1

UNIT
Hydrology

CONTENTS
1-2F to 1-3F
Part-1: Hydrology Cycle, Water Budget
Equaticn, Hydrologic System
1-3F to 1-7F
Part-2 Precip1tation : Types, Measurement
and Analysis
to 1-12F
Part-3 : Error in Estimation, Missing Data ...... 1-7F

Part-4 : Consistency of Rainfall Records, ...... 1-12F to 1-16F

Intensity Duration Frequency (IDF)
and Probabilistic Maximum Precipitation
(PMP) Curves

Evaporation and Consumptive 1-16F to 1-21F

Part-5 :
Use : Process Affecting Factors,
Estimation and Measurement
Techniques
Infiltration, Process Affecting ... 1-22F to 1-25F
Part-6 :
Factors, Measurement
and Estimation

1-1F (CE-Sem-7)
1-2F (CE-Sem-7) Hydrology

PART-1

Hydrology Cycle, Water Budget Equation, Hydrologic System.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.1. Define the hydrologie cycle. Alsoexplain the components

of hydrological eycle.
OR
What are the different components of hydrologic system ? Describe
in brief with suitable examples. AKTU2018-19, Marks 10

Answer
Hydrologic Cycle :
1. The hydrologic cycle or the water gate refers to the continuous
circulation of water within the hydrosphere.
2. Hydrology is the science which deals with the occurrence, distribution
and movement of water on the earth.
3 Water occurs in the atmosphere in the form ofvapour, on the surface as
water,snow or ice and below the surface as ground water occupying all
the voids within geologic stratum.

Clouds>
Condensation
Precipitation
Infiltration Evaporation
Snow
Spring Transpiration
Percolation ttt Evaporation
Ground water flow Evaporation
Lake River
44444
Fig. 1.1. Hydrologic cycle. Ocean
4. Except for the deep ground water, the total water supply of earth is in
constant circulation from earth to atmosphere, and back to the earth.
Components : Following are the components of hydrologic system :
1. Evaporation and Transpiration (E) :
The water from the surface of ocean, rivers, lakes and also from the
i.
moist soil evaporates. The vapours are carried over the land by air in the
form of clouds.
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 1-3F (CE-Sem-7)

ii. Transpiration is the process of water being lost from the leaves of the
plants from their pores.
2 Precipitation (P): Precipitation may be defined as the fall of moisture
from the atmosphere to the earth surface in any form :
i. Liquid precipitation.
Frozen precipitation.
3. Run Off (R):
i. Run off is that portion of precipitation that is not evaporated.
i. When moisture falls to the earth's surface as precipitation, apart ofit is
evaporated from the water surface, soil and vegetation and through
transpiration by plants, and the remainder precipitation is available as
run off which ultimately runs to the ocean through surface or sub
surface streams.

Que 1.2. Write a short note on water budget equation.

Answer
Water Budget Equation :
1, Water budget equation is also known as hydrological budget equation.
2. The budget is simply an equation showing all of the inputs into the
system minus the outputs of the system which results in the change of
the amount of water in the system under consideration.
3. The equation can be expressed as :
P-E-ET + SRO+ GF =AS
where, P= Precipitation.
SRO = Surface runoff.
GF = Ground water flow.
E= Evaporation.
ET = Evapotranspiration.
AS = Change in storage.

PART-2
Precipitation : Types, Measurement and Analysis.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.3. What do you understand by precipitation ? Explain the

various types of precipitation.
Answer
Precipitation :Precipitation is the general term for all forms of moisture
emanating from the clouds and falling to the ground.
14F (CE-Sem-7) Hydrology
Types: Following are the types of precipitation :
1. Cyclonic Precipitation :
i.
Cyclonic precipitation results from lifting of air masses converging into
low pressure area of cyclone.
The cyclonic precipitation may be divided into:
a. Frontal precipitation.
b Non-frontal precipitation.
2, Convective Precipitation :
i.
Convective precipitation is caused by natural rising of warmer lighter
air in colder, denser surroundings.
The difference in temperature may result from unequal heating at the
surface, unequal cooling at the top of the air layer, or mechanical lifting
when air is forced to pass over a denser colder air mass.
iii. Convective precipitation is spotty and its intensity may vary from light
showers to cloud bursts.
3. Orographic Precipitation :
i. Orographic precipitation is due to the lifting of warm moisture laden air
masses due to topographic barriers (such as mountains).
ii. As it reaches higher elevation, it comes in contact with cold air and
precipitation occurs.
ii. The zone to the other side of the mountain will be the zone of rain
shadow area where the rainfall may not occur, as shown in Fig. 1.3.1.
iv. Allthe precipitation we have in Himalayan region is because of the
orographic ascent of air masses, rich in moisture content because of
their long travel over oceans.
Clouds
Clouds
Clouds Rain
shadow
P

Wind

Hill
Evaporation

Fig. 1.3.1. Orographic precipitation.

4. Precipitation Due to Turbulent Ascent:
i. Air mass is forced to rise up due to greater friction of earth surface after
its travel over ocean.
The air mass rises up because of increased turbulence and friction,
when it ultimately condenses and precipitation occurs.
Que 1.4. Define the rainfall. Describe the variousmeasurements
of rainfall.
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 1-5F (CE-Sem-7)

Answer
Rainfall:
1 The term rainfall is used to describe precipitations in the form of water
drops of sizes larger than 0.5 mm. The maximum size of rain drop is
about 6 mm.
2. The following are the nain types of rain-gauges used for measurement
of rainfall:
A. Non-automatic Rain-Gauge : This is also known as non-recording
rain-gauge. Symon's rain-gauge is the instrument prescribed by use at
all Government rain-gauge stations throughout India.
1. Symon's Rain-Gauge :
i. Symon's rain-gauge is most common type of nov-automatic rain-gauge,
and is used by Meteorological Department of Government of India. As
shown in Fig. 1.4.1.
It consists of cylindrical vessel 127 mm in diameter with a base enlarged
to210 mm diameter.
ii. The top section is a funnel provided with circular brass rim exactly
127 mm internal diameter.
iv. The funnel shank is inserted in the neck of a receiving bottle which is 75
to 100 mm diameter.
V Areceiving bottle of rain-gauge has acapacity of about 75 to 100 mm of
rainfalland as during aheavy rainfall this quantity is frequently exceeded,
the rain should be measured 3 or 4 times in a day on day of heavy
rainfall lest the receiver fill should overflow.
vi. The rain gauge is set up in a concrete block 60 cm x 60 cm x 60 cm
shown in Fig. 1.4.1. The rim should be 305 mm above the surface of the
ground.
127 mm

25.4
I25.4

305 mm 203

50.8
GL

T25.4
25.4
60 cm
210 mm

60 cm
Fig. 1.4.1. Symon's rain gauge.
1-6F (CE-Sem-7) Hydrology
rain
B. Automatic Rain Gauge : Following are the types of automnatic
gauge:
1. Weighing Bucket Type Rain-Gauge:
short
Self recording gauges are used to determine rates of rainfallover
F: periods of time.
The most common type of self-recording gauge is the weighing bucket
type, as shown in Fig. 1.4.2. bucket
The weighing bucket rain-gauge essentially consists of a receiver
weighing
supported by a spring or lever balance or any other
mechanism.
iv. The movement of the bucket due to its increasing weight is transmitted
chart.
toa pen which traces the record on a clock-driven
Receiver

-Funnel
Metal
Casing
-Bucket
Weighing mechanism
by spring mechanism
Graph
paper

Clock mounted
rotating drum
AAZWZAIAVAWAWZAWZV/AT

Fig. 1.4.2.
2. Tipping Bucket Type Rain-Gauge:
i. ASteven's tipping bucket type rain-gauge consists of 300 mm diameter
sharp edge receiver as shown in Fig. 1.4.3.
30 cm

Rain
water
Cireular
collector

Funnel

Two compartment
tipping bucket
connected to
recording device
Recording device

Measuring Tripod stand

jar

Fig. 1.4.3. Tipping bucket type rain-gauge.

At the end of the receiver is provided a funnel.
i. Apair of bucketsare pivoted under the funnel in such a way that when
one bucket receives 0.25 mm of precipitation it tips, discharging its
contents into a container bringing the other bucket under the funnel.
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 1-7F (CE-Sem-7)

iv. Tipping of the bucket completes an electric circuit causing the

movement of pen to mark on clock driven revolving drum which carries
a record sheet.
iv. The electric pulses generated due to the tipping of the buckets are
recorded at the control room far away from the rain gauge station.
Que 1.5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of recording
type rain-gauge over the non-recording type rain gauge ?
Answer
Advantages : Following are the advantages of recording type
rain-gaugeover the non-recording type rain gauge:
1 The rainfall is recorded automatically.
2 The recording rain-gauge also gives the intensity of rainfall at any time
while the non-recording gauge gives the total rainfall in any particular
interval of time.
3 As no attendant is required such rain-gauge can be installed in far-off
places also.
4 Possibility of human error is obviated.
Disadvantages : Following are the disadvantages of recording type
rain gauge over the non-recording type rain gauge :
1. It is costly in comparison with non-recording gauge.
2 Fault may develop in electrical or mechanical mechanism or recording
the rainfall.

PART-3

Error in Estimation, Missing Data.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.6. What are the sources of error in recording the

measurement of rainfall ?

Answer
Following are the sources of error in recording the measurement of
rainfall :
1 Mistakes in reading the scale of the gauge.
2. Some amount of water will be displaced by the measuring stick of water
which may creep up the stick; this may increase the error by 1 %.
3. Dents in the collector rim may change its receiving area.
4 Funnel and inside surface require about 2.5 mm ofrain to get moistened
when the gauge is initially dry. This may amount to the extent of 25 mm
per year in some areas.
1-8F (CE-Sem-7)
Hydrology
5 There is some loss resulting from rainfall splash from the collector.
6. The most serious error is the deficiency of measurement due to wind.
7. Inclination of gauge may cause lesser collection. A10 %inclination gives
about 1.5% low catch.
Que 1.7. Determine the optimum number of rain gauges for a
basin with the following data :
Number of existing gauges =6
Allowable percentage error =8%
The average rainfall at the existing gauges =90, 100, 85, 65, 55 and 46
cm.
|AKTU2017-18, Marks 10
Answer

Given : Number of rain gauges, m = 6, Allowable percentage error

= 8%.
To Find :Optimum number of rain gauge.
1. Mean annual rainfall. P: 90 +100 + 85 + 65 +55+ 46
=73.5 cm
6
2. Sp² = 90 + 100+ 85 + 65 + 554 46 =34691

3. 34691
= 5781.833
6
4. 6
P-(P)=x(5781.833 -5402.25)
V5
Standard deviation, o = 21.342 cm
100 x o 100 x 21.342
5. Coefficient of variation, C, = = 29.037
73.5
6 Standard error in the estimation of the mean,
29.037
Cex = 11.85 %
Vm
7. When the error is limited to 8 %, 8=8 and the optimum number of rain
gauges in the catchment is given by,
2 2
29.037
N= = 13.17 14
Hence, optimum number of rain gauges is 14.
Que 1.8. State the various methods of determination of the mean
precipitation over a given catchment area.
Answer
Methods: Following are the various methods for calculating the mean
precipitation :
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 1-9F (CE-Sem-7)
1 Arithmetic Average Method :
i. If the rainfall is uniformly distributed on its areal pattern, the simplest
method of estimating average rainfall is to compute arithmetic average
of the recorded rainfall values at various stations.
iüi. Thus, ifP, P, Pg.,P, etc, are the precipitation or rainfal values
measured at n gauge stations, we have
P.
P+P.. +P
av =
n

2. Thiessen Polygon Method: This method is a more common method

of weighing the rain-gauge observations according to the area. This
method is also called weighted mean method and is more accurate than
the arithmetic average method.

Fig. 1.8.1. Thiessen polygon method.

Procedure:
i Join the adjacent rain-gauge stations, A, B, C, D, etc., by straight
lines.
ii. Construct the perpendicular bisectors of each of these lines.
iii. A Thiessen network is thus constructed. The polygon formed by the
perpendicular bisectors around a station encloses an area which is
everywhere closer tothat station than to any other station. Find the
area of each of these polygons shown hatched in Fig. 1.8.1.
iv. Multiply the area of each Thiessen polygon by the rain-gauge value
of enclosed station.
V. Find the total area (A) of the basin.
vi. Compute the average precipitation or rainfall from the equation :
P A,P +AP, t..*A,P. E(Ax P)
A, +A,...+A,
3. The Isohyetal Method: An Isohyet is a line, on a rainfall map of the
basin, joining places of equal rainfall readings. An isohyetal map showing
contours of equal rainfall presents a more accurate picture of the
rainfall distribution over the basin.
12
10 11 13
9.5

\o14.5

1Þ
11 14

12 13
Fig. 1.8.2. Isohyetal method.
1-10 F (CE-Sem-7) Hydrology
Procedure:
i. From the rainfall values recorded at various rain-gauge stations,
prepare the isohyetal map for storm causing the rainfall over the
area.
ii. Measure the area enclosed between successive isohyets with the
help of planimeter.
i. Multiply each of these areas by the average rainfall between the
isohyets.
iv. The average rainfall is then computed from the expression :
[P +P
2
P..
au
=

Que 1.9. The isohytes for the annual rainfall over a catchment
basin and the areasof the strips between the isohytes, are given
below. Find the average depth of annual precipitation over the
basin.
Isohytes(em) 75-85 85-95 95-105 10-115 115-135 135-155

Area (cm?) 580 2960 2850 1000 610 160

Answer
Given : Isohytes and area given in question table.
To Find : Average depth of annual precipitation.

Isohyets Average Areas Ax P +PJ/2

(cm) Precipitation (A)
1 (P,+P)
A
(cm)
2
75-85 80 580 46400

85 - 95 90 2960 266400

95-105 100 2850 285000

105 - 115 110 1000 110000

115 - 135 125 610 76250

135- 155 145 160 23200

8160 807250

2 807250 = 98.93 cm
8160
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 1-11F (CE-Sem-7)

Que 1.10. Explain a procedure for supplementing the missing

rainfall data.

