometimes larger cells are grown. The layers are called "springwood" and
"summerwood," respectively. When counting the age of tree "cookie," either the
springwood or summerwood rings can be counted, but don’t count both (unless you
divide your sum by two!). Most people count the typically narrower and darker
summerwood. Tree such as oaks, ashes, and all the conifers produce fairly distinct
rings which are easy to count. Other trees, such as aspens, maples, and birch have
less distinct rings. Foresters can count rings without cutting a tree down. A tool
called an "increment borer" will extract a thin wood core from the tree, which can
be used to age the tree.

Why do leaves change colors in the Autumn?

The short answer is that chlorophyll production drops-off as night length

increases. The green part of the light spectrum is no longer reflected and other
compounds, chemicals called "anthocyanins" (reds) and "carotenoids" (yellows),
become the dominant pigments in the leaves.
The longer answer involves discussions of changing day lengths and weather,
and strategies dealing with nutrient loss with the dropping of leaves.
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What is the story behind Autumn leaf fall?

The purpose of Autumn leaf fall is to prepare for winter dormancy. The cold
temperatures prevent trees and plants from functioning in at least three
ways. Water would freeze in the plant tissues, causing cell rupture. Water in the
upper soil layers often freezes, making absorption impossible. Lastly, the low
temperatures are far outside the operating windows for the enzymes that control a
tree’s metabolic processes, such as photosynthesis and respiration. To avoid these
environmental limitations, trees prepare for dormancy in the Autumn.
Trees drop leaves because they are too difficult to "winterize" (unlike most
conifers that have strategies to maintain their green parts during the winter and
needles have a much different structure than broad leaves). Or, in the case of
conifers, the needles that have grown old after two to three years, no longer
receive as much light, and are shed each Autumn. However, dropping tons of
biomass per acre presents the problem of losing significant amounts of valuable
nutrients. Much of the sugars and valuable nutrients are resorbed from the leaves,
but the annual leaf drop still means the loss of a lot of good "stuff." In our north
temperate climates, dropped leaves become part of the "organic layer" on the
surface of the soil, to be recycled (in part) by decomposers.

There are two components influencing the Autumn color display,

the timing and the intensity. The timing is usually controlled by lengthening nights
and the intensity is strongly influenced by weather.

So, how might weather affect the fall colors?

 Warm Autumn weather will generally reduce the color quality.
 Moist soils following a good growing season contribute to better displays.
 A few warm, sunny days and cool nights (at the right time) will increase
brilliance.
 Droughts will usually result in poorer displays.
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What causes the leaves to actually fall off?

Wind, most commonly. As nights lengthen, a layer of cells forms in the leaf stem
near the twig, called the "abscission layer." Abscission means cutting or
severing. This layer blocks transfer of materials to and from the leaf. The
abscission layer also makes a weakened connection. Eventually, wind, rain, snow,
or animals will knock the leaf from the twig.

Sunlight and Tolerance of Shade

It’s commonly known that trees and plants need sunshine to live. However,
not all trees need the same amounts of sunlight. Trees that require high amounts of
sunlight are sensitive to shade. Foresters call this sensitivity "shade tolerance" or
just "tolerance". The shade tolerance of some tree species will vary with age.
Tree species such as aspen, cherry, paper birch, jack pine, and red pine require lots
of sun and are not tolerant of shade. That’s part of the reason stands of these
species tend to be all about the same age. Seeds of these species that germinate
under a canopy of shade do not survive.
Other tree species are more tolerant of shade, such as sugar maple, beech,
balsam fir, hemlock, and cedar. They can survive as seedlings or saplings under a
fairly heavy canopy of shade for many years. When exposed to light, the small trees
(not always young trees!) can sometimes quickly grow to take advantage of the new
light regime.
There are a number of tree species that fall into the moderately tolerant
category, such as red oak, red maple, yellow birch, white ash, white pine, and
white spruce. They may be able to grow under the light canopy of an aspen or
paper birch stand, but would not be very successful under the shade of a maple-
beech-basswood stand.

Other Environmental Factors

There are many environmental factors, both living and not living, that
influence the growth of trees. This guide has already discussed some of them, such
as light, nutrients, and temperature.
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Many of these factors interact with other. That’s part of the reason why
forest management can be complex. Tree adaptation to various environmental
factors runs along gradients. Some tree species are more sensitive to a particular
gradient than others.

