Antennas and Wave Propagation

Chapter Two

Antenna Parameters
Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi

7/16/2023
7/16/2023 Antenna
Scanned Design
images are –obtained
Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi
from “Antenna , Yarmouk
Theory” University
by C.A. Balanis, 1
 Introduction

• Radiation Pattern
• Common radiation pattern types.
• Principal Planes (E or H, Elevation or Azimuth).
• Radiation Pattern lobes (HPBW, FSLBW, etc.).
• Field Regions (Near, Far, etc.).
• Directivity
• Gain
• Input impedance and radiation resistance
• Bandwidth
• Efficiency
• Polarization
• Scanning
• System considerations
7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 2
 Common radiation pattern types

Isotropic Antenna: Radiates everywhere with equal amplitude.

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 3

 Common radiation pattern types.

Directional Antenna: Radiates or receives EM fields in some

directions more effectively than others.

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 4

 Common radiation pattern types.
Omnidirectional Antenna: Antennas having a non-directional
pattern in one plane and a directional pattern in a perpendicular plane.

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 5

 Radiation Pattern Types

Broadside Antenna: The main beam maximum is in a plane

normal to the plane containing the antenna.

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 6

 Radiation Pattern Types

Endfire Antenna: The main beam maximum is in the plane

containing the antenna.

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 7

 Radiation Pattern Types

Intermediate:

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 8

 Coordinate Systems
Cartesian, Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates

Cylindrical (ρ,φ,z)
Cartesian (x,y,z)

Spherical (r,θ,φ)

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 9

 Coordinate Systems

Cartesian (x,y,z)


dl = dx xˆ + dy yˆ + dz zˆ
  
dS x = xˆ dydz dS y = yˆ dxdz dS z = zˆ dxdy

dv = dxdydz
7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 10
 Coordinate Systems

Cylindrical (ρ,φ,z)


dl =d ρ ρˆ + ρd φ φˆ + dz zˆ
  
dS ρ = ρˆ ρd φdz dS φ = φˆ d ρdz dS z = zˆ ρd ρd φ

dv = ρd ρd φdz
7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 11
 Coordinate Systems

Spherical (r,θ,φ)


dl =dr rˆ + rd θ θˆ + r sin θ d φ φˆ
  
dS r = rˆ r 2 sin θ d θ d φ dS θ = θˆ r sin θ drd φ dS φ = φˆ rdrd θ

dv = r sin θ drd θ d φ
2

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 12

 Coordinate Systems

Conversion from Cartesian to cylindrical coordinates:

Cartesian to Cylindrical Cylindrical to Cartesian

ρ
= x2+y2 x = ρ cos φ
y 
φ = tan −1  
x 
y = ρ sin φ
z=z z=z

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 13

 Coordinate Systems

Conversion from Cartesian to spherical coordinates: :

2 2 2
x = r sin θ cos φ
r= x + y +z
y = r sin θ sin φ
 z 
−1  z 
θ cos
= −1
  cos  
 x 2 + y 2 +z 2  r  z = r cos θ
 
 x   y  y 
φ cos
= −1
 sin
= −1
  tan −1  
 x2+y2   x2+y2  x 
   

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 14

 Coordinate Systems

Conversion from cylindrical to spherical coordinates:

ρ = r sin θ
=r ρ +z 2 2

ρ z = r cos θ
θ = tan −1  
z 

φ =φ φ =φ

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 15

 Coordinate Systems
Coordinate System for Antenna Analysis

Usually field and power patterns are normalized to their

maximum values.
• Power pattern is usually plotted on a logarithmic scale or more
commonly in decibel s (dB).
7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 16
 Principal Planes
Principal Planes of a Dipole Antenna Pattern
E-Plane: Plane containing the electric field vector E and the direction of
maximum radiation.
H-Plane: Plane containing the magnetic Field vector H and the direction of
maximum radiation.

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 17

 Principal Planes
Principal Planes of a Dipole Antenna Pattern
For kr >> 1

From the figures,

Hφ is in the x-y plane or

parallel to x-y plane.

Eφ is perpendicular to the
k = wave number = 2π / λ x-y plane.
k = k 0 µr ε r
, k0 = wave number in free space = 2π / λ0

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 18

 Principal Planes
Principal Planes of a Pyramidal Horn Antenna
E-Plane: Plane containing the electric field
vector E and the direction of maximum
radiation.