Answer
Sometimes, it may not be possible to measure the rainfall at a particular
measuring station due to absence of the observer or instrument
failure or any other reason.
Following are the methods of calculate the missing rainfall data :
1. Arithmetic Mean Method : According to this method, the missing
rainfall P, of the station Xis computed by simple arithmetic average
of the rainfall at the nearby stations (known as index stations) in the
following form,
P,= SP/N-H + * . )
where, N = Number of index stations.
The above method is used only under the following conditions :
The normal annual rainfallof the missing station is within 10 %of
the normal annual rainfall of the index stations.
i. Data of at least three index stations should be available.
ii. The index stations should be evenly spaced around the missing station
and should be as close as possible.
2. Normal Ratio Method :
i In this method, the rainfall (P) of the surrounding index stations is
weighed by the ratio of normal annual rainfalls by using the following
equation:
1
P = n P p + .pMN, .
'N,*N, n N, N,
where, N, N, ... N, = Normal annual rainfall of index stations.
N, = Normal annual rainfall of missing station.
n = Number of index stations.
The above method is used when the normal annual precipitation of
the index stations differ more than 10 %of the missing station.
iii. Here also, the data of at least three index stations should be available,
and all these index stations should be evenly spaced.
3. Inverse Distance Method (US Weather Service Method) :
i. In this method a set of rectangular co-ordinate axes are passed through
the missing rain gauge station so that its co-ordinates are (0, 0).
The co-ordinates (x, y) of each index station, surrounding the missing
station are found.
ii. The weightage (W) of each index station is represented by the inverse
of the square of its distance from the missing station, and is given by,
1 1
W= D +
 1-12F (CE-Sem-7) Hydrology
iv. The missing rainfall data of the station Xis then computed from the
following equation:

P= 1 SPW,n

W,
i=l
V
The above method gives good results and is therefore the most acceptable
method for scientific analysis.
vi. However, the limitation of the method is that it estimates missing
rainfall between the highest and the lowest values of the index stations.
Que 1.11. Awatershed has four rain gauge stations, A, B, Cand D.
During a storm, rain gauge station Awas inoperative, while station
B, C, and D, surrounding station A, recorded rainfall of 48 mm,
51 mm and 45 mm respectively. Estimate the missing storm
precipitation of station A, using arithmetic mean method.
AKTU2020-21,Marks 10

Answer
Given : Recorded rainfall at station B, C and D = 48 mm, 51 mm and
45 mm.
To Find : Missing rainfall at station A.
Missing rainfall at inoperative station is given by,
1
P, =Pa +P +P,) =(48+ 51 +45) =48 mm

PART-4

Consistency of Rainfall Records, Intensity Derivation Frequency

(IDF) and Probabilistic Maximum Precipitation (PMP) Curves.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.12. Explain a procedure for checking a rainfall data for

consistency.
Answer
1 If the conditions relevant to the recording of a rain gauge station have
undergone asignificant change during the period ofrecord, inconsistency
would arise in the rainfall data of that station.
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 1-13 F (CE-Sem-7)

2 This inconsistency would be felt from the time the significant change
took place.
3. Some of the common causes for inconsistency of record are:
i Shifting of a rain gauge station to a new location.
ii. The neighbourhood of the station undergoing a marked change.
ii. Change in the ecosystem due to calamities, such as forest fires, landslides.
iv. Occurrence of observational error from a certain date.
4. The checking for inconsistency of a record is done by the double-mass
curve technique.
5. This technique is based on the principle that when each recorded data
comes from the same parent population, they are consistent.
6 Adouble mass curve is agraph plotted between the accumulated annual
rainfalls at a given station Xversus accumulated annual values of the
average of group of base station, for various consecutive time period, as
shown in Fig. 1.12.1.
7. A break in the slope of the resulting plot indicates a change in the
precipitation regime of station X.
8 The precipitation values at station X, beyond the period of break are
corrected by the following relationship :
P = P M, ...(1.12,1)
M,
where, P, = Corrected precipitation at any time stationX,
at any time period t
P= Recorded precipitation at the test station X,at
time period t.
X
at Break in the year 1963 54
rainfall2.0 55
cm correction ratio =
56
1.8 M,
10° 57
1.6 58
annual
of 59
units1.4 59
1.2 61
Accumulated 62
C
in 1.0
P,
64
63
0.8
0.6
, 66
9g
0.4
0.270
0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8
Accumulated annual rainfall of 10
station mean £P.. in units of 103 cm

Fig. 1.12.1. Double-mass curve.

1-14 F (CE-Sem-7) Hydrology

Que 1.13. What do you understand by the rainfall intensity ?

Explain the methods for the preparation of the intensity duration
curves. What are their uses ? AKTU2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
Rainfall Intensity : It is defined as the ratio of the total amount of rain
falling during a given period to the duration ofthe period. It is expressed
as in depth per unit time, usually as mm/hr.
Method :
i. It has generally been observed that greater the intensity of rainfall,
shorter is the length of time it continues.
As the duration of storm increases, the maximum intensity of storm
decreases.
iüi. Sherman gave the following relation between intensity and duration:
i= ..(1.13.1)
t+b)²
where, i= Intensity of rainfall (cm/hr).
t= Time in min.(time duration).
intensity= Constants to be determined for the area.
a, b,
Rainfalln

(cm/hr)

Time
Fig. 1.13.1. Intensity duration curve.
iv. The curve represented by equation (1.13.1) will be hyperbolic.
V. Paulhus suggests that if rainfall is plotted against duration in a log
log scale, the world's greatest recorded rainfalls lie on or just under
a straight line whose equation is
R= 16.6 D0.475
where, R - Rainfall (inches), D = Duration (hours).
Use:
1. The curves are commonly used in hydrology for flood forecasting and
civil engineering for urban drainage design.
2. The ID curves are also analysed in hydrometeorology because of the
interest in the time concentration or time structure of the rainfall.
3. It also used in hydrologic, hydraulic and water resource system.
Que 1.14. Write short note on intensity-duration-frequency (IDF)
curves.
 1-15F (CE-Sem-7)
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering

Answer
Relationship :
Intensity Duration Frequency
given duration will have larger
1. It is observed that a storm of any
intensity if its return period is large.
(cm/h)
intensity
Average

32
24
T=T=2010 yearyesars
16
T=5 years
2
Duration (t)
Fig. 1.14.1. Intensity duration frequency curves.
i. This means that for storm of given duration, stormsof higher intensity
in that duration is rarer than storms of smaller intensity.
and return period can
iüi. The relationship between intensity, duration
be expressed by the following:
KT: ...(1.14.1)
i=
(t+ by"
where, x, b and n= Constants for the catchment.
T= Return period (years).

Que 1.15.Write short note on probabilistic maximum precipitation

(PMP).
Answer
A Probable Maximum Precipitalion :
PMP, for
1 The probable maximum precipitation, commonly known as
region is the precipitation resulting from the most critical
ameteorological combinations that are considered probable of occurrence.
2 It can be defined as that rainfall over a basin which would produce
the flood flow with virtually no risk of being exceeded.
3 From the statistical studies, PMP can also be estimated from the
following equation :
PMP = P+ Ka
where, p = Mean of annual maximum rainfall series.
O= Standard deviation of the series.
K= Frequency factor, which is usually in the
neighbourhood of 15.
1-16 F (CE-Sem-7) Hydrology

B. Maximum and Minimum Rainfall : The magnitudes of maximum

rainfall and minimum rainfall within specified time period can be
determined by the use of frequency formula given by Hazen :
2N N
T=
2m -1 m-0.5
where, T = Recurrence interval within which the event is either
equal to or greater than the specified amount.
Procedure for Determination of Maximum Rainfall :
1. Arrange the rainfall data in descending order and assign rank number
(m) toeach rainfall event, the total number of event being equal to N.
2. Compute recurrence interval (T) for each event.
3. Plot a graph between recurrence interval (T) as abscissa and
corresponding rainfall as ordinate.
4. Determine the expected maximum rainfall magnitude for any desired
value of T from this graph.
Procedure for Determination of Minimum Rainfall :
1 Arrange the rainfall data in ascending order and assign rank number
(m)to each rainfall event, the total number of events being equal to
N.
2. Compute recurrence interval (T) for each event.
3 Plot a graph between recurrence interval (T) as abscissa and
corresponding rainfall as ordinate.
4 Determine the expected minimum rainfall magnitude for any desired
value of T from this graph.

PART-5

Evaporation and Consumption Use : Process Afecting Factors,

Estimation and Measurement Techniques.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.16. Write short notes on evaporation and consumptive

use.

Answer
Evaporation :
1 It is the process in which liquid changes to gaseous state at the free
surface, below the boiling point through the transfer of heat energy.
2 It is a continuous natural process by which a substance changes from
liquid to gaseous state.
3. The main source of evaporation is the solar radiation.
Irrigation & Water Resource Engineering 1-17F (CE-Sem-7)

4 For arid regions, the loss due to evaporation may be as high as 90 %of
the annual precipitation.
Expression : From the Dalton's law of evaporation, the rate of
evaporation(E)can be related to vapour pressure as under:
E=Cle,-e) =(a +bv\e,-e,)
where, E- Evaporation loss (mn/day).
e, = Saturation vapour pressure at water surface
temperature in millibar.
e, = Actual vapour pressure of the air above.
C= A constant whose value depends upon various
factors such as barometric pressure, wind
velocity, humidity etc.
= a+by
a, b = Constants.
v= Wind speed in km/h.
For evaporation to continue, e, should be less than e,. Evaporation will
be high if(e,-e,) is large. Evaporation will be zero when e, =e,
Consumptive Use :
i. It may be defined as the amount of water used in evapotranspiration
from an area under vegetation, plus the water used by the plants in
their metabolism process is for building of plant tissues. Since the quantity
of water used in metabclic process is insignificant compared to
evapotranspiration, the term consumptive use and evapotranspiration
are considered as one and the same thing.
It is expressed in terms of depth of water. Mathematically represented
as,
Consumptive Use =Evapotranspiration =Evaporation +Transpiration
iii. Consumptive use varies with tenperature, humidity, wind speed,
topography, sunlight hours, method of irrigation, moisture availability.
Types:Following are the types of consumptive use of water :
1. Optimum Consumptive Use : It is the consumptive use which
produces a maximum crop yield.
2 Potential Consumptive Use: Ifsufficient moisture is always available
to completely meet the needs of vegetation fully covering the entire
area then resulting evapotranspiration is known as potential consumptive
use.

Seasonal Consumptive Use: The total amount of waterused in the

evapotranspiration by a cropped area during the entire growing season.
Que 1.17.What do you understand byconsumptive use of water ?
How is different from evapotranspiration ?
AKTU2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
Consumptive Use : Refer Q. 1.16, Page 1-16F,Unit-1.
1-18F (CE-Sem-7)
Hydrology
Difference:
Consumptive Use Evapotranspiration
It is the sum ofwater need of
and volume of crop It is the combined loss of water
specific time. transpirated in a from earth surface and crop by
vaporization.
Que 1.18. Discuss the factors that affect the
water body.
evaporation from a
Answer
Factors Affecting EvaporationLosses: Evaporation losses depend
upon following factors :
1 Nature of Evaporating Surface:
Black cotton soils help to evaporate the soil water faster than red soil
because such soils have the potential to absorb incoming radiation more
effectively.
ii Evaporation from wet soil is faster and it reduces gradual!y as the soil
becomes drier.
2. Area of Water Surface : The evaporation loss directly depends upon
the area of the water surface-greater the area greater will be the water
loss due to evaporation.
3 Depth of Water in Water Body: Deep water bodies evaporate slower
than shallow water bodies in summer while in winter season, they
evaporate faster.
4. Humidity: Evaporation is inversely proportional to humidity. If the
humidity in the atmosphere is more, evaporation will be less.
5. Wind Velocity: Wind removes the overlying vapour from an evaporating
body thereby increasing the rate of evaporation.
6. Temperature of Air : Increase in air temperature inereases the
evaporation rate though not always proportionately. For the same
temperature, colder months have less evaporation than summer months
due to combined effect of other environmental parametere.
7. Atmospheric Pressure : As per Dalton's law, evaporation will be less
if the atmospheric pressure le,) is more. Thus, at higher altitudes,
evaporation loss is more while in deep valleys, evaporation is less.
8. Quality of Water: The presence of dissolvedsalts in water reduces the
saturation vapour pressure le) of water which consequently reduces
the rate of evaporation.

Que 1.19. What do youunderstand by consumptive use of water ?

What are the factors affecting consumptive use of water ?
AKTU2018-19, Marks 10

Answer
A. Consumptive Use : Refer Q. 1.16, Page 1-16F, Unit-1.
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 1-19 F (CE-Sem-7)

B. Factors :Following are the factors affecting the consumptive use of

water:
1. Evaporation which depends on humidity.
2. Mean monthly temperature.
3. Growing season of crops and cropping pattern.
4. Monthly precipitation in area.
5 Wind velocity in locality.
6 Soil and topography.
7. Irrigation practices and method of irrigation.
8. Sunlight hours.
Que 1.20. List the various direct methods of measurement of
consumptive use of water. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10

Answer
Direct Methods : Following are the method of measurement of
consumptive use of water :
1. Tank and Lysimeter Method:
i. Tanks are containers set flush with the ground level having an area of
10 m and 3 m deep.
ii. Larger the size of the tank greater is the resemblance to root
development.
i. The tank is filled with soilof the field and crop is grown in it.
iv. Consumptive use is determined by measuring the quantity of water
required tomaintain constant moisture conditions within the tank for
satisfactory proper growth of the crop.
V. In Lysimeters, the bottom is pervious. Consumptive use is the difference
of water applied and that draining through pervious bottom and collected
in a pan.
2. Field Experimental Plots:
This method is more dependable than the tank and lysimeter method.
i. In this method, irrigation water is applied to the selected field
experimental plots in such a way that there is neither runoff nor deep
percolation.
ii. Yield obtained from different fields are plotted against the total water
used, and, as basis for arriving at the consumptive use, those yields are
selected which appear to be most profitable.
iv. It is seen from observations that for every type of crop, the yield increases
rapidly with an increase of water used to a certain point, and then
decreases with further increase in water.
V. At the 'bre ak in the curve', the amount of water used is considered as
the consumptive use.
3. Soil Moisture Studies:
i. This method is specially suited to those areas where soil is fairly uniform
and ground water is deep enough so that it does not affect the fluctuations
in soil moisture within the root zone of the soil.
1-20 F (CE-Sem-7)
Hydrology
ii
Soil moisture measurements are done before and after each irrigation.
i. The quantity of water extracted per day from soil is computed for each
period.
iv. Acurve is drawn by plotting the rate of use against time and from this
curve, seasonal use can be determined.
4. Integration Method :
i. In this method, it is necessary to know the division of total area under
irrigation crops, natural vegetation, water surface area and bare land
area.
The integration method is summation of the products of:
a. Unit consumptive use for each crop times its area.
b. Unit consumptive use of native vegetation times its area.
C.
Water surface evaporation times the water surface area.
d Evaporation from bare land times its area.
üi. Thus, in this method, annual consumptive use for the whole of the area
is found, in hectare-metre units.
5. Inflow-Outflow Studies for Large Areas :
In this method also, annual consumptive use is found for large areas. If
Uis the valley consumptive use, its value is given by,
U= (I+P) + (G, -G,)R
where, U=Valley consumptive use (in hectare-metre).
I= Total inflow during 12 months year.
P= Yearly precipitation on valley floor.
G, =Ground storage at the beginning of the year.
G, = Ground storage at the end of the year.
R= Yearly outflow.
All the above volumes are measured in hectare-metres.