Rainfall or Precipitation

Average annual rainfall varies across a wide geographical area. Some tree
species can survive with less annual precipitation. As you move north and west,
rainfall declines, and so do the number of tree species. More
locally, available water may vary with microsites. The south sides of slopes will be
drier, so will a sandy plain or areas with bedrock close to the surface. Deep snows
during very cold periods help protect latent seeds and dormant root systems. The
timing of rainfall matters, too, along with the frequency and size of events. A few
large downpours is less desireable than moderate rains at regular intervals. Climate
change is altering these patterns .

Soil Variability

Scientists have identified over 475 soil types in Michigan. It stands to reason
that different tree species have preferences for certain types of soil. Red pine and
jack pine are well-known for their ability to grow well on sandier, poorer soils
where most other trees grow poorly. Sugar maple and basswood prefer richer, well-
drained soils with lots of nutrients. Other species, such as bur oak and quaking
aspen grow well on a wide variety of soils. This variability is largely related to the
amount of available nutrients in a soil, the nutrient demand of a particular species,
and a tree’s ability to extract those nutrients.

Moisture
This is related to both rainfall and soils. The amount of available moisture
varies during the year. High moisture levels during the dormant season will not help
trees. Or usually hurt them. Saturated conditions from spring runoff or flooding
does not hurt most trees because they are not actively growing.
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Some tree species are more tolerant of short periods of flooding during the
growing season, such as bur oak or silver maple. Oddly enough, white-cedar is quite
sensitive to rapid changes in moisture, either wetter or drier. Northern swamp tree
species grow on small, dry microsites. They don't usually grow in the water.

Biotic Factors

These are the living parts of an ecosystem that trees interact with. Other
plants will impact forests. Insects and diseases play a major role in
forests. Animals like white-tailed deer, porcupines, and squirrels also have
prominent roles. Not all of these impacts are negative. Many are
beneficial. Insects pollinate tree flowers. Soil animals loosen soil. Birds and bats
eat lots of insects. And of course, humans manage forests for a wide variety of
reasons.

Mycorrhizae

Pronounced "my-core-HI-zee", these are beneficial fungi to trees. The fungi

are associated with tree roots in a symbiotic relationship. That's where both
partners benefit from each other. The mycorrhizae increase a tree's ability to
absorb water and nutrients. The tree supplies the mycorrhizae with a share of
photosynthate. Sometimes, species of mychorrizae are only associated with a
particular species of tree. The lack of proper mycorrhizae in the soil can prevent a
tree from growing well, or maybe from surviving at all. It may be one of the factors
that limit trees to a certain range. Scientists are learning more about these special
fungi.
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Tree Regeneration Strategies

All trees can reproduce by seeds. Each species has a unique set of requirements for
seed production and germination. Listed below are four ways Michigan trees
regeneration themselves.
 Seeds. Seed dispersal strategies vary widely, from wind-driven seed to seeds
carried by certain species of animals.
 Root Suckers.
 Stump Sprouts.
Sprouts and suckers are similar, in that dormant buds "come alive" to
form new shoots of parent trees. Sprouts are shoots from stumps or the base
of a tree. Suckers are shoots that originate from buds on the root
systems. Often times, sprouts and suckers will not grow until the parent tree
dies or becomes very sick. The buds are held in dormancy by hormones
produced in the leaves. When these hormone levels drop below a certain
point, the dormant buds will grow.
 Vegetative Layering. Vegetative layering is uncommon, occurring mostly in
white-cedar and Canada yew (which most would not consider a tree!). When
branches or stems come in contact with the soil, cambium tissue sometimes
form roots. In this way, former branches of a fallen cedar might become
trunks of several "new" trees.

Tree Longevity

Trees do not live forever, therefore cannot be "preserved." A forest

condition, or forest type might be preservable (if managed), but not individual
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trees. While people know that all living organisms eventually die, often times this
is not taken into account when people consider forests.
Tree longevity varies from about 70 years to over 1000 years, depending upon
the species. Most trees do not live past 50 years (or 1 year, for that matter), if you
consider attrition from the time of germination.
 Short-lived species tend to be successional "pioneers", or trees that first
colonize an unforested site.
 Long-lived tree species tend to be more shade tolerant, occupy later stages
of succession, and employ more "conservative" survival strategies. Sugar
maple, basswood, beech, and white-cedar are good examples.

Reference:

Castañeto, R. S. 2013. NVSU Reviewer. Nueva Viscaya State University, College of

Forestry, Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya.

Michigan State University. (n.d.). Tree Physiology. Michigan State University

Extension Retrieved on October 2020 from
https://mff.forest.mtu.edu/Environment/TreePhys.htm