H-Plane: Plane containing the magnetic Field

vector H and the direction of maximum
radiation.

Usually but not always

E plane in this case

Elevation Plane: x-z or φ = 0 plane.

H plane in this case

Azimuthal plane: x-y or φ = 90 plane.

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 19

 Radiation Pattern lobes

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 20

 Radiation Pattern lobes

Major lobe (Main lobe) is the radiation lobe containing the

direction of maximum radiation. Any lobe except the main lobe
is called a minor lobe.

A side lobe is a radiation lobe in any direction other than the

intended lobe.

A back lobe is a radiation lobe whose axis make an angle of

approximately 180° with respect to the beam of the antenna

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 21

 Radiation Pattern lobes

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 22

 Radiation Pattern lobes

Normalized Field Normalized Power Normalized Power

Pattern (linear) Pattern (linear) Pattern (in dB)

All three patterns yield the same HPBW.

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 23

 Field Regions

D = the largest dimension of

the Antenna

Reactive near-field region: No radiation ( high reactive wave impedance)

Radiating near field (Fresnel) region: Angular pattern depends on the distance from the antenna.
Radiating far field (Fraunhofer) region: Annular pattern does not depend on the distance from
the antenna.
Wave impedance is real, E and H are in phase

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 24

 Field Regions

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 25

 Field Regions
Radiation Pattern at different distances

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 26

 Radian and Steradian

(a) Radian (b) Steradian

Radian is a plane angle with its vertex at the center of a circle of radius r
that is subtended by an arc whose length is r. Total circumference of a
circle is 2πr. Thus there are 2π rad in a ful circle.

Steradian is a solid angle with its vertex at the center of a sphere of

radius r that is subtended by a spherical surface area equal to that of a
square with each side of length r. Total surface area of a sphere is 4πr2.
Thus there are 4π sr in a closed sphere.
7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 27
 Radian and Steradian

dA = r 2 sin θ d θ d φ (m 2 )
, Ω is the solid angle.
dA
d=
Ω = sin θ d θ d φ
r2
Example: For a sphere of radius r, find the solid angle ΩA of a spherical cap on
the surface of the sphere over the north-pole region defined by spherical angles
of 0 ≤ θ ≤ 30°, 0 ≤ φ ≤ 360°.
360o 30o 2π π /6
=
ΩA ∫ ∫=
d Ω ∫ ∫ sin θ d=
θd φ 2π ( 0.133
= ) 0.83566
0 0 0 0

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 28

 RADIATION POWER DENSITY

W= E × H
~
W = instantaneous Poynting Vector (W/m2) >> power density
~
E = instantaneous electric field density (V/m)
~
H = instantaneous magnetic field density (A/m)

P= ∫∫ W ⋅ dS=
s

∫∫ W ⋅ nda
s
ˆ

~
P = instantaneous total power (W) crossing a closed surface
n̂ = unit vector normal to the surface
da = infinitesimal area of closed surface (m2)

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 29

 Radiated power for time harmonic fields

W= ( x , y , z ;t ) E ( x , y , z ;t ) × H ( x , y , z ;t )

E ( x , y , z ; t ) = Re  E ( x , y , z ) e j ωt 

H ( x , y , z ; t ) = Re  H ( x , y , z ) e j ωt 


E : x, y, z; t time harmonic field

E : x, y, z phasor field
Using
 1  1 *
Re= H ( x , y , z ) e 
j ωt
 H ( x , y , z ) e  +  H ( x , y , z ) e − j ωt 
j ωt

2 2
1  * 1   + j 2ωt
W ( x , y , z ; t ) = E × H = Re  E × H  + Re  E × He
   

2 2
The first term is not function of time, the time variation of the second
term is twice of the given frequency.
7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 30
 Radiated power for time harmonic fields

The time average Poynting vector (average power density) is thus given by:
 1  
W av ( x=
, y , z ) W ( x , y , z=
; t )  Re  E × H *  (W/m2)
ave 2
 *
The real part of  E × H  /2 represents the average (real) power density,
and is referred to as radiation density in the far field.
 *
The Imaginary part of  E × H  /2 re[resents the reactive (stored power
density.