Que 1.21.What are evaporimeters and discuss important different

types of evaporimeters ?
OR
Write about the ISI evaporated pan with the help of its neat sketch.
Answer
A. Evaporimeters : Evaporimeters are water-containing pans which
are exposed to the atmosphere and the loss of water by evaporation
is measured in them at regular intervals.
B. Types :Following are the type of evaporimeter :
1. Class-A Evaporation Pan :
i. It is a standard pan of 1210 mm diameter and 255 mm depth used by
the US weather bureau and is known as class-A 1land pan.
i. The depth of water is maintained between 18 cm and 20 cm as shown
in Fig. 1.21.1.
ii. The pan is normally made of unpainted galvanized iron sheet. Monel
metal is used where corrosion is a problem.
iv. The pan is placed on a wooden platform of 15 cm height above the
ground toallow free circulation of air below the pan.
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 1-21 F (CE-Sem-7)
Water level in pan

255
GL 150

1210 mm diameter
Wooden support
Fig. 1.21.1. USclass-A evaporation plan.
V.
Evaporation measurements are made by measuring the depth of
water with a hook gauge in a stilling well.
2. ISI Standard Pan:
i. This pan evaporimeter specified by IS: 5973-1970, also known as
modified class A pan, consists of a pan 1220 mm in diameter with
255 mm of depth.
The pan is made of copper sheet of 0.9 mm thickness, tinned inside
and painted white outside as shown in Fig. 1.21.2.
ii. Afixed point gauge indicates the level of water. Acalibrated cylindrical
measure is used to add or remove water maintaining the water level
in the pan to a fixed mark.
iv. The top of the pan is covered fully with a hexagonal wire netting of
galvanized iron toprotect the water in the pan from birds.
V.
Further, the presence of a wire mesh makes the water temperature
more uniform during day and night.
Vi. The evaporation from this pan is found to be less by about 14 %
compared to that from unscreened pan.
vii. The pan is placed over a square wooden platform of 1225 mm width
and 100 mm height to enable circulation of air underneath the pan.
1220
Thermometer clamp
Wire-mesh Thermonmeter
cOver
Stilling well
102
Fixed point gauge,

Copper sheet 10 T 235 255 .Pan

thickness 0.9 190
15

Wooden
200
75
platform
1225

Fig. 1.21.2. ISI evaporation pan.

1-22 F (CE-Sem-7) Hydrology

PART-6

Infiltration, Process Affecting Factors,

Measurement and Estimation.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.22. What is infiltration and infiltration capacity ? Also

explain its effects.
Answer
Infiltration :It may be defined as the downward movement of water
from soil surface into the soil mass through the pores of the soil.
Infiltration Capacity:The infiltration capacity of asoil is the maximum
rate at which water willenter the soil in a given condition.
Effects :Following are the effects of infiltration:
It reduces the magnitude of the flood.
It delays the time of arrival of water to the channel.
ii. It recharges the ground water reservoir.
iv, It reduces soil erosion, ete.

Que 1.23. What are the different factors affecting infiltration

rates ?

Answer
Factors Affecting Infiltration :Following are various factors, both
meteorological as well as the characteristics of soil media, on which
infiltration rate and infiltration capacity depends :
1. Condition of EntrySurface: (Vegetation covers versus bare land):
If the area is covered by grass, vegetation and bushy plants,infiltration
capacity will be more.
ii. On the contrary if the soil surface is bare, the impact of rain drops falling
on the surface will cause in-washing of finer particles ofthe soil and will
clog the surface, thus resulting in the retardation of infiltration.
2
Antecedent Moisture Conditions in Soil :Infiltration rate will depend
on initial moisture conditions of soil. When the soil moisture is high, the
infiltration rate (f) will be low.
3. Temperature: In summer, infiltration will be higher due to less viscous
water, in comparison to winter. In sub zero temperature, crystallisation
of water in the pores blocks the passage, thus reducing or even stopping
the infltration.
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 1-23 F (CE-Sem-7)

4 Intensity and Duration of Rainfall : Rainfall of lesser intensity

results in higher infiltration rate. The rainfallwith higher duration will
result in lower infiltration in comparison to the same quantity of rain
falling asn number of isolatedstorms.
5. Movement of Man and Animals: When there is heavy movement of
man and /or animals, the soil gets compacted, resulting in reduction in
the infiltration rate.
6. Change Due to Human Activities : Cultivation of barren land, by
growing crops and grass cover, results in increased rate of infiltration.
On the other hand, construction of roads, houses, factories, play grounds,
including over-grazing of pastures results in reduction in infiltration
capacity.
7. Quality of Water : Silts and other impurities present in incoming
water result in retardation of infiltration rate due to clogging of soil
pores.
8. Presence of Ground Water Table :Presence of ground water table
reduces infiltration. For infiltration to continue, the position of ground
water table should not be very close.
9. Size and Characteristics of Soil Particles: If the soil has swelling
minerals like illite and montmorillonite, the infiltration rate will reduce
drastically.
Que 1.24. Explain a procedure for fitting Horton's infiltration
equation for experimental data from a given plot.
Answer
A Horton's Equation : Horton gave the following equation for finding
infiltration rate (f) at any time period (t)
f=f, + fo-fe .(1.24.1)
where, f.= Infiltration rate at any time t.
f= Constant infiltration rate at time t =T(say).
fo= Infiltration rate in the beginning (t =0).
k=A constant which depends on the soil and
vegetation.
B. Solution of Horton's Equation :
1 Transposing and taking log on both sides.
logo f,-f) =log,o Vo-fe)-kt log;oe
1
k logo e logo V;-f)-log,o Vo-feN
2. From which t=

1
Or t= -log,o V;-fl+ log1o fo-f)
k logo k log,, e
...(1.24.2)
3. The above equation is the equation of a straight line of the form
y= m + C
1-24 F (CE-Sem-7) Hydrology
Time
t 1
Slope m= k log10

log1of-fe)
Fig. 1.24.1.
1 1
where, y=t, m= , x= log,o f,-f)and c =
k log e k logo e
Vo-f)
-1 -, where the negative sign shows that as
4. The slope of the line is
k log,o e
tinereases, f, decreases and hence (f,-f) and log,of,-f) also decreases
as is clear from the straight line of Fig. 1.24.1.
5. The value of slope can be measured by knowing the values off, at two
timings t, and t, and drawing a straight line through these two points.
6. Knowing the slope mofthe line, the value of constant k is known. Thus,
the equation of the curve can be written easily in terms of known
parameters k and f.
Que 1.25. Discuss briefly the infiltration indices.
OR
What is infiltration capacity ? What are the different factor affecting
infiltration rates? Describe infiltration indices which are commonly
used. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10|

Answer
Infiltration Capacity : Refer Q. 1.22, Page 1-22F, Unit-1.
Factors: Refer Q. 1.23, Page 1-22F, Unit-1.
1. Infiltration Index : It is the average rate of loss such that the
volume of rainfall in excess of that rate will be equal to the direct
runoff. Estimate of runoff volume from large are as having
heterogeneous infiltration loss and rainfall characteristics, are made
by use of infiltration indices.
2. þ-index:
i. The -index is the average rainfall above which the rainfall volume is
equal to the runoff volume.
The -index is derived from the rainfall hyetograph with the knowledge
of the resulting runoff volume.
iii. The initial loss is also considered as infiltration.
iv. The -value is found by treating it as a constant infiltration capacity.
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 1-25 F (CE-Sem-7)

W-index :
i. In an attempt to refine the -index, the initial losses are separated
from the total abstractions and an average value of infiltration rate,
called W-index, is defined as,
W= P-R-I, ...(1.25.1)
t
where, P= Total storm precipitation (cm).
R=Total storm runoff (cm).
I, = Initial losses (cm).
t, = Duration of the rainfall excess, i. e., the total
time in which the rainfall intensity is greater
than W (in hours).
W= Defined average rate ofinfiltration (cm).
ii. Since initial losses are difficult to obtain, the accurate estimation of
W-index is rather difficult.
iüi. The minimum value of the W-index obtained under very wet soil
conditions, representing the constant minimum rate of infiltration
of the catchment, is known as Wmin
iv. It is to be noted that both the 0-index and W-index vary from storm to
storm.

VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.

Q.1. What are the different components of hydrologic system ?

Describe in brief with suitable examples.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.1, Unit-1.

Q.2. What do you understand by consumptive use of water ?

How isdifferent from evapotranspiration ?
Ans. Refer Q. 1.17, Unit-1.

Q.3. List the various direct methods of measurement of

consumptive use of water.
Ans, Refer Q. 1.20, Unit-1.

Q.4. What is infiltration capacity ?What are the different factor

affecting infiltration rates ? Describe infiltration indices
which are commonly used.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.25, Unit-1.
 2
UNIT
Surface Runoff

CONTENTS
Part-1 : Surface Runoff Components .2-2F to 2-2F

Part-2 : Factor Affecting Runoff 2-2F to 2-5F

Part-3 : Method of Estimation of ..... ....... 2-5F to 2-7F

Runoff Volume and Peak Runoff

Part-4: Rating Curve, Rainfall-Runoff. .2-7F to 2-8F

Relationship
Part-5 : Hydrograph Analysis : Components, .2-8F to 2-11F
Factor Affecting Hydrograph
Part-6 : Base Flow Separation, Direct . 2-11F to 2-13F
Runoff Hydrograph
Part-7 : Unit Hydrograph Theory and ...-13F to 2-14F
Assumption

Part-8 : Derivation of Unit Hydrograph .......2-14F to 2-21F

Part-9 : Synthetic Unit Hydrograph ............ 2-21F to 2-25F

Part-10 : Irigation:Development in India ...2-25F to 2-25F

Part-11: Types, Advantages and .2-26F to 2-27F
Disadvantages of Irrigation

Part-12 : Function of Water in Plant Growth....2-28F to 2-28F

Part-13: Method of Irrigation .2-28F to 2-30F

2-1F (CE-Sem-7)
2-2F (CE-Sem-7) Surface Runoff

Part-14 : Water Requirement of Crops .2-30F to 2-32F

Part-15 : Irrigation Frequency 2-32F to 2-35F

Part-16 : Irrigation Efficiencies, Principal ........2-35F to 2-38F

Crops & Crop Season

Part-17: Crop Rotation. .2-38F to 2-39F

Part-18: Canal Irrigation : Classes .2-39F to 2-41F

and Alignment, Parts
of a Canal System

Part-19: Commanded Area, Curves in... .2-41F to 2-42F

Channels, Channel Losses
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 2-3F (CE-Sem-7)

PART-1

Surface Runoff Components.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.1. What is runoff ? What are the components of surface

runoff ?

Answer
Runoff:
1 Runoff means the draining or flowing off of precipitation from a
catchment area through a surface channel.
2. It represents the output from the catchment in a given unit of time.
Types of Runoff : Based on the time delay between the precipitation
and the runoff, the runoff is classified into two categories as :
1 Direct Runoff:
i. It is that part of the runoff which enters into the stream immediately
P after the rainfall.
It includes surface runoff, prompt interflow and rainfall on the surface
of the stream.
ii. In the case of snow-melt, the resulting flow entering into the stream
is also adirect runoff.
iv. Sometimes terms such as direct storm runoff and storm runoff are
used to designate direct runoff.
2 Base Flow :
1 The delayed flow that reaches to a stream essentially as groundwater
flow is called base flow.
Many times delayed interflow is also included under this category.
i. In the annual hydrograph of a perennial stream, the base flow is
easily recognized as the slowly decreasing flow ofthe stream in rainlèss
periods.
PART-2

Factors Affecting Runoff.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
2-4 F (CE-Sem-7) Surface Runoff

Que 2.2. What are the factors that affect the runoff from a
catchment area ?

Answer
Factors : Following are the factors that affect the runoff from a
catchment area:
1. Precipitation Characteristics :
This is the most important factor on which runoff depends. Important
precipitation characteristics are:
Intensity. b. Duration.
C. Aerial distribution. d. Direction of storm movement.
e Form of precipitation. f. Evapotranspiration.
More the rainfall more will be the runoff. Runoff depends on the type of
the storm causing precipitation, and also upon its duration.
iii. Runoff also increases with the intensity of rainfall. Runoff also increases
with the extent of the storm over the catchment.
iv. Ifthe rainfall intensity is very less, and it rains as light showers, much of
the water willbe lost in infiltration and evaporation etc., and the runoff
willbe less. Greater evapotranspiration will result in lesser runoff.
V. Similarly, if the precipitation is in the form of snow, or if water freezes
as it falls, it will be retained in the catchment till temperature increases.
Thus runoff will be less.
2 Shape and Size of the Catchment :
i. The runoff from a catchment also depends upon the size, shape and
location of the catchment.
i. More intense rainfalls are generally distributed over a relatively smaller
area. Astream collecting water from a small catchment area is likely to
give greater runoff intensity per unit area.
i. In the case of a very big catchment, uniform rain seldom falls over the
entire area; with the result that only very few tributaries of the stream
feed water to main stream during a particular storm.
iv. Thus runoff intensity of larger stream,per unit catchment area is lesser.
V. In the case of a fan or sector shaped catchment Fig. 2.2.1(a) all the
tributaries are approximately of the same size.
vi. Such catchment gives greater runoff since the peak flood from the
tributaries is likely toreach the main stream approximately at the same
time.
Watershed
Watershed1
-Main
stream
Watershed Main stream
(a) Fan shaped catchment (b)Fern left catchment
Fig. 2.2.1. Effect of shape of .he catchment.
 2-5F (CE-Sem-7)
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering
2.2.1(b), the tributaries are
vii. In the case ofa fern leaf catchment Fig. at the regular
generally of different lengths, and meet the main stream
intervals.
3. Topography of Catchment :
catchment is smooth
The runoffdepends upon whether the surface of the
or rugged.
and
Ifthe surface slope is steep, water will flow quickly, and absorption
evaporation losses will be less, resulting in greater runoff.
side of the
iii. If the catchment is mountainous, and is on the windward
mountains, the intensity of rainfall will be more, and hence runoff will
also be more.
4 Orientation of Watershed :
i. The orientation of watershed affects the evaporation and transpiration
loss by influencing the amount of heat received from the sun.
The north and south orientation of watershed affects the melting time
of collected snow and hence the runoff.
ii. Similarly, in mountainous watershed, the windward side of the mountain
receives comparatively higher intense rainfall than the leeward side.
PART-3

Method of Estimation of Runoff Volume and Peak Runoff.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.3. What is runoff ? What are the factors that affect the

runoff from a catchment area ? Deseribe the methods of computing

run off from a catchment area. AKTU2016-17, Marks 10

Answer
Runoff: Refer Q. 2.1, Page 2-3F, Unit-2.
Factors : Refer Q. 2.2, Page 2-4F, Unit-2.
Method: Following are the method used to compute runoff :
A Runoff by Linear or Exponential Regression :
1. Straight Line Regression between P and R:The equation of linear
regression line between observed values of R and P is
R= aP+b
where, a and b are constants representing abstractions. The values of
a and b are given by the following equations :
a=
N (2P.R) (2 P)(2R)
N (EP) -(2 P
2-6F (CE-Sem-7) Surface Runoff

2R-aP
and b=
and co-efficient of correlation,
N(EPR)- (2P) (2R)
JIN (EP) - ( P'}x (N (ER²) - (R³]
2 Exponential Regression between P and R: For large catchments,
it is advantageous to use the following exponential relationship:
R=B Pm
where, Band mare constants. Taking logarithms of both the sides, we
get
log, R= mlog, P +log, B
B. Runoff by Formulae and Tables :
1. Runoff Co-efficient : The runoff and the rainfall can be inter-related
by runoff co-efficient, by the expression.
R= kP
where, R= Runoffin cm; P= Rainfall in cm; k= Runoff co-efficient.
2. Inglis's Formula : C.C. Inglis gave the following formulae, derived
from data collected from 37 catchments in the Bombay Presidency :
For ghat areas (western ghats):
R= 0.85 P- 30.5 (when Rand P are in cm)
i. For non-ghat areas (plain regions) :
R= 0.00394 P2 0.0701 P
where,R and P are in cm.
3. Lacey's Formula :
P
R=
304.8 F
1+
PS
(where P and R are in cm.)
where, S= Catchment factor.
F= Monsoon duration factor.
Corresponding to the five classes of catchments, defined by Barlow,
Lacey gave the following values of the catchment factor (S).
Table 2.3.1.
Class of Catchment Values of S

A 0.25
0.60
C 1.00
D 1,70
E 3.45

Lacey also divided the monsoon into three classes, depending upon its
duration and gave the following values of monsoon duration factors :
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 2-7F (CE-Sem-7)
Table 2.3.1.
No. Class of Monsoon Monsoon Factor (F)
1. Very short 0.50
2 Standard length 1,00
3 Very long 1.50
4. Khosla's Formula (1960) :
R = P. -0.48 T m

where, = Monthly runoff in cm.

T= Mean temperature in °C on the entire
catchment.
P = Monthly precipitation in cm.
The temperature introduced in the formula takes into account various
factors affecting losses by evaporation, transpiration, sun shine and
wind velocity.
C. Infiltration Index :
1. Infiltration index is the average rate of loss such that the volume of
rainfall in excess of that rate will be equal to the direct runoff.
2 Estimate of runoff volume from large areas having heterogeneous
infiltration loss and rainfall characteristics, are made by use of
infiltration indices.

PART-4

Rating Curve, Rainfall-Runoff Relationship.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.4. Describe the rainfall-runoff relationship in detail.

Answer
1. Some empirical relations have been developed using the observed
rainfall and runoff for streams of a given region. Such relations,
therefore, have limitations to their applicability only to speific regions.
2. Based on this studies of small catchments (less than about 150 km?) of
UP, Barlow expressed the runoff R as :
R= K,P
in which, K, is the runoff co-efficient, that depends on the catchment
and monsoon characteristics.
3 Strange analysed the rainfall and runoff data for the border region of
Maharashtra and Karnataka and expressed runoff in terms of rainfall
as
 Surface Runoff
2-8F (CE-Sem-7)

R= KP characteristics
depends on catchment
in which the runoff co-efficient K,
only. Inglis and De Souza gave
4. For Western Ghats,R= 0.85P-30.5

5. for Deccan plateau, they gave

Similarly,
1 P(P-17.8)
R=
254
relations, R and P are in cm. R_(cm) and
In both these
analysed monthly data of rainfall P. (cm), runoffand USA to
6 Khosla catchments of India
temperature T. (°C) for various
m

obtain
R =P-Lm
= 0.48 T for T, > 4.5°C
with R20 and L monthly m m

losses in cm.
Here, L, represents follows :
loss may be assumed as
For T. s 4.5°C, the monthly
-1 -6.5
T. (°C) 4.5
1.78 1.52
(cm) 2.17
12

Annual runoff = Ri
i=1

good estimates of runoff.

This formula is found togive fairly
equation, runoff R can be expressed as
7. Using hydrologic water-budget
R=P-E,, - AS
evapotranspiration and AS is the change in soil
where, E, is actual
moisture storage.

PART-5

Hydrograph Analysis : Components,

Factor Affecting Hydrograph.

Questions-Answers
Questions
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type

Que 2.5. What is hydrograph ? Draw a single peaked hydrograph

and explain its components.
OR
Describe the analysis of the recession limb of a flood hydrograph.
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 2-9F (CE-Sem-7)

Answer
A Hydrograph : Aplot of the discharge in a stream plotted against time
chronologically is called a hydrograph.
B. Components of Hydrograph : The essential components of a
hydrograph are described below:
1. Rising Limb:
i. The rising limb ofa hydrograph, also known as concentration curve
represents the increase in discharge due to the gradual building up of
storage in channels and over the catchment surface.
iü. The initial losses and high infiltration losses during the early period of
a storm cause the discharge to rise rather slowly in the initial periods.
ii. As the storm continues, more and more flow from distant parts reach
the basin outlet.
iv. Simultaneously the infiltration losses also decrease with time. Thus,
under a uniform storm over the catchment, the runoff increases rapidly
with time.
V. As indicated earlier, the basin and storm characteristics control the
shape of the rising limb of a hydrograph.
2. Crest Segment :
i The crest segment is one of the most import ant parts of a hydrograph
as it contains the peak flow.
D hour
Hydrograph components
MA= Base flow recession
Rainfall
AB = Rising limb
BC = Crest segment
(m/s) CD = Falling limb
P
DN= Base flow recession
Discharge B Points B and C = Inflection points

Direct runoff
Peak
flood

N
Base flow

Time (hours)
Fig. 2.5.1. Elements of a flood hydrograph.
ii. The peak low occurs when the runofffromvarious parts of the catchment
simultaneously contribute amounts to achieve the maximum amount
of flow at the basin outlet.
ii. Generally, for large catchments, the peak flow occurs after the stopping
of rainfall, the time interval from the centre of mass of rainfall to the
peak being essentially controlled by basin and storm characteristics.
2-10 F (CE-Sem-7) Surface Runof

3. Recession Limb:
The recession limb, which extends from the point of inflection at the
end of the crest segment (point Cin Fig. 2.5.1) to the commencement
of the natural groundwater flow (point Din Fig. 2.5.1) represents the
withdrawal of water from the storage built up in the basin during the
earlier phases of the hydrograph.
The starting point of the recession limb, i.e., the point of inflection
represents the condition of maximum storage.
iü Since the depletion of storage takes place after the stopping of rainfall,
the shape of this part of the hydrograph is independent of storm
characteristics and depends entirely on the basin characteristics.
iv. The storage of water in the basin exists as (i) surface storage, which
includes both surface detention and channel storage, (ii) interflow
storage, and (iii) groundwater storage, i.e., base-flow storage.
Que 2.6. What do youmean by design flood? What are the factors
affecting the flood hydrograph ?
Answer
A. Design Flood : It is the value of the instantaneous peak discharge
adopted for the design of a particular project or any of its structure. The
term design flood is used to denote the maximum flood flow that could
be passed without damage or serious threat to the stability of engineering
structure.
B. Factors: Following are the factors affecting the flood hydrograph:
1. Physiographic Factors :
i. Basin characteristics :
b. Size.
a. Shape.
C. Slope. d. Nature of the valley.
e. Elevation. f. Drainage density.
Infiltration characteristics :
Land use and cover. b. Soil type and geological conditions.
C. Lakes, swamps and other storage.
Channel characteristics: CrosS-section, roughness, and storagecapacity.
2 Climatic Factors :
Storm characteristics: Precipitation, intensity, duration, magnitude,
and movement of storm.
Initial loss.
üi. Evapotranspiration.
3. Shape of the Basin :
from the
i The shape of the basin influences the time taken for water
occurrence
remote parts of the catchment to arrive at the outlet. Thus, the
the
of the peak and hence the shape of the hydrograph are affected by
basin shape.
ii Fan-shaped, i.e., nearly semi circular shaped catchments give high
broad
peak and narrow hydrographs while elongated catchments give
and low-pe aked hydrographs.
 2-11F (CE-Sem-7)
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering
4 Size:
ones in terms of the
Small basins behave different from the large phenomenon.
relative importance of various phases of the runoff
predominant over the
iü. In small catchments, the overland flow phase is
channel flow.
have important role on
iüi. Hence the land use and intensity of rainfall are suppressed as the
the peak flood. On large basins these effects
channel flow phase is more predominant.
5. Slope : the velocity of flow in the
i. The slope of the main stream controls
channel.
As the recession limb of the hydrograph
represents the depletion of
pronounced effect on
storage, the stream channel slope will have a
this part of the hydrograph.
depletion of storage and
iüi. Large stream slopes give rise to quickerhydrographs.
hence result in steeper recession limbs of
catchments where the overland
iv. The basin slope is important in small steeper slope of
flow is relatively more important. In such cases the
the catchment results in larger peak discharges.
6 Drainage Density: length
i. The drainage density is defined as the ratio of the
total channel
to the total drainage area.
disposal
. Alarge drainage density creates situation conducive for quick
of runoff down the channels.
discharge.
ii. This fast response is reflected in a pronounced peaked predominant
iv. In basins with smaller drainage densities, the overland flow is
and the resulting hydrograph is squat with a slowly rising limb.
7. Climatic Factors :
i Among climatic factors the intensity, duration, and direction of storm
movement are the three important ones affecting the shape of a flood
hydrograph.
i. For a given duration, the peak and volume of the surface runoff are
essentially proportional to the intensity of rainfall.
ii. This aspect is made use ofin the unit hydrograph theory of estimating
peak-flow hydrographs.

PART-6

Base Flow Separation, Direct Runoff Hydrograph.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.7. Explain the method of base flow separation.

2-12 F (CE-Sem-7) Surface Runoff

Answer
Method of Base Flow Separation : Following are the methods of
base flow separation :
1. Straight line method.
2 Two lines method.
3 Curves extension method.
A. Straight Line Method :
1 In this method, the separation of the base flow is achieved by joining
with a straight line the beginning of the surface runoff to a point on the
recession limb representing the end of the direct runoff.
2 In Fig. 2.7.1, point A represents the beginning ofthe direct runoff and it
isusually easy to identify in view of the sharp change in the runoff rate
at that point.
3 Point B, marking the end of the direct runoff is rather difficult to locate
exactly. An empirical equation for the time interval N (days) from the
peak to the point B is
N= 0.83A0.2
A = Drainage area in km
where, base flow
4 Points A and B are joined by a straight line todemarcate to the
and surface runoff.
is only
5 It should be realized that the value of N obtained as above
considering a
approximate and the position of B should be decided by
number of hydrographs for the catchment.
-N

3
iD D'

Time

Fig. 2.7.1. Three method of separation.

B. TwoLines Method :
method in which the base flow is separated
1. This is most widely used
from direct runoff by two lines.
extending the base flow curve, existing
2 The first line AE is obtained by surface runoff, till it intersects a
prior to the commencement of the
a point E.
vertical line, drawn from the peak (P) in
located earlier, are joined by a
3. Point E (so obtained) and point D,
straight line. base flow
segments marked by two line AE and ED demarcate the
4. The
and direct runoff.
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 2-13 F (CE-Sem-7)

C. Curves Extension Method :

1 This method consists of extending the base flow curve on recession
side backward till it intersects a vertical line through the point of
inflection (C), in point F. Thus, in Fig. 2.7.1,D' Fis the curve extended
backwards. Points A and F are then joined by an arbitrary smooth
curve.

2. Thus, the two segments marked by two curves AF and FD' demarcate
the base flow and direct runoff.
3 This method is preferred where the stream and ground water table
are hydraulically connected and flow from ground water storage (the
contribution of which may be significant) reaches the stream quickly.

PART-7

Unit Hydrograph Theory and Assumption.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.8. Define unit hydrograph. Discuss the assumption used

in unit hydrograph.
OR
Discuss the several assumptions underlying the UH method in
hydrological analysis.
Answer
A. Unit Hydrograph :
1 Aunit hydrograph (or unit-graph) is the direct runoff hydrograph
resulting from one centimeter (or one millimeter or one inch) ofexcess
rainfallgenerated uniformly over a catchment area at a constant rate
for an effective duration.
2 The unit hydrograph for a catchment basin is the direct runoff
hydrograph produced by a unit (usually lem) rainfall excess from a
storm of D-hour duration and therefore, is the lumped response of the
basin to the storm.
B. Assumptions : Following are the basic assumptions in the unit
hydrograph theory :
1 The excess rainfall has a constant intensity (1/D cm/hr) within effective
storm duration of D-hours.
The excess rainfall (giving rise to l cm depth of runoff) is uniformly
distributed throughout the entire catchment basin.
3. The base time of direct runoff hydrograph (i.e., the duration of the
direct runoff resulting from an excess rainfall of given duration) is
constant.
2-14 F (CE-Sem-7) Surface Runoff
4 The ordinates of all direct runoff hydrographs of a common base
time are directly proportional to the total amount of direct runoff
represented by each hydrograph.
5 For a given catchment basin, the hydrograph, resulting froma given
excess rainfall, reflects the unchanging characteristics of the catchment
basin.

Que 2.9. Explain uses and limitations of unit hydrograph.

Answer
A. Uses : Following are the uses of unit hydrograph:
1 It is use in the development offlood hydrographs for extreme rainfall
magnitudes for use in the design of hydraulic structures.
2 It is use in extension of flood-flow records based on rainfall records.
3 It is use in development of flood forecasting and warning systems
based on rainfall.
B. Limitations of Unit Hydrograph : Following are the limitations to
the use of unit hydrographs:
1. Precipitation must be from rainfall only. Snow-melt runoff cannot be
satisfactory represented by unit hydrograph.
2. The catchment should not have unusually large storages in terms of
tanks, ponds, large flood-bank storages,etc., which affect the linear
relationship between storage and discharge.
3.
If the precipitation is decidedly non-uniform, unit hydrographs
cannot be expected to give good results.
4. In the use of unit hydrographs very accurate results should not be
expected. Variations in the hydrograph base of as much as +20 %and
in the peak discharge by + 10%are normally considered acceptable.