The average power radiated by an antenna (radiated power) is then:

   1  * 
P=
rad P=
ave ∫∫ W rad ⋅ dS
= ∫∫s W rad ⋅ nda
ˆ= ∫∫

2 s
(
Re E × H ⋅ dS )
s

The power pattern of the antenna is just a measure, as a function of

direction, of the average power density radiated by the antenna.

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 31

 Radiated power for time harmonic fields

See Example 2.2 in Text Book.

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 32

 Radiation Intensity
Radiation Intensity in a given direction is: “the power radiated from an
antenna per unit solid angle.” It is a far-field parameter.

The radiation intensity is expressed as

U = r 2 W rad
U = radiation intensity (W/unit solid angle)
Wrad = radiation density (W/m2)
r2  2 r2  2 2

U (θ , φ ) = E ( r , θ , φ ) ≅  E θ ( r , θ , φ ) + E φ ( r , θ , φ ) 
2η 2η 
1  o
E θ (θ , φ ) + E φo (θ , φ ) 
2 2
≅
2η  

E = far-zone electric field intensity of the antenna
E θo , E o = far-zone electric field components of the antenna
φ

η = intrinsic impedance of the medium

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 33
 Radiation Intensity

The average power radiated (radiated power) by an antenna is

then
 2π π
 
Prad =
= ∫∫ W rad=
Pave 
s
⋅ dS ∫∫ W rad=
s
ˆ
⋅ nda ∫∫ U=
Ω
d Ω ∫ ∫U sin θ d θ d φ
0 0

See Example 2.3 in Text Book.

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 34

 Radiation Intensity

For an isotropic source, the total power radiated is

  2π π
  
∫∫ W rad ⋅ dS ∫∫ W rad ⋅ nda
ˆ= ∫∫ W o ⋅ dS ∫ ∫ aˆ W ( r ) ⋅ aˆ r sin θ d θ d φ 
2
P=
rad P=
ave = = r o r
s s s 0 0
2π π
4π r= ∫∫ U= ∫ ∫ sin θ=
d θd φ 4π U o
2
Wo dΩo Uo
Ω 0 0

The subscript “o” represents isotropic source.

The power density
 Prad
=W o aˆ=W
r o ( r ) ˆ
ar (W/m)
4π r 2
The radiation intensity is
Prad
Uo =
4π

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 35

 Beam Width
If the normalized radiation intensity of an antenna
is represented by (As shown in the plot)
U (θ ) = cos 2 (θ ) cos 2 ( 3θ ) (0≤θ≤90° , 0≤φ≤360°)
Find the :
(a)Half-power beamwidth HPBW
(b)First null beamwidth (FNBW)
= U (θ ) θ =θ cos = 2
(θ ) cos 2 ( 3θ ) θ =θ 0.5
h h
⇒= θ h 14.3725°
cos (θ h ) cos ( 3θ h ) = 0.707
Since U(θ) is symmetrical about the maximum at θ=0, then
HPBW= 2*14.3725 = 28.475°
U (θ ) θ =θ cos= 2
(θ ) cos 2 ( 3θ ) θ =θ 0.0
⇒ θh = 30° or 90°
n n

cos (θ ) cos ( 3θ ) = 0
n n

So, FNBW=2*30°=60°
7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 36
 Antenna Directivity
Directivity is the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given
direction from the antenna to the radiated intensity averaged over
all directions. In mathematical form:
U 4πU
D
= =
U 0 Prad
U max 4πU max
D max
= D=
0 =
U0 Prad

U = radiation intensity (W/unit solid angle)

Umax = maximum radiation intensity (W/unit solid angle)
U0 = radiation intensity of isotropic source
Prad = total radiated power

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 37

 Antenna Directivity
For antenna with orthogonal polarization components
4πU θ 4πU φ
D= Dθ + D φ , Dθ = , Dφ =
0
( Prad )θ + ( Prad )φ ( Prad )θ + ( Prad )φ

Uθ = radiation intensity in a given direction contained in θ field component

Uφ = radiation intensity in a given direction contained in φ field component
(Prad ) θ = radiated power in all directions contained in θ field component
(Prad ) φ = radiated power in all directions contained in φ field component

See Examples 2.5 and 2.6 in Text Book.