PART-8

Derivation of Unit Hydrograph.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.10. | Following are the storms hydrograph ordinates of a

river draining a catechment area of 425 km² due to 6 hr isolated
storm derive the ordinate of a 6 hr unit hydrograph for the
catchment.
 2-16FCENem-7)
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering
12 18 24
Time(hr)-6
Discharge 102 I 71 17
(m'sec) 10 10 30 87.6 116
78 00 J02
Time 64 00 00
16 12 12 12
Discharge 40 32 28 21 17

AKTU2016-10, Marka 10|

Answer
6h
Given : Area of catchment 425 km', Time =
To Find : Ordinates of 6 h unit hydrograph.
ig. 2.10.1. Denoting the tine
1 The flood hydrograph is plotted to ncale
from beginning of storm as . |=0
A= beginning of DRH
B= end of DRH
I= 20 h
P, = Poak
Hence, Ñ= (90- 20) =70h = 2.91 dayn
the divide line for baso (low
2 Astraight line joining Aand Bis taken as
separation.
subtracting the buse flow from
3. The ordinates of DRH are obtained by
the ordinates of storm hydrograph. ordinates)
4 Volumeof DRH = 60 x 60 x 6x (sum of DRH
Mm
= 60 x 60 x 6 x 693 = 12,8
12.8 0,03 m = 3cm
5. Runoff depth= ER depth 426
6-h

100

Plood hydrograplh

60

40 6hunit
lydrograpl
Bad of D
20

12 24 0 4H 00 7 H4 08
Duration of Diul
Tine -
Fig, 2.10.1
2-16 F (CE-Sem-7) Surface Runoff
6. The ordinates of DRH (col. 4) are divided by 3to obtain the ordinates of
the 6h unit hydrograph.
Table 2.10.1. Calculation of theOrdinates ofa6 Unit Hydrograph
Time from Ordinates of Ordinate of Ordinate of 6-h
Beginning of Flood Hydro- Base Flow DRH Unit Hydrograph
Storm (hr) graph (m/sec) (m/sec) (mlsec) (Col. 4)/3
2 3 4 5
-6 10 10 0 0
0 10 10 0
6 30 10 20 6.7
12 87.5 10.5 77 25.7
18 115 10.5 104.5 34.8
24 102 10.5 91.5 30.5
30 86 11 75 25
36 71 11 60 20
42 59 11 48 16
48 47 11.5 35.5 11.83
54 40 11.5 28.5 9.5
60 32 11.5 20.5 6.8
66 28 12 16 5.3
72 21 12 9 3
78 17 12 5 1.7
84 15 12.5 2.5 0.83
90 12 12 0
96 12 12 0
102 12 12 0

Que 2.11. The ordinates ofa3 hour unithydrograph are following:

Time (hr) 0 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30

Discharge 0.0 3.08 4.94 8.64 9.88 7.41 4.94 3.70 2.47 123 0.0
(cumec)
Develop a unit hydrograph of 6 hour unit hydrograph.
|AKTU2017-18, Marks 10|

Answer

Given : T, = 2 hours ;t, = 6 hours.

To Find :Ordinates of 6-H unit hydrograph.
1. Since t, is an integral multiple of T, (ie., ty =2T), the desired hydrograph
can be obtained by taking the sum of the ordinates of 2unit hydrographs
of3-hours duration, each lagging from the other by 3-hours, and dividing
the sum by 2.
2. The computations are arranged in Table 2.11.1.
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 2-17 F(CE-Sem-7)
Table 2.11.1.
Time 3-h Offset Unit Sum Ordinates of
(hr) UH Hydrograph 6 hr Unit
Ordinate Hydrograph
(Cumec) (= sum/2)
00 0.0 0.0 0.00

03 3.08 0 3.08 1.9

06 4.94 3.08 8.02 4.01

09 8.64 4.94 13.58 6.79

12 9.88 8,64 18.52 9.26

15 7.41 9.88 17.29 8.645

18 4.94 7.41 12.35 6.175

21 3.7 4.94 8.64 4.32

24 2.47 3.7 6.17 3.085

27 1.23 2.47 3.7 1.85

30 0.0 1.23 1.23 0.615

33 0.0 0.0 0.0

Que 2.12. What is the concept of Unit Hydrograph ? Explain the

various assumptions involved in the theory of unit hydrograph.
In the following table the rainfall
Hour 00 02 04 06 08 10 12 14
Total Discharge 8 10 16 28 42 60 80
(Cumec)
Hour 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Total Discharge 110 100 90 80 68 56 45 35
(Cumec)
Hour 32 34 36 38 40 42 44
Total Discharge 26 18 11 9 8 7 6
(Cumec)

data at every 2-hours interval are given. Construct the ordinate of

Unit Hydrograph. Assume the area of the basin = 25 km².
AKTU2018-19, Marks 10
2-18 F (CE-Sem-7) Surface Runoff

Answer
Unit Hydrograph and Assumption : Refer Q. 2.8, Page 2-13F,
Unit-2.
Numerical :

Given : Area of the basin, A= 25 km².

To Find : Ordinate of unit hydrograph
Time Total Base Direct Ordinate
(hours) Discharge Flow Runoff (0) of Unit
in (cumec) (cumec) (cumec) Hydrograph
(1) (2) (3) 4= (2)- (3) (4)/n

00 6 6 0

02 8 6 2 0.088
04 10 6 4 0.177
06 16 6 10 0.444

08 28 6 22 0.978
10 42 6 36 1.600
12 60 6 54 2.40
14 80 6 74 3.29
16 110 6 104 4.62
18 100 6 94 4.17
20 90 6 84 3.73
22 80 6 74 3.29
24 68 6 62 2.75
26 56 6 50 2.22
28 45 6 39 1.73
30 35 6 29 1.28
32 26 6 20 0.88
34 18 6 12 0.533
36 11 6 5 0.222
38 9 6 3 0.133
40 6 2 0.083
42 7 6 1 0.044
44 6 6 0

20 = 781
Irigation NWater Reaource Engineering 2-19 F (CE-Som-7)

0.36 ×A x0 0.36 2 x781

22.4928
A 25

Que 2.13. What is 8-hydrograph ? low would you derive a

S-hydrogrnph ? Discusn the procedure of dorivation of the unit
hydrograph from a 8-hydrograph. |AKTU2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
A N-llydrograph :
AShydrogrnph in nothing but a hydrograph generated by acontinuous
ellective rainfall oceurring at a uniform rate for an indofinite period.
It in called 'S' hydrograph beeause the shape of the hydrograph comes
out like alphabet S'though alightly deforned. Fig. 2.13.1 shows atypical
"S hydrograph.
S-curve or S-hydrograph
msec

in
Disharge
(0, +0, +0)
n
(0,+ 0,)
’
(0,)

O
|,
Time in hours
Fig. 2.13.1. S-curve or S-hydrograph.
B. Derivation :
1 Itcan be derived by summation of the ordinates of an infinite series of
unit hydrographs of same unit duration spaced at the same unit duration
apart and hence the name summation hydrograph.
2 It is a curve which rises continuously in the form or shape of the letter
S, tillaconstant discharge value i.e., equilibrium is reached.
3. The ordinates of S-eurve can be plotted by using equation,
S) = U) + S(U -D)
where, St) =Required ordinate of S-curve hydrograph at time
duration t.
U) = Ordinate of Given UH at time duration t.
t= Required duration(hr).
D= Given duration of UH.
Thereforo, S{ - D)=S-curve ordinate of preceding interval.
2-20 F (CE-Sem-7) Surface Runoff

C. Procedure of Derivation :
1. Step-1l : Draw two columns next to given UH (i.e., col. 3 and col. 4).
These two columns are filled consequently as follows the step-2.
2. Step-2: Initially,mark dash in first rows up to preceding interval ofD hr
of 3rd col. :
i. Step-2.1: Now, make addition col. 2and col. 3and unite it in col. 4.
ii. Step-2.2: Then, write that result at next row in col. 3.
ii. Step-2.3: Again make addition col. 2 and col. 3 and write it in col. 4.
iv. Step-2.4:Then again, unite that result at next row in col. 3.
V. Continue this operation till the end of col. 3 and col. 4.
3. Step-3: In col. 4, we get S-curve ordinates which are nothing but the
running summation of flow. Now, lag these S-curve ordinates by T-hr
as shown in col. 5.
Note: Always be lag your S-curve ordinate by that duration for which
youare going to derive UH.
4 Step-4:
i. Now deduct that lagged column from S- curve ordinates
i.e., col. 4 - col. 5 = col. 6).
be
This is necessaryy because we have a summed valued which should
converted into single flow value. This will give us DRH of T/D cm ER.
5. Step-5: This is the last step, in which divide last column by ratio of
TID.
Que 2.14. The ordinate of a 4-hour unit hydrograph are given
below. Using the principle of superposition construct an
S-hydrograph and calculate the discharge at equilibrium stage and
runoff.
the time of its occurrence from the beginning of direct
Time (hour) 0 4 8 12 16 20 24

cumecs 0 4 12 6 3 1 0

AKTU2017-18, Marks 10

Answer

Given : Discharges at 4 hr time periods (in table).

To Find: Discharge at equilibrium stage and time of its
occurrence.
the
1. Computations are shown in Table 2.14.1. In this table, col. 2 shows
S-curve additions
ordinates of the 4-h unit hydrograph. col. 3 gives the
and col. 4 gives the ordinates of the S-curve.
Values of entries in
2. The sequence of entry in col. 3 is shown by arrows.
3 along
col. 4 are obtained by summing up of entries in col. 2 and col.
each row.
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 2-21 F (CE-Sem-7)

Table 2.14.1.Construction of S-curve.

Time in Ordinate of S-curve S-curve Ordinate
hours 4-h UH Addition (m''sec) (m'/sec)
Col. 1 Col. 2 Col. 3 Col. 4 = (col. 2 + col. 3)
0

4 4 0 4

8 12 4 16
12 6 16 22
16 22 25
20 1 25 26
24 26 26

3. At, t = 4 hours; Ordinate of 4-h UH = 4 mi'sec

S-curve addition = Ordinate of 4-hUH@t= (4-4) = 0 hours) = 0
Hence S-curve ordinate = 4 +0 =4 m³/sec
4. At, t =8 hours; Ordinate of 4-h UH= 12 m³lsec
S-curve addition= Ordinate of 4-h UH@t= (84) =4hours) =4 m³lsec
Hence S-curve ordinate = 12 + 4= 16 mlsec
5. At, t= 12 hours; Ordinate of 4-h UH =6 m'lsec
S-curve addition =0rdinate of 4hUH@(t= (12-4) =8hours) =16 m³lsec
Hence S-curve ordinate = 6 + 16 = 22 m'/sec
6. This calculation is repeated for all time intervals till t = Base width of
UH =24 hours. Plots of the 4-h UH and the derived S-curve are shown
in Fig. 2.14.1.
30

25
S-curce
20

15

10
4-h UH
5

0 6 12 18 24 30
Time (h)
Fig. 2.14.1. Construction of S-curve.
7 Discharge at equilibrium stage is equal to 26 m³/sec after 20 hr of storm
or rainfall.

PART-9

Synthetic Unit Hydrograph.

2-22 F (CE-Sem-7) Surface Runoff

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.15.Writea short note on synthetic unit hydrograph, how

willyou derive the synthetie unit hydrograph from number of unit
hydrograph ? Illustrate the method with suitable example in a
tabular form. AKTU2016-17, 2018-19; Marks 10

Answer
A Synthetie Unit Hydrograph :
1 We have seen that if the rainfall and runoffrecords are available, unit
hydrographs can be derived.
2 However, in the case of ungauged rivers, these data are not available.
In some other cases, the data available may be scanty.
3 For such catchments, unit hydrographs are derived by relating the
selected basin characteristics to the unit hydrograph shape.
4. The resulting hydrograph, derived from basin characteristics
relationshËp is known as a syntheticunit hydrograph.
B. Snyder's Method :
1. Snyder studied the data of catchments of Appalachian Highlands of
Eastern United States, and then developed empirical equations for
synthetic hydrograph.
2. Snyder selected three parameters of unit hydrograph:
i Base width, T, ii. Peak discharge, , ii. Basin lag, t,

t, = Basin lag
p

0.75 @ Wa6

0.50 @p W50

Time, t
Fig. 2.15.1. Parameters of synthetic unit hydrograph.
Irrigation && Water Resource Engineering 2-23 F (CE-Sem-7)
3 The equations given by him take into account catchment area, shape
of basin, topography, channel slopes, stream density and channel
storage.
4. He eliminated all these parameters except the first two, by including
them in a single co-efficient C,.
5. He dealt with the size and shape of the catchment by measuring the
length of the main stream channel, by proposing the following equation
for basin lag:
x Lj0.3 ..2.15.1)
where, t, = Basin lag in hours, (basin lag is the time
between mass of centre of unit rainfall of T
hour duration and runoff peak flow)
C, = A co-efficient depending upon units and
drainage basin characteristics (1.35- 1.65).
L= Distance from station to cat chment boundary
measured along the main stream, in km.
L = Distance along the main stream from gauging
station to a point opposite the centroid of the
watershed, in km.
6. The peak discharge of Q, unit hydrograph of standard duration T is
given by,
2.778 C,A
..(2.15.2)

where, , = Peak discharge (m/sec).

Å
= Catchment area (km?).
C, =Aregional constant, ranging from 0.56 to 0.69.
7 Snyder adopted the standard duration (T) hours of effective rainfall
given by,
T=(2/11), ...(2.15.3)
8 The duration of surface runoff or the base length T, of unit hydrograph
is given by,
T, =3+3(days)
24
When T, is expressed in hours,
T, = 72 +3 t, ...(2.15.4)
(where both T, and t, are in hours)
9. It is found that equation (2.15.4) gives unreasonably long base periods
for small catchments. Some investigators recommend that a base period
equal to five times the time to peak should be taken :
T, = 5
Or T, = 5.455 t, ...(2.15.5)
Alternatively, assuming a triangular shape of unit hydrograph,
T, =5.556/4,
2-24 F (CE-Sem-7) Surface Runoff

10. Sketching of unit hydrographs becomes easier by adopting the following

recommendations given by US Army Corps of Engineers, for widths of
unit hydrographs at 50 and 75 %of the peak discharge :
5.87
Ws0= 1.08

and Ws= 1.75

Ws0

where, Ws0= Width of unit hydrograph in hours, at 50 %peak discharge.

W= Width of unit hydrograph, in hors, at 75 %peak discharge.
4, = ,/A= Peak discharge per unit area.
11. Usually, one thírd of this width is kept before the unit hydrograph
peak and two thirds after the peak.
12. Ifsyntheticunit hydrograph of any other duration T' is required, then
the modified basin lag is
T-T
4
2.778 AC,
Also,
Example:
Aset of information extracted for estimating SUH are given below:
Area, A = 606.52 km
Length of longest flow path, L = 56.4 km
Centroidal flow path, L, = 28.2 km
Answer:
1 1hr Synthetic UH parameters generated by 1 cm effective rainfall.
SUH parameters are computed by using equations as follows :
0.905 (A0.758 0.905 (606.52)0.758| 116.42 say 116.0 cumec
(116.0/606.52) 0.19 cumec/km?
(4)
2.87 (g.)0.839 2.87 (0.19)-0.839 11.56 say 11.50 hrs.
2.304 (a 1.035 2.304 (0.19)-1.035 12.85 hrs
W50
-0.978 1.339 (0.,19)-0.978 6.79 hrs.
W5 1.339 (g,9
0.814 (g,1.018 0.814 (0.19)-1.018 4.41 hrs
WRsp -0.966 0.494 (0., 19)-0.966 2.46 hrs
WKqs 0.494(4,)
2.447 (4,)157 2.447(11.50)1.157 41.29 hrs say 41.00 hrs
tp+ (t,/2) 11.50 + (/2) 12.00 hrs.
TM
2 An SUH based on the estimated parameters in table is shown in
Fig. 2.15.2.
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 2-25 F (CE-Sem-7)

120
12, 116
100
9.54. 87 16.33, 87
80
27.71, 58
60
7.59, 58
40

20
0.0 41.0
-hr
0 10 20 30 40

Fig 2.15.2. Synthetic unit hydrograph.

PART-10

Irrigation : Development in India.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.16. Define the irrigation. What is the necessity of irrigation ?

Answer
Irrigation :
1. Irrigation can be defined as human manipulation of the hydrologic cycle
to improve crop production and quality and to decrease economic efforts
of drought.
2 Irrigation is the artificial application of waterto plants for their growth
and maturity.
3. Irrigation water is supplied to supplement the water available from
rainfall and the contribution of soil moisture from ground water.
Necessity of Irrigation : Necessity of irrigation is generally because
of the following situations :
1. Rainfall is less than the water requirement of the plants.
2 Rainfall is sufficient, but the spatial distribution of rainfall is not as per
requirement.
3 Rainfall is sufticient and the spatial distribution is also good, but the
temporal distribution is not as per requirement.
2-26 F (CE-Sem-7) Surface Runoff

PART- 11
Types, Advantages and Disadvantages of Irrigation.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.17. List and discuss in detail about the types of irrigation.
Answer
Types of Irrigation :
Irrigation

Flow irrigation Lift irrigation

(well irrigation)
(class)

Perennial irrigation Inundation

irrigation
(Source)

Direct irrigation Storage irrigation Combined storage and

(diversion scheme) (storage scheme) diversion scheme

A. Flow Irrigation : Flow irrigation is that type of irrigation in which

the supply of irrigation water available is at such a level that it is
conveyed on to the land by the gravity flow.
Flow irrigation may be divided intotwo classes:
1. Perennial Irrigation :
i. In perennial system, the water required for irrigation is supplied in
accordance with the crop requirements throughout the crop period.
ii For such a system, therefore, some storage head works, such as dams
and storage weirs or barrages are required to store the excess water
during floods and release it to the crops as and when it is required.
2. Inundation Irrigation : It is carried out by deep flooding and
throughout saturation of the land to be cultivated which is then drained
off prior to the planting of the crop.
Depending upon the source of water flow irrigation can be divided into
three types :
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 2-27 F (CE-Sem-7)

1. Direct Irrigation or River Canal Irrigation :

In this system, water is directly diverted to the canal without attempting
to store the water.
For such asystem, a low diversion weir or diversion barrage is
constructed across the river.
ii. One or two main canals take of directly from the river.
2. Storage Irrigation or Tank Irrigation:
i In this system, a solid barrier, such as a dam or a storage weir is
constructed across the river and water is stored in the reservoir or
lake so formed.
ii. A network of canal system conveys water of the agricultural fields,
through various regulatory works.
3. Combined System (Storage Cum Diversion Scheme):
i. In this system, the water is first stored in the reservoir formed at the
upstream side of the dam; and this water is used for water power
generation.
The discharge from the power house is fed back into river downstream
of the dam, a pickup weir at a suitable side is constructed to divert this
available water to the crop field by the canals.
B. Lift Irrigation :
1 Lift irrigation is practiced when the water-supply is at too low a level t0
run by gravitation on to the land. In such a circunstances water is
lifted up by mechanical means.
2
In lift irrigation, sub-soil water is lifted up to the surface and is then
conveyed to the agricultural fields.
Que 2.18. What are the advantages and disadvantages of
irrigation ?
Answer
Advantages of Irrigation : Following are the advantages of irrigation:
1 Increase of food production and value of land.
2. Modify soil or climate environment leaching.
3. Increase labor employment and standard of living.
4. National security thus self sufficiency.
5 Domestic and industrial water supply.
6 Improve ground water storage and generation ofhydro electric power.
Disadvantages of Irrigation : Following are the disadvantages of
irrigation:
1 Water logging.
2 Salinity and alkalinity of land.
3. Aeration of soil.
4 Pollution of underground water.
5. Results in colder and damper climate causing outbreak of diseases like
malaria.
2-28 F (CE-Sem-7) Surface Runoff

PART-12

Function of Water in Plant Growth.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.19. What are the functions of water in plant growth ?

Answer
Following are functions of water and important for plant growth and
crop production :
S. No. Functions Importance
1 Plant nutrients Water serves as the solvent and carrier
of food nutrients for the growth of
plants. Water itself acts as a nutrient
also.

2. Weathering progress The process of weathering and soil

formation depend on the water.
3 Physical, chemical and The soil water is great regulator of
|biological activity physical, chemical and biological
activities in the soil.

4. Micro-organism activities The micro-organism inhabiting the soil

alsorequires water for their metabolic
activities.
5 Photosynthesis Water is essential for the process of
photosynthesis.
6. Seed germination and Often an excess are deficit of water in
plant growth the soil is a limiting factor in seed
germination and plant growth.
7. Adverse effect Water protects plant from adverse
condition like drought, frost etc.

PART-13

Method of Irrigation.
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 2-29 F (CE-Sem-7)

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.20. List the different methods of irrigation and describe

any four in brief.
OR
Describe different methods of irrigation in brief. What are the
advantages and disadvantages of irrigation ?
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10

Answer

Irrigation Methods

Surface Sub-surface Sprinkler Drip

irrigation irrigation irigation irrigation

Flooding method Furrow method Contour farming

Wild flooding Controlled flooding

Free Contour Border Check Basin Zig-zag

flooding laterals strips flooding flooding method
1 Surface Irrigation:
In all the surface methods of irrigation, water is either ponded on the
soil or allowed to flow continuously over the soil surface for the duration
of irrigation.
The irrigation water is introduced into level or graded furrows or basins,
using siphons, gated pipe, or turnout structures, and is allowed to advance
across the field.
iüi Surface irrigation is best suited to flat land slopes, and medium to fine
textured soiltypes which promote the lateral spread of water down the
furrow row or across the basin.
2. Subsurface Irrigation :
i Subsurface irrigation (or simply sub irrigation) is the practice of applying
water to soils directly under the surface.
ii Moisture reaches the plant roots through capillary action.
2-30 F (CE-Sem-7) Surface Runoff

iüi. The conditions which favor sub irrigation are as follows:

Impervious subsoil at a depth of 2metres or more.
b Avery permeable sub-soil.
C Apermeable loam or sandy loam surface soil.
d. Uniform topographic conditions, and moderate ground slopes.
vi. Sometimes, when soil conditions are favourable for the production of
cash crops(i.e., high-priced crops) on small areas, a pipe distribution
system is placed in the soil well below the surface. This method of
applying water is known as artificial sub irrigation.
3. Sprinkler Irrigation :
In this method an attempt is made to simulate natural rainfall. Irrigation
water is applied to the land in the form of a spray. This mnethod is also
E:
E:
known as sprinkler irrigation.
Sprinklers can be used on all soil types of any topography.
ii According to the equipment and procedure used the sprinkler method
may fall in fixed type or portable type.
4. Trickle Irrigation :
In this method irrigation water is conveyed on the surface in 12 to 16
mm diameter tubing's fed from large feeder pipes.
The water is allowed to drip or trickle slowly through the nozzle or
oritices at practically zero pressure. In this way the soil in the root-zone
of crops is constantly kept wet.
i. By using this method crops can be grown successfully over the saline
lands also. This method has been found to be of great value in reclaiming
and developing desert and arid areas.
iv. The main drawback of this method is its high cost.
Advantages and Disadvantages : Refer Q. 2.18, Page 2-27F, Unit-2.

PART- 14
Water Requirement of Crops.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.21. Define the following terms:

1. Field Capacity.
2. Permanent wilting point.
3. Available moisture.
4. Readily available moisture.
5. Moisture equivalent.
6. Soil-moisture deficiency.
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 2-31 F (CE-Sem-7)

Answer
1. Field Capacity: It is the moisture contain in the soil after free drainage
has removed of the most gravity water.
2 Permanent Wilting Point : Permanent wilting point or the wilting
coefficient is that water content at which plant can no longer extract
sufficient water from the soil for its growth. It is the lower end of the
available moisture range.
3. Available Moisture:The difference in water content of the soil between
field capacity and permanent wilting point is name as available moisture.
4. Readily Available Moisture:It is that portion of theavailable moisture
that is most easily extract by plant and is approximately 75 %available
moisture.
5. Moisture Equivalent : It is the percentage moisture retained in a
small sample of wet soil lem deep when subjected to acentrifugal force
1000 times as great as gravity, usually for a periods of 30 minutes.
6. Soil-moisture Deficiency : It is the water required to bring the soil
moisture content of the soil to its field capacity.
Que 2.22.Calculate the number of daysafter which the water has
to be supplied to the soil in order toensure sufficient irrigation if:
i. Field capacity of the soil is 28 %.
ii. Permanent wilting point is 13 %.
iii. Dry density of soil is 1.3 gm/cc.
iv. Effective depth of root zone is 70 cm.
V. Daily consumptive use of water for given erop is 12 mm. Assume
optimum soil moisture as 80 % of available moisture.
AKTU2015-16, Marks 10

Answer

Given : Field capacity = 28 %, Permanent wilting point = 13 %, Dry

density = 1.3 gm/cc, Effective depth = 70 cm, Consumptive use = 12 mm
To Find: Watering frequency.
1. Available moisture =Field capacity -Permanentwilting point
= 28-13 = 15 %
2. The readily available moisture is 80 %of the available moisture.
.:. Readily available moisture = 15 x 0.8= 12 %
m,= 28- 12 =16 %
Hence when irrigation water is applied, moisture is raised from 16% to
28%.
3 Depth of water stored in root zone,during each watering.
=
Yad x[Field capacity - mn,]
 2-32 F (CE-Sem-7) Surface Runoff

1.3 x 0.7
x 0.12 = 0.109 m= 10.9 cm
1
Thus,depth of water available for evapotranspiration =10.9 cm
4 Daily consumptive use of water = 1.2 cm
10.9
5 Watering frequency = 1.2
= 9 days
Hence, water should be applied after every 9 days.

PART- 15
Irrigation Frequency.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.23. Explain the term duty and delta. Derive a relationship
between the duty and delta.

Answer
1. Duty: Duty represents the irrigating capacity of a unit of water. It is the
relation between the area ofa crop irrigated and the quantity of irrigation
water required during the entire period of the growth of that crop.
2. Delta: Delta is the total depth of water required by a crop during the
entire period the crop is in the field and is denoted by the symbol A.
3. Relation between Duty and Delta :
Let, D= Duty in hectares/cumec.
A= Total depth of water supplied (in metres).
B= Base period in days.
If we take a field of area D hectares, water supplied to the field
xDhectare-metres
corresponding the water depth Ametres will be = A
=Dx Ax 10 mß ..(2.23.1)
required to
ii. Again for the same field of Dhectares, one cumec of water is field
flow during the entire base period. Hence, water supplied to the
...(2.23.2)
= (1) x (B × 24 x 60 x 60) m3
iv. Equating eq. (2.23.1) and eg. (2.23.2), we get
DxAx 10 = B x 24 x 60 x 60
Bx 24 x 60 x60 B
A= =8.64 metres
Or D×104 D
irrigation.
Que 2.24. Distinguish between flow irrigation and lift
irrigated for
The base period, duties at the field and area to be
various crops under a reservoir are given below :
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 2-33 F (CE-Sem-7)

Table 2.24.1.

Crop Base Period Duty of Field Area

(days) (hectares/cumec)(hectares)
Wheat 120 1800 2400

Rice 110 1000 3010

Sugarcane 360 900 4890

Vegetables 130 750 1650

Find the capacity of the reservoir in hectares-meter, if the conveyance

loss and reservoir loss are 26 %and 10 %respectively.
AKTU 2016-17, 2018-19; Marks 10

Answer
A Difference between Flow Irrigation and Lift Irrigation :
S. No. Flow Irrigation Lift Irrigation
1 In flow irrigation, there is In lift irrigation, there is no
possibility of over irrigation. possibility of over irrigation.
2. In flow irrigation, water rates In lift irrigation, water rates will
will be low. be high.
3 In flow irrigation, lifting In lift irrigation, working
equipment is not involved. dependent on operation of
|machinery.
4. Flow irrigation is a simple and| Lift irrigation is acomplex system
economical system. and large costly.
5. In flow irrigation, water losses In lift irrigation,water losses due
due to seepage in conveyance are to seepage are low.
high.
6. Initial cost of construction is flow Initial cost in lift irigation system
irrigation system quite high as it is quite low as it does not require
requires constructing hydraulic any hydraulic structure.
structure, (like-dam or weir etc.)
7. Maintenance cost is higher. Maintenance cost is lower.