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 38

 Antenna Directivity

Antenna Directivity Based on the Far-Field Pattern

1  o
E (θ , φ ) + E o (θ , φ ) 
2 2
U (θ , φ ) =
B 0 F (θ , φ ) ≅

2η  θ φ  

E θo , E φo : far zone components and B 0 is a constant

U max 0 F (θ , φ ) max
B= B 0 Fmax (θ , φ )

The total radiated power is

2π π
Prad (θ , φ ) d Ω
∫∫ U= B 0 ∫ ∫ F (θ , φ ) sin θ d θ d φ
Ω 0 0

4πU 4π F (θ , φ )
D (θ=
,φ ) = 2π π
Prad
∫ ∫ F (θ , φ ) sin θ d θ d φ
0 0

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 39

 Antenna Directivity
Antenna Directivity Based on the Far-Field Pattern
4πU 4π F (θ , φ ) max 1 4π
D0 =
= 2π π
= 4π 2π π
=
Prad ΩA
∫ ∫ F (θ , φ ) sin θ d θ d φ
0 0
∫ ∫ F (θ , φ ) sin θ d θ d φ
0 0
F (θ , φ ) max
2π π 2π π
ΩA F (θ , φ ) sin θ d θ d φ F (θ , φ )
∫ ∫= ∫ ∫ F (θ , φ ) sin θ d θ d φ
max n
0 0 0 0

Fn (θ , φ ) = F (θ , φ ) F (θ , φ ) max

n: normalized to the max value.

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 40

 The Beam Solid Angle
The beam solid angle is the solid angle through which all the power of the
antenna would flow if its radiation intensity is constant for all angles within ΩA.
2π π 2π π
ΩA F (θ , φ ) sin θ d θ d φ F (θ , φ )
∫ ∫= max∫ ∫ F (θ , φ ) sin θ d θ d φ
n
0 0 0 0

Approximate expression for ΩA

Ω A =Θ1r Θ 2 r
Θ1r =half-power beamwidth in one plane (rad)

Θ 2r =half-power beamwidth in a plane at a

right angle to the other (rad)

Non-symmetrical Symmetrical
pattern pattern
7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 41
 Kraus Approximation for the maximum directivity

4π (180 / π )
2
4π 4π 41253
D
= 0 = = =
Ω A Θ1r Θ 2 r Θ1d Θ 2d Θ1d Θ 2d

Θ1d = half-power beamwidth in one plane (degrees)

Θ 2d = half-power beamwidth in a plane at a right angle to the

other (degrees)

For Planar Arrays, a better approximation is

32400
D0 =
Θ1d Θ 2d

Directivity and maximum directivity in decibels:

D(dB) = 10 log10 [D(dimensionless)]
D0(dB) = 10 log10 [D0(dimensionless)]

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 42

 Tai and Pereira Approximation for the maximum directivity

1 1 1 1 
=  + 
D 0 2  D1 D 2 

1 16 ln 2 1 16 ln 2
D1 ≅ ≅ D2 ≅ ≅
 1 Θ1r /2  Θ12r  1 Θ2 r /2  Θ 22 r
 ∫ sin θ d θ   ∫
 2 ln 2 0
sin θ d θ 

 2 ln 2 0 

Θ1r , Θ 2r are the half power beamwidths in radian of the E- and H-planes.

1 1  Θ12r Θ 22 r  Θ12r + Θ 22 r
≅  + ≅
D 0 2 ln 2  16 16  32 ln 2
32 ln 2 22.181 72815
D0 ≅ = =
Θ12r + Θ 22 r Θ12r + Θ 22 r Θ12d + Θ 22d

Θ1d , Θ 2d are the half power beamwidths in degrees of the E- and H-planes.

See Example 2.8 in Text Book.

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 43
 Antenna Gain

The absolute gain, power gain, or simply the gain of the antenna
is 4π times the radiation intensity in a given direction to the net
power accepted by the antenna from the connected transmitter.