B. Numerical :

Given: Table 2.24.1, Conveyance loss =26 %, Reservoir loss =10 %

To Find :Capacity of reservoir.
2-34F (CE-Sem-7) Surface Runoff

B
Crop B D A = 8.64 A V= AxA
D
Wheat 120 1800 0.576 2400 1382.4

Rice 110 1000 0.9504 3010 2860.70

Sugarcane 360 900 3.456 4890 16899.84

Vegetables 130 750 1.4976 1650 2471.04

EV= 23613.98

23613.98
Capacity of reservoir = =35456.43 ha-m
0.74 x 0.90

Que 2.25.The base period, duty at the field and the area under the
crop under a distributory taking off from a reservoir are given in
table below. Taking canal losses as 10 %and reservoir losses as 15 %.
Compute the reservoir capacity.
Crop Base Period Duty at the Area Under
(days) Field (halcumecs) the Crop (ha)

Bajra 120 2000 1500

Cotton 200 1400 1400
Rice 120 900 4000
Wheat 120 1800 6800

AKTU2015-16, Marks 10

Answer

Given : Canal loss = 10 %, Reservoir loss = 15 %

To Find: Reservoir capacity.
B
Crop B D A= 8.84, A V= AxA
D

Bajra 120 2000 0.5184 1500 777.6

Cotton 200 1400 1.2343 1400 1728.02

Rice 120 900 1.152 4000 4608

Wheat 120 1800 0.576 6800 3916.8

|V= 11030.42

Capacity of reservoir = 11030.42 = 14418.85 ha-m

0.90 x 0.85
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 2-36 F (CE-Sem-7)

Que 2.26. Water course has culturable commanded area of

1200 hectares. The intensity of irrigation for erop A is 40 %and for
Bis 35 %both the crops being Rabi erops. Crop Ahas a kor period of
20 days and crop Bhas kor period of 16 days. Caleulate the discharge
of the water course if the kor depth for erop Ais 10 em and for Bis
16 cm. AKTU2016-17, Marks 15

Answer

Given : Culturable commanded area = 1200 ha

Intensity of irrigation: For crop A=40 %and for crop B =35 %
Kor period, B: For cropA =20 days and For cropB= 15 day
Kor depth, A: For crop A=10 cm and crop B=16 cm
To Find :Discharge of water.
1. For CropA:
Area under irrigation =1200 x0.40 =480 hectares
8.64 B 8.64 x 20 = 1728 ha/cumec
ii. Duty =
0.1
Area under irrigation 480
iüi. Hence discharge required Outlet factor 1728
= 0.278 m'/sec
2 For Crop B:
i. Kor depth, A = 16 cm = 0.16 m
Area under irrigation = 1200 x 0.35 = 420 hectares
8.64B 8.64 x 1 810
Duty or outlet factor =
A 0.16
halcumec
420
iii. Hence discharge required = 810-=0.519 m/sec
Thus, the design discharge of water course
= 0.278 +0.519 = 0.797 0.8 m/sec

PART- 16
Irrigation Efficiencies, Principal Crops & Crop Season.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

2-36 F (CE-Sem-7) Surface Runoff

Que 2.27. Describe irrigation efficiency. List and discuss types of

irrigation efficiency.
Answer
Irrigation Efficiencies :
1. Effhciency is the ratio of water output to the water input and is expressed
as percentage.
2. The objective of efficiency concepts is to show when improvements can
be made which willresult in more efficient irrigation.
Types of Irrigation Efficiency: Following are the various types of
irrigation efficiency :
1. Water Conveyance Efficiency (n):It is the conveyance or transit
losses and is determined from the following expression:
W, x 100
W
where, W,= Water delivered to the farm or irrigation plot.
W.- Water supplied or diverted from the river or reservoir.
2 Water Application Eficiency (n,):
i. It is the ratio of the quantity of water stored into the root zone of the
crops to the quantity of water delivered to the field.
It is determined from the following expression:
w, x100
W,
where, W = Water stored in the root zone during the irrigation.
3. Water Use Efficiency (n,):It is the ratio of water beneficially used,
including leaching water, to the quantity of water delivered, and is
determined from the following expression:
W100
n,, =
W,
where, W,,= Water used beneficially or consumptively.
W, = Water delivered.
4 Water Storage Efficiency (n,) : The concept of water storage efficiency
gives an insight to how completely the required water has been stored
in the root zone during irrigation. It is determined from the following
expression :

W. x 100
W,
where, W. = Water needed in the root zone prior to irrigation.
= (Field capacity - Available moisture).
5. Water Distribution Efficiency (n):
i Water distribution efficiency evaluates the degree to which water is
uniformly distributed throughout the root zone.
ii It is determined from the following expression :
Ivigation N Wator lom gworlng 2-7 CG- Nom-7)

wherw, y- Avovo nuoreal deviation in depth of water

ntored on avernge depth atored during irrigalion.
d-Avoro depth of water atored durng irrigation.
a, ('onutlve VaolMoleney (,)ilt ia deternined from the lollowiog
W100
where, W. - Nomaleonsumptive use of water.
W,-Not nnount of waler depleted trom rool zone of soil.
Que 2.20. Write down the olasifioation oferop in India.
Anawer
Pollowng Are the elanaification of erop in lndia:
A. Ageloullural Clanaifloutlon i This conalala of the following types of
ropa
I. Wield Crope Nucl an wheat, riee, maizo, barley, oata, great millet,
npiked nillet, gvam, pulaon ete.
CommeroalCropa Auh anAugareane, cotton, tobacco, hemp, sugar,
beot ote.
. O NeedCropsiuch an muntarnl, ground nut, sesame, linseed, caster
oto.
Ilortlculture Cropa t Conaisting of varioun ruit erops, various
vegetable eropa and Mower eropa,
A Plantution Cropa 18uch aa te4, coffeo,cocon, coconut, rublber ete.
. Porage Cropa i Such na fodder, graan ote.
7. Mincellaneous Crops : Such an medicinal eropa, aromatie erops,
Nericulture eropn,eondinenta and npicos.
II, Clhaniflcation based on Crop Aeasons:Based on crop senson, erops
Are clasafied un lollowa:
1. Rabi Cropu or Winter Crops Theae eropa are sown in autumn (or
Oetober) ad are harveated in apring(or Mareh). Varlous erops that fall
under thin eategory are :gram, whont, barloy, pens, muatard, tobacco,
linaeed, potatoete.
Kharif Cropsor Monsoon CropN Thee erops are sown by the
beginning ofthe aouthweat monsoon and are harvested in autumn.
Bxample : lice, maize, mpked millet, groat millet, pulaes, ground nut
ete,
Perennlal CropwiThene are the cropw that require wter for irrigntion
throughout the year.
'xamplen of perennlal eropa are :Sugar cane, fruits, vogetables ete.
4. Eight Monthw Crops Thene erops, Huch am coton, roquire irrigation
waler for & montha,
 2-38 F (CE-Sem-7) Surface Runoff

C. Classification Based on Irrigation Requirements : Based on

irrigation requirements, crops can be classified as :
1. Dry Crops :Dry crops are the one which do not require water for
irrigation; only rain water is suficient for their growth.
2 Wet Crops:Wet crops are those which cannot grow without irrigation.
3
Garden Crops: Garden crops require irrigation throughout the year.
PART-17

Crop Rotation.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.29. What do you understand by crop rotation ? What are

the objectives of crop rotation ?
OR
What is meant by crop rotation ? What are the advantages of crop
rotation ? Describe in brief with suitable examples.
|AKTU2016-17, Marks 10
Answer
Crops Rotation :
1. Crop rotation is the systematic planting of different crops in a particular
order over several years in the same growing space. This process helps
maintain nutrients in the soil, reduce soil erosion, and prevents plant
diseases and pests.
2. There is no universally accepted rotation schedule as the types of plants
in a particular farm or garden depend on the local soil, climate and
resources available.
Objectives :Following are the objective of crop rotation :
1. Achieve better soil fertility and its physical, chemical and biological
properties through addition of organic matters.
2. Keep the soil free from disease, pest and weed through various crop and
agronomicaVcultural manipulations.
3. Regulate continuous supply of food, feed, fodder, fibre and fuel as well
as funds for various family commitments.
4 Make best use ofresidual soil moisture and nutrients by selective crops.
5. Achieve greater insurance against natural calamities and instability in
market prices.
6. Achieve higher yield without incurring extra expenditure.
Advantages : Following are the advantages of crop rotation :
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 2-39 F (CE-Sem-7)

1. Higher yield without incurring extra investment.

2 Enhanced soil fertility and microbial activities.
3. Avoid accumulation of toxic substances.
4. Better utilization ofnutrients and soil moisture.
5 Insurance against natural devastation.
6
Maintain soil health by avoiding insect pest diseases and weed problems.
7. Provide proper labour, power and capital distribution throughout the
year.
8 Higher chances to provide diversified commodities.
Example : Following rotation ofthe crops give good results:
i. Wheat great millet gram Rice gram
ii. Cotton wheat gram iy. Cotton wheat sugarcane
V. Cotton great millet gram

PART-18

Canal Irrigation : Classes and Alignment, Parts of a Canal System.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.30. Write down the classification of canal.

Answer
Classification : Following are the classification of canal :
1. Classification Based on the Nature of Source of Supply:
Permanent canal. i. Inundation canal.
2 Classification Based on the Financial Output :
i Productive canal. ii. Protective canal.
3. Classification Based on Function of the Canal :
i. Irrigation canal. iü. Carrier canal.
ii. Feeder canal. iv. Navigation canal.
V Power canal.
4. Classification Based on Boundary Surface of Canal :
i. Alluvial canal. ii. Non-alluvial canal.
iüi. Rigid boundary canal
5. Classification Based on Discharge and its Relative Importance
in a Given Network of Canal :
Main canal. i. Branch canal.
ii. Major distributary. iv. Minor distributary. V. Water course.
6. Classification Based on Canal Alignrment :
i. Contour canal. ii. Watershed canal (ridge canal).
üi. Side slope canal.
2-40 F (CE-Sem-7) Surface Runoff

Que 2.31. Explain various considerations for alignment of

irrigation canals.
Answer
Following are the general considerations for alignment of irrigation
canals :
1. It should be aligned in such away that maximum area is served with the
least length and its cost including cross drainage work is minimum.
2. Ashorter length of canal has les loss of head due to friction and smaller
loss of water due to seepage and evaporation, so that additional area can
be brought under cultivation.
3. The alignment should be kept straight as far as possible; it will result in
minimum losses.
4. It should not pass through the village, town, forest or costly lands;
otherwise heavily compensation shall have to given.
5. It should be such that heavy cutting and filling (embankment) are
avoided.
6. It should through passes the ridge so that both side ofcanal can be irrigated.
7. The alignment should be such that as far as possible abalanced depth of
cutting and flling is achieved.
8 The alignment should not be made in rocky, brackish or cracked strata.
Que 2.32. Distinguish between perennial and inundation canal.
Describe the various factors considered for alignment of a canal.
What is Bandhara irrigation system?AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10

Answer
1. Perennial (Permanent) :
1. Acanal is said to be permanent when it is fed by a permanent source of
supply.
The canal is a well made up regular graded channel.
iü. It has also permanent masonry works for regulation and distribution of
supplies.
iv. A permanent canal is also sometimes known as perennial canal when
the sources from which canal takes is an ice fed perennial river.
2 Inundation Canal :
i. Inundation canals usually draw their supplies from rivers whenever
there is a high stage in the river.
They are not provided with any headwork for diversion ofriver water to
the canal.
ii. They are, however, provided witha canal head regulator.
iv. The head of the canal has to be changed sometimes tosuit the changing
pattern of river course.
3 Factors Considered for Alignment of Canal : Refer Q. 2.31,
Page 240F, Unit-2.
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 2-41 F (CE-Sem-7)
4. Bandhara Irrigation :
i. Bandhara is a special type of irrigation scheme, somewhere in between
inundation type and permanent type of irrigation.
regulator
H e a d

River Crest
C a n a l
RCC slab or
Bandhara face
UIS cut stone coping
-D/S face
Flow
in 5
Sluices
River bed
IAVIAVT

Scouring (6) Section of bandhara.

sluices
(a) Bandhara irrigation layout.
Fig. 2.32.1. Bandhara irrigation system.
It is essentially a minor irrigation scheme wherein-small streams which
otherwise allow their flow to be wasted are dammed at places by
Bandharas (small weirs), and canals are taken off from them for
irrigation of small areas.
iii. A series of such dams or bandharas are constructed and the water
available in the monsoon is thus made use of.
iv. The Bandhara irrigation scheme is very economical.
V. The irrigation capacity of each Bandhara may vary from a few hectares
to about 400 hectares.

PART- 19
Commanded Area, Curves in Channels, Channel Losses.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.33. Write a short note on Command area.

Answer
1. Culturable Command Area (CCA) :The gross command area contains
unfertile barren land, alkaline soil, local ponds, villages and other areas
as habitation.
2. These areas are called unculturable areas. The remaining area on which
crops can be grown satisfactorily is known as cultivable command area
(CCA).
2-42 F (CE-Sem-7) Surface Runoff

3. Culturable command area can further be divided into two categories

Culturable Cultivated Area: It is the area in which crop is grown at
a particular tine or crop season.
ii. Culturable Uncultivated Area : It is the area in which crop is not
sown in a particular season.
2. Gross Command Area (GCA): The total area lying between drainage
boundaries which can be commanded or irrigated by a canal system.
GCA = CCA + Unculturable area

Que 2.34. Enlist and discuss the diferent types of channellosses.

Answer
Losses in Canals :Following are the types of channel losses:
1, Loss Due to Evaporation :
As canal water is exp0sed to the atmosphere at the surface, loss due to
evaporation is obvious.
i. It may range from 0.25 to 1 %of the total canal discharge.
2 Loss Due to Seepage :
i The water lost in seepage may find its way finally into the river valley on
enters an aquifer where it can be utilized again. But many times the
seepage water is not recoverable.
ii. The seepage loss may occur in two characteristic ways, namely:
a Absorption. b. Percolation.

VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.

Q.1. What is runof? What are the factors that affect the runoff
from acatchment area ? Describe the methods of
computing run off from a catchment area.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.3, Unit-2.

Q.2. What is hydrograph ? Draw a single peaked hydrograph

and explain its components.
Ans: Refer Q. 2.5, Unit-2.

Q.3. Define unit hydrograph. Discuss the assumption used in

unit hydrograph.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.8, Unit-2.
 3UNIT
Sediment Transport

CONTENTS
Part-1 : Suspended & Bed Load 3-2F to 3-2F
and Its Estimation
3-2F to 3-3F
Part-2 Irrigation Channels Types
Lined & Unlined
3-3F to 3-9F
Part-3 : Kennedy, Silt Theory, Design
Procedure of Irrigation Channels
Part-4 : Lacey's Silt Theory, Design 3-9F to 3-13F
Procedure for Irrigation Channel
Longitudinal Cross-Section 3-13F to 3-15F
Part-5:
Part-6 : Use Garret's Diagram in ............. 3-15F to 3-18F
Channel Design, Cross Section of an
Irrigation Channel, Computer
Programs for Design of Channels
Part-7 : Advantages and Types of Lining..... 3-18F to 3-20F
of Irrigation Channels
Factors for Selection of a 3-20F to 3-21F
Part-8 :
Particular Type
Part-9 : Design of Lined Channels 3-21F to 3-26F

Part-10: Cross-Section of Lined... 3-27F to 3-28F

Channels, Economics of Canal Linings
Part-11: Water Logging : Definition, 3-28F to 3-32F
Effect, Causes, Antiwater Logging Measures
Part-12: Drainage of Water Logged Land, ... 3-32F to 3-33F
Type of Drain Open & Closed,
Spacing of Closed Drains

3-1F (CE-Sem-7)
3-2F (CE-Sem-7) Sediment Transport

PART-1

Suspended & Bed Load and Its Estimation.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.1. Write a short note on :

i. Suspended load.
ii. Bed load.

Answer
1. Suspended Load:
i Suspended load is the portion of the sediment that is carried by a fluid
flow which settles slowly enough such that it almost never touches the
bed.
It is maintained in suspension by the turbulence in the flowing water
and consists of particles generally of the fine sand, silt and clay size.
2. Bed Load:
The term bed load deseribes particles in a flowing fluid (usually water)
that are transported along the bed. Bed load is complementary to
suspended load and wash load.
i. Generally, bed load downstream will be smaller and more rounded than
bed load upstream (a process known as downstream fining).
iii. This is due in part to attrition and abrasion which results from the
stones colliding with each other and against the river channel, thus
removing the rough texture (rounding) and reducing the size of the
particles.