U (θ , φ )
Absolute
= Gain G
= (θ , φ ) 4π (dimensionless)
Pin
Maximum
= Gain G (θ , φ ) max G (not a function of θ or φ )
=

G (θ 0 , φ0 )
Relative Gain = In a specific direction
G (θ 0 , φ0 )reference antenna
4πU (θ , φ )
G (θ 0 , φ0 )reference antenna = Usually dipole or horn
Pin (lossless isotropic source)

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 44

 Antenna Gain
Units of Gain

Gain in decibels G dB = 10 log G

The unit dBi is usually used instead of dB to

emphasize that an isotropic antenna is the reference.
It is also common, for frequencies below 1 GHz, to
quote gain values relative to that of a half-wave
dipole which is 1.64 (mag) or 2.15 dB. Thus,

6.1dB =
G dB = ( 6.1 − 2.15) dBd =
6.1dBi = 3.95dBd

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 45

 Antenna Gain
Antenna Efficiency and Gain Relations
The total radiated power from an antenna is related to the total
input power by the antenna radiation efficiency
Prad = ecd Pin
Where
ecd = ec ed = antenna radiation efficiency
ec = conduction efficiency
ed = dielectric efficiency
U (θ , φ ) U (θ , φ ) 
G (θ , φ ) 4=
= π ecd  
Pin  Prad 
G (θ , φ ) = ecd D (θ , φ )

G0 (θ , φ ) max ecd D=
G= (θ , φ ) max ecd D 0
7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 46
 Antenna Gain
Antenna Gain for a Given Polarization

For antennas with two orthogonal far field polarizations

4πU θ
G=
0 Gθ + G φ , Gθ = , G φ = 4πU φ
Pin Pin
G0 = maximum gain for orthogonal θ and φ components of an antenna.
Uθ = radiation intensity in a given direction contained in θ field component
Uφ = radiation intensity in a given direction contained in φ field component
Pin = total input (accepted) power

For many practical antennas, Kraus approximate formula can be used

30000
G0 =
Θ1d Θ 2d

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 47

 Antenna Gain
Antenna Efficiency
e 0 = ec e d e r
e0 = total efficiency (dimensionless)
2
er = reflection (mismatch) efficiency = (1- Γ ) (dimensionless)
ec = conduction efficiency (dimensionless)
ed = dielectric efficiency (dimensionless)
Γ = voltage reflection coefficient at the input terminals of the antenna
Z in − Z 0
Γ= , Zin = antenna input impedance and Z0 = characteristic
Z in + Z 0
impedance of the T.L.
e 0 ec e d=
= e r ecd 1 − Γ
e r ecd= ( 2
)
G (θ , φ ) = ecd D (θ , φ )

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 48

 Antenna Gain
Antenna Beam Efficiency

For an antenna with its major lobe directed along the z-

axis (θ = 0), the Beam Efficiency (BE) is defined as
power transmitted (received) within cone angle θ1
BE =
power transmitted (received) by the antenna
2π θ1

∫ ∫U (θ , φ ) sin θ d θ d φ
BE = 0 0
2π π (dimensionless)
∫ ∫U (θ , φ ) sin θ d θ d φ
0 0

If θ1 is chosen as the angle where the first null or

minimum occurs, then the beam efficiency will
indicate the amount of power in the major lobe
compared to the total power.

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 49

 Antenna Bandwidth

The bandwidth of antenna is the range of frequencies within

which the performance of the antenna conforms to specific
standards.

For broadband antennas, the bandwidth is expressed as the

ratio of the upper to lower frequency of acceptable operation.

For narrowband antennas, the bandwidth is expressed as a

percentage of the frequency difference (upper – lower) over the
center frequency of the bandwidth.

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 50

 Antenna Polarization

Polarizations: Plane wave travelling along the negative z direction

E ( z ; t ) aˆx E x ( z ; t ) + aˆy E y ( z ; t )
=

E x=( z ;t ) Re  E x e j (=
ωt + kz )
 Re  E xo e j (ωt +=
 
kz +φx )
 E xo cos (ωt + kz + φx )

j (ωt + kz +φ y ) 
E y=( )
z ; t Re  E
 y e j (ωt + kz )
= 
 Re  E e = E yo cos (ωt + kz + φ y )
 yo 

E ( z ; t ) aˆx E xo cos (ωt + kz + φx ) + aˆy E yo cos (ωt + kz + φ y )

=

For kz = 0, and ∆φ = φ y − φx

E (t ) aˆx E xo cos (ωt ) + aˆy E yo cos (ωt + ∆φ )

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 51

 Antenna Polarization

=E (t ) aˆx E xo cos (ωt ) + aˆy E yo cos (ωt + ∆φ )

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 52

 Antenna Polarization

Conditions of Polarization
Linear Polarization:

and ∆φ = φ y − φx = nπ , n=0,1,2,3,…
E xo = 0 or E yo = 0

Circular Polarization:
 1 
+
 2 + 2 n π , n =
0,1, 2,....for CW
  
E x = E y ⇒ E xo = E yo and ∆φ = φ y − φx = 
 −  1 + 2n  π , n =
0,1, 2,....for CCW
  2 


Elliptical Polarization:  1 
+
 2  + 2 n π , n =
0,1, 2,....for CW
  
∆φ = φ y − φx = 
E x ≠ E y ⇒ E xo ≠ E yo and  −  1 + 2n  π , n =
0,1, 2,....for CCW
  2 


7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 53

 Antenna Polarization
The Axial Ratio for Elliptical Polarization

The axial ratio (1 ≤ AR ≤ ∞ )

Major Axis OA
=AR =
Minor Axis OB
Where
{ }
1
1 2 1
 2
=  E xo + E yo +  E xo + E yo + 2E xo E yo cos ( 2∆φ )  2 
OA 2
 4 4 2 2

2 

{ }
1
1 2 1
 2
=  E xo + E yo −  E xo + E yo + 2E xo E yo cos ( 2∆φ )  2 
OB 2 4 4 2 2

2 
Special Cases:
AR = ∞ ⇒ Linear Polarization (OB = 0)
AR = 1 ⇒ Circular Polarization (OA = OB)
The tilt of the ellipse, relative to the y-axis τ is
1 π  2E xo E yo 
τ= −1
− tan  2 2
cos ( ∆φ ) 
2 2  E x 0 − E y 0 
7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 54
 Antenna Polarization
Polarization Loss Factor

Polarization cross factor is a measure of the

extracted power by the antenna from the
incoming incident wave.
 
E i = ρˆw E i , E a = ρˆa E a
ρˆw = the polarization unit vector of the incident wave
ρˆa = the polarization unit vector of the antenna
PLF is the polarization loss factor defined as
2 2
PLF = ρˆw ⋅ ρˆa = cos Ψ p (dimensionless)
Ψ p is the angle between the two unit vectors

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 55

 Antenna Polarization
See Example 2.11 in Text Book.

From the example, both the

incoming wave and the
antenna are linearly
polarized, there is 3 dB loss
because the polarization of
the wave is not aligned with
the polarization of the
antenna

2 2
PLF = ρˆw ⋅ ρˆa = cos Ψ p

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 56

 Antenna Polarization
Polarization Efficiency:

The polarization efficiency is the ratio of the power received by an

antenna from a given plane wave of arbitrary polarization to the
power that would be received by the same antenna from a plane
wave of the same power flux density and direction of propagation,
whose state of polarization has been adjusted for a maximum
received power.   inc 2
le ⋅ E
pe =  2  2 , where
le E inc

l e = vector effective length of the antenna
 inc
E = incident electric field
7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 57
 Input Impedance
Z=
A R A + jX A , R= A Rr + RL
Z A = antenna impedance at terminals a-b (ohms)
R A = antenna resistance at terminals a-b (ohms)
X A = antenna reactance at terminals a-b (ohms)
R r = radiation resistance of the antenna
R L = loss resistance of the antenna
Z=
g R g + jX g
R g = resistance of the generator impedance (ohms)
X g = reactance of the generator impedance (ohms)
Vg Vg Vg Vg
I= = =
g
Zt Z g + Z A (R + RL + Rg ) + j (X A + X g ) , Ig =
(R + RL + Rg ) + (X A + X g )
2 2
r
r

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 58

 Input Impedance

Radiated Power by an Antenna

The power delivered to the antenna for radiation is

2
1 2 Vg Rr
=Pr =I g Rr
(R + RL + Rg ) + (X A + X g )
2 2
2 2
r

The power dissipated as heat is

2
1 2 Vg RL
PL =I g RL
(R + RL + Rg ) + (X A + X g )
2 2
2 2
r

The remaining power is dissipated as heat in the internal

resistance of the generator
2
1 2 Vg Rg
=Pg =I g Rg
(Rr + RL + Rg ) + (X A + X g )
2 2
2 2

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 59

 Input Impedance
The maximum power delivered to the antenna occurs when
Rr + RL = R g and X A = − X g
For this case
2 2
1 2 Vg Rr 1 2 Vg RL
Pr =I g Rr = =PL =I g RL
2 8 ( R r + R L )2 2 8 (Rr + RL )
2

2 2 2
1 2 Vg Rg Vg 1 Vg
Pg =I g Rg = =
2 8 ( R r + R L )2 8 ( R r + R L ) 8R g

⇒ P=
g PL + Pr
The power supplied by the the generator during conjugate matching is
2
1 * 1  V g*  Vg 1
=Ps VgIg
= Vg  = 
2 2  2 ( R r + R L )  4 (Rr + RL )
The radiated power of the antenna is half of the delivered by the
source under matching conditions.
7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 60
 Input Impedance

Received Power by an Antenna

With matching conditions ( R r + R L =
R g ), and X A = −X g
2 2 2
VT  RT  VT  1  VT
PT =   =  
8  ( R r + R L )2  8  ( R r + R L )  8RT
2
V  Rr 
Pr = T  2
8  ( R r + R L ) 
2
VT RL 
PL =  
8  ( R r + R L )2 

The power induced (collected or captured)

2
1 1  V T*  VT 1
=Pc = V T I T* VT  = 
2 2  2 ( R r + R )
L  4 (Rr + RL )

The power transferred to the load is half of that captured Pc or

collected by the antenna under matching conditions.
7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 61
 Antenna Radiation Efficiency

The conduction-dielectric efficiency ecd is defined as the

ratio of the power delivered to the radiation resistance Rr
to the power delivered to Rr and RL (radiation and loss
resistances).
2
VT  Rr 
Pr =  
8  ( R r + R L )2 
 Rr 
⇒ ecd =  (dimensionless)
 2

 Rr + RL 
VT RL
PL =  2
8  ( R r + R L ) 

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 62

 Antenna Vector Effective Length (Effective height)

 l e  ,    aˆ l   ,    aˆ l   ,  
l e = vector effective length
It is a far-field quantity and related to the
electric field radiated by the antenna
 kI in  − jkr
aˆθ E θ + aˆφ E φ =
Ea = − jη lee
4π r
i 
Antenna in receiving mode V =
oc E ⋅ le
V oc = open-circuit voltage at antenna terminals
i
E = incident electric field
Antenna in transmitting mode
 kI in  − jkr
Ea =ˆ ˆ − jη
 aθ E θ + aφ E φ = 4π r
lee
E a = Far zone antenna radiated electric field
I in = Current in the antenna terminals
7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 63
 Antenna Equivalent (Effective) Areas
2
PT I T RT / 2
A
= e =
Wi Wi

Ae = Effective area (effective aperture) (m2)

PT = Power delivered to the load (W)

W i = Power density of incident wave (W/m2)

2
V  RT 
Ae = T  2
 ( R r + R L + RT ) + ( X A + X T ) 
2
2W i

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 64

 Antenna Equivalent (Effective) Areas

Under matching conditions, the maximum effective area is

2 2
VT  RT  VT  1 
=Aem =    
8W i  ( R r + R L )2  8W i  ( R r + R L ) 

Scattering or radiation area

2
VT  Rr 
As =  2
8W i  ( R r + R L ) 
Loss Area
2
V  RL 
AL = T  2
8W i  ( R r + R L ) 
Capture area
2
V R + R + R 
AC = T  T r L

 ( R r + R L )
2
8W i 

Capture area = Effective area + Scattering area + Loss area

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 65

 Antenna Aperture Efficiency

Aem maximum effective area

ε ap
= =
A p physical area of the aperture

2 2
VT  RT  VT  1 
Aem =  2  
8W i  ( R r + R L )  8W i  ( R r + R L ) 

R=
T Rr + RL

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 66

 Maximum Directivity and Maximum Effective Area

 λ2  2
Aem e0   D 0 ρˆw ⋅ ρˆa
 4π 

= ecd 1 − Γ( 2
)  λ2

 4π

 D 0 ρˆw ⋅ ρˆa

2

ecd = ec ed = antenna radiation efficiency

ec = conduction efficiency
ed = dielectric efficiency 2
PLF = ρˆw ⋅ ρˆa = cos Ψ p
2

er = reflection (mismatch)
2
efficiency = (1- )
Γ

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 67

 Friis Transmission Equation

Expressions relates the power received to the power transmitted

between two antennas

Transmitted power density

t t (θt , φt )
PG Pt Dt (θt , φt )
W t (θt , φt ) =
= et
4π R 2
4π R 2
W t (θt , φt ) = Transmitter radiation power density
G t (θt , φt ) = Transmitting antenna gain
Pt = input power to transmitter
Dt (θt , φt ) = Transmitting antenna directivity

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 68

 Friis Transmission Equation

Received power
λ2 λ 2 Dt (θt , φt ) D r (θ r , φr )
Pr (θ r=, φr ) W= e r D r (θ r , φr ) =
2
t Ar W t et e r ρˆt ⋅ ρˆ r
( 4π R )
2
4π
λ 2
A r (θ r , φr ) = e r D r (θ r , φr )
4π
The ratio of the received to input power
2

=
Pr
Pt
(
ecdt ecdr 1 − Γt
2
)(
1 − Γr
2
)  λ 

 4π R
 Dt (θt , φt ) D r (θ r , φr ) ρˆt ⋅ ρˆ r

2

For reflection and polarization-matched antennas aligned for

maximum directional radiation and reception
2
Pr  λ 
=  G 0t G 0 r
Pt  4π R 
2
 λ 
The term   is called the free space loss factor
 4π R 
7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 69
 Radar Cross-Section of a Target
Radar Cross Section (RCS) is defined as the area intercepting that amount of
power which, when scattered isotropically, produces at the receiver a density
which is equal to that scattered by the actual target. In equation form
 σW i 
lim  =W s
R →∞ 4π R 2 
  s 2  s
 E  H
2

 2W s   4π R   lim  4π R 2 
σ lim
=  4π R  lim= 2

R →∞
 W i  R →∞  E i
2
 R →∞  Hi
2

   
Where
σ= radar cross section or echo area (m2)
R = observation distance from target (m)
Wi = incident power density (W/m2)
Ws = scattered power density (W/m2)
i s
 
( )
E E = incident (scattered) electric field (V/m)
Hi Hs( ) = incident (scattered) magnetic field (V/m)
The 4π R 2 factor is to distribute the scattered power isotropically.
7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 70
 Radar Range Equation

The amount of power captured by the target is obtained by

t t (θt , φt )
PG Pt Dt (θt , φt )
Pc σ=
= Wt σ = e t σ
4π R12 4π R12

The scattered power density is

Pc Pt Dt (θt , φt )
Ws
= = e cdt σ
( 1 2)
2
4π R 22 4π R R

The amount of power delivered to the receiver load is

2
Pt Dt (θt , φt ) D r (θ r , φr )  λ 
Pr A=
= rW s e e
cdt cdr σ  
4π  4π R R
1 2 

Ar is the effective area of the receiving antenna

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 71

 Radar Range Equation
The ratio of the received power to the input power
2
Pr D (θ , φ ) D r (θ r , φr )  λ 
= ecdt ecdr σ t t t  
Pt 4π  4π R1R 2 
This expression does not include the reflection losses and polarization
losses. 2
Dt (θt , φt ) D r (θ r , φr )  λ
=
Pr
Pt
(
ecdt ecdr 1 − Γt
2
)(1 − Γr
2
) σ
4π

 4π R R

 ρˆw ⋅ ρˆ r
1 2 
2

ρˆw = the polarization unit vector of the scattered wave

ρˆ r = the polarization unit vector of the receiving antenna
For polarization-matched antennas
2
Pr G G  λ 
= σ 0t 0 r   .................................... Radar Range Equation:
Pt 4π  4π R R
1 2 

It relates the power delivered to the receiver load to the input power
transmitted by the antenna after it has been scattered by a target with
radar cross section σ.
7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 72
 Radar Range Equation

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 73

 Antenna Parameters

END
of Chapter Two

7/16/2023 Antenna Design – Dr. Asem Al-Zoubi , Yarmouk University 74