PART-2

Irrigation Channels Types Lined & Unlined.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.2.Describe the different types of irrigation channels.

Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 3-3F (CE-Sem-7)

Answer
Types of Channels : Following are the three types of channels:
1. Alluvial Channels :
i Those channels which are excavated in alluvial soils, such as silt, and
which carry a lot of silt along with water.
ii The boundary or the perimeter of such a channel is therefore made of
silt, commonly known as »alluvium'.
iü. The silt content of water flowing in such a channel may vary along its
length.
iv. The silt content may increase if the velocity of flow is such that it scours
the bed and sides of the canal.
2, Non-alluvial Channels :
i. Those channels which are excavated in non-alluvial soils (such as loam,
clay, hard soil, rock ete).
i. Such channels generally do not have silting problems is water can flow
with non-silting velocities (i.e., higher velocities) without fear of scouring
of sides and bed of the canal.
3. Rigid Boundary Channels :Those channels which have sides and
bottom made of rigid material. All lined canals fall under this category.

PART-3

Kennedy's Silt Theory, Design Procedure of Irrigation Channels.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.3. Deseribe Kennedy's Theory. Explain defects in

Kennedy's theory.
Answer
Kennedy's Theory :
1 Kennedy's selected a number of sites on upper bari doab canal system,
one of the oldest in Punjab (pakistan) for carrying out investigations
about velocity and depth of the channel.
2. The sites selected by him did not require any silt clearance for more
than thirty years and were thus supposed to be flowing with non
sitting non-scouring velocity.
3. The flowing water has to counteract some amount of friction against
the bed of thecanal. This give rise to vertical eddies rising up gently to
the surface. These eddies are responsible for keeping most of the silt in
suspension.
 3-4F (CE-Sem-7) Sediment Transport
4 Some eddies may start from ides but these are for most of its part
horizontal and so do not have any silt supporting power.
5. The silt supporting power is, therefore, proportional to the bed width
of the stream and not to its wetted perimeter.
6. He also defined critical velocity as non-silting non-scouring velocity
and gave a relation between critical velocity to the depth of flowing
water. The relation is
V,= 0.55 D0.64 ...(3.3.1)
In general V= CDA ..(3.3.2)
where V, = Critical velocity,
D= Depth of water over bed portion of a channel.
n= Any index number.
7. Kennedy later realised the importance of silt grade on critical velocity
and introduced a factor mknown as critical velocity ration (C.V.R) in
his equation. The equation is the written as
V= 0.55 DO.64 ...(3.3.3)
where

m = CVR= Critical velocity for the area

Critical Velocity for Upper Bari Doab Canal System
...(3.3.4)
Defects: Following are the defects of Kennedy theory :
1. Kennedy did not notice the importance of B/D ratio.
2 He aimed to find out only the average regime conditions for the design
of a channel.
3 No account was taken of silt concentration and bed load, and the complex
silt carrying phenomenon was incorporated in a single factor m.
4 Silt grade and silt charge were not defined.
5. Kennedy did not give any slope equation.
6. Kennedy used Kutter's equation for the determination of the mean
velocity and, therefore, the limitations of Kutter's equation got
incorporated in Kennedy's theory of channel design.
Que 3.4. Explain the procedure of designing a channel with
Kennedy's theory.
Answer
Design Procedure:Following steps are taken in design of channel :
A. Case 1: Given Q, N, m and S.
1. Assume a trial value of D in metres.
2 Caleulate the velocity V, from the equation.
V,=0.55 mD0.64 ...(3.4.1)
3. Get area of sectionA from the continuity equation :
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 3-5F (CE-Sem-7)

A= ...(3.4.2)
V,
4. Knowing D andA, calculate the bed width B from geometry of canal
section. The side slope of the canal in alluvial soil is assumed to be
0.5:1 when canal has run for some time.
D²
A= BD + ...(3.4.3)
2
From eq. 3.4.3, B can be calculated.
5 Calculate the perimeter and the hydraulic mean depth from the following
relations:
Perimeter, P= B+D J5 ...(3.4.4)

A BD + D² 12
.. Hydraulic mean radius, R =
P B+ D\5
6 Calculate the actual mean velocity of flow (V) from Kutter's equation.

1 0.00155
23 + +
S xRS = CV RS
Kutter's equation, V= 0.00155) N
1+ 23 +
JR
7 If value of velocity (V) is the same as V, found in step 2, the assumed
depth is correct. Ifnot, repeat the calculations witha changed value of D
till the two velocities the same.

D
1
2 2
B
Fig. 3.4.1. Channel section.

B. Case 2: Given Q, N, m and BD ratio.

1. Calculate A in terms of D.
B
Let -=* or B = Dx
D
D' D²
A= BD+ -= xD + = D' (*+ 0.5)
2 2
2. The value ofvelocity V, is known in terms of D by Kennedy's equation
V,=0.55 mD0.64
Substitute the values of V, and A in the continuity equation and solve
for D. Thus,
Q=Ax V, = D' (x + 0.5) x 0.55 mD0.64
3-6F (CE-Sem-7)
Sediment Transport
Or
Q=0.55 m(x + 0.5) D2.64

Hence D= ...(3.4.5)
0.55m (*+0.5)
In the above relation , m and x are known. Hence D is
determined.
3.
KnowingD, calculate Band Rfrom the following relations :
B= xD

Hydraulic mean radius, R = BD + D² 12

B+ DV5
4. Calculate the velocity V, from Kennedy's equation
V,= 0.55 mD0.64
5. Knowing V, and R, determine the slope S from Kutter's flow equation.
The equation can be solved by trial and error.

Que 3.5. Design an irrigation channel on Kennedy's theory, to

carry a discharge of 45 cumecs. Take N= 0.0225 and m = 1.05. The
channel has a bed slope of 1 in 5000. |AKTU2015-16, Marks 10

Answer

Given : Discharge = 45 cumecs, N= 0.0225, m= 1.05, Slope,

S=1 in 5000
To Find: Design an irrigation channel.
1 Let us assume a trial depth, D = 2 m
2 Velocity, V,= 0.55 mD0.64 = 0.55 x 1.05 x 20.64 =0.9 m/sec
45
3. Area of section, A= = 50 m2
V, 0.9
1
4. For atrapezoidal section having:1side slopes,
Area, A= BD +0.5D2
50 = 2B+0.5 x 22
Width, B = 24 m
5 Perimeter, P = B + D/5 = 24 + 2/5 = 28.47 m

.. Hydraulic mean radius, R= 4 50

=1.756 m
P 28.47
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 3-7F(CE-Sem-7)
6. Compute velocity of flow from Kutter's equation,
V= CJRS
1 0.00155
23 +
and C= S

1+ 23+ 0.00155)
S
N
VR

23 +
1 0.00155 x 5000
C= 0.0225 1
= 49.4
0.00155 0.0225
1+|23 + 1 x5000 V1.756
1
V= 49.4 x,1.756 x5000 = 0.926 m/sec
7. Thus Vo < V in order to increase V,, increase the value of D, let
D= 2.2 m in next trial.
V,= 0.55 x 1.05 x 2.20.64 =0.957 m/sec
45
Area, A= =47.02 m²
V, 0.957
47.02 = BD +0.5 D²
47.02 = 2.2 B+ 0.5x 2.22
Width, B= 20.28 m
Perimeter, P= 20.28 +2.2 J5 =25.2 m
A 47.02 = 1.866 m
8. Hydraulic mean radius, R=
P 25.2
1 0.00155
23 + x 5000
0.0225 1
C= = 49.91
0.00155 0.0225
1+23 + 1 x5000 V1.866
1
V= 49.91,1.866 x 5000 = 0.964 m/sec

Hence no further trial is needed.

Thus, D= 2.2 m and B= 20.28 m
3-8F (CE-Sem-7) Sediment Transport
Que 3.6. Design an irrigation channel to carry a discharge of
30 cumec by Kennedy's theory. Take B/D ratio as 8.0, =0.0225 and
m =1.0. AKTU2017-18, Marks 10
Answer

Given: Discharge, Q=30 mlsec, B/D ratio =8.0, Manning's coefficient,

N=0.0225, m = 1.
To Find:Size of canal.
1. Let the depth of the channel be D
Hence width B of the channel = 8D
2 Velocity in the channel, V, =0.55 mDO.64 =0.55 DO.64

3. Area of the channel section having side slopes

A =BD +D²/2 =8D2 +DI2 =8.5D2

4. Discharge is given by, Q=AV,
30 = (8.5D) (0.55 DO.64) = 4.675D2.64
30
D2.64 - = 6.417
4.673
D = 2.022 m
5. Hence, width of channel, B = 2.022 x 8 16.176 m
A 8.5D2
6. Hydraulic mean radius, R =AP = =0.8304D
B+ V5D 8D+2.236D

R=0.8304 x 2.022 =1.68m

7. Velocity of flow, V= 0.55 (2.022)0.64=0.863 m/sec
8. By applying Kutter's formula,
V= C/RS
1 0.00155
23 +
N S
Where, C=
0.00155) N
1+|23 + S JR
1 0.00155
23 + +
0.863 = N VRS
0.00155) N
1+23 +
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 3-9F (CE-Sem-7)

1 0.00155) 0.863 0.00155) 0.0225

23 + 1+23 +
0.0225 S V1.68 V1.68
Solving by trial and error, we get
S= 1.84 x 10-4
1
S=
5434.8
1
Hence, S=
5434.8
;B 16.176 m;D= 2.022 m.

PART-4
Lacey's Silt Theory, Design Procedure for Irrigation Channel.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.7.Explain Lacey's silt theory for designing the channel.

Answer
Channel Design Procedure :Following steps are use to design the
channel :

1. Caleulate the silt factor,f=1.76 Jdnm

where, d.=Mean or average particle size of silt in mm.
2)1/6
2. Compute velocity, V= 140
Determine area, A = QN
4. Compute perimeter, P=4.75/Q
5.
Find out bed width B and depth D of the channel section since A and P
1
are known. The side slope of an irrigation channel is usually

D²
i. Area, A = BD +
2

ii. Perimeter, P= B +D J5
3-10 F (CE-Sem-7) Sediment Transport

P-Jp- 6.944 A
ii. Depth, D=
3.472
[: B=P- 2.236 D)

5 V2
6. Hydraulic mean radius, R =
2f
BD + D² 12
Also calculate, R=
B+ 2.236 D

Both the values of R should be the same; this will provide a numerical
check from steps 1 to 5.
f5/3
7. Find the slope, S=
3340 QV6

Que 3.8. Using Lacey's theory, design an irrigation channel for

the following data:
Discharge,Q =50 mlsec
Lacey's silt factor, f= 1.1
Trapezoidal section
Side slope =0.5 H:1V AKTU 2015-16, Marks 05

Answer

Given : Discharge, Q=50 m³lsec, Lacey's silt factor, f= 1.1, Side slope
=1
2
To Find: Design an irrigationchannel.
50 x(1.1)2
1. Velocity in the channel, V= = 0.87 m/sec
140 140
2 Area of the channel section,
50
A= = 57.47 m²
V 0.87
3. Hydraulicmean radius,
5 y2 5x(0.87)²
R= = 1.72 m
2 f 2x1.1

A
R= 1.72 =
B+ D\5
57.47
1.72 =
B+ D 5
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 3-11 F (CE-Sem-7)

57.47
B+ DJ5 = =33.413 ...(3.8.1)
1.72

D² ...(3.8.2)
and A= BD + = 57.47

4 Solving eq. (3.8.1) and (3.8.2), we get

Width, B= 28.814 m
and Depth, D = 1.93 m

Que 3.9. Design an irrigation channel in alluvial soil according

toLacey's silt theory, with the given following data :
Fullsupply discharge : 1.5 cumecs
Lacey's silt factor:1.0
1
Channel side slope: :1 |AKTU2018-19,Marks 10
2

Answer

Given : Discharge, Q= 1.5 cumecs, Lacey's silt factor, f = 1, Side

1
slope = :1
2
To Find: Design an irrigation channel.
1/6 l.5x12 )/6
1. Velocity, V= = 0.47 m/sec
140 140
2 Area of the channel,
1.5
A= -=3.19 m?
0.47

3 Wetted Perimeter, P= 4.75,/@ = 4.75/1.5 =5.82 m

P-Vp²-6.944A
4. Depth of channel, D =
3.472

5.82-/(5.82) -6.944x3.19-= 0.69 m.

3.472
5. Width of channel, B=P-2.236 D=5.82 2.236 x 0.69 =4.28 m
5 V² 5 (0.47) = 0.55 m
6. Hydraulic mean radius, R =
2f 2 1.0
R=
BD+ D²I2 4.28 x0.69 +(0.69) /2
Also,
B+D\5 4.28 +0.69/5
=0.548 0.55 m
3-12 F (CE-Sem-7)
Sediment Transport
7. Slope of the channel,

S=
(133 1 1
3340 QV6 3340(1.5)6 3573.51 3580

Que 3.10. Differentiate between Kennedy's and Lacey's theory for

the design of alluvium channels. Explain defects in Lacey's theory.
|AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10

Answer
S.No. Kennedys Theory Lacey's Theory
1. Silt is kept in suspension by Silt is kept in suspension by the
the vertical components of vertical components of eddies.
eddies. Kennedy assumed Lacey advocated that such eddies
that silt is kept in suspension generated throughout the
by eddies generated only at perimeter of the channel and
the bed and Dis the relevant considered the hydraulic radius R
parameter. as the relevant parameter.
2. It recommended the use of It gave its own flow equation.
Kutter's equation.
Introduced the critical| Introduced silt factor and gave an
velocityratio (m) to accountequation for its determination
for silt grade. from the average particle size.
4. Bed slope was selected on Give its own equation for bed
the basis of the available slope.
ground slope or is obtained
from Wood's normal table.

5. Design of channel is not Design is unique.

unique. It depends upon bed
slope S and B/D ratio.
6 Tedious and involves trial and Simple and straight-forward.
error method.
7. Applicable only toirrigation Applied to natural channels
channels. (rivers) which are quasi-regime
during floods. Flow equation
applicable to both regime and non
regime channels.
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 3-13 F (CE-Sem-7)
Drawbacks: Following are the drawback of Lacey's theory :
The concept of true regime is theoretical and cannot be achieved
practically.
2. The various equations are derived by considering the silt factor of which
is not at all constant.
3. Concentration of silt is not taken into account.
4 Silt grade and silt charge is not taken into account.
5. The equations are empirical and based on the available data from a
particular type of channel. So, it may not be true fora different type of
channel.
6. The characteristics of regime channel may not be same for all cases.

PART-5
Longitudinal Cross-Section.

Questions-Angwers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.11. Write short note on longitudinal cross section.

Answer
L-section of a Canal :
1. A section taken through the lengthwise dimension of a structure.
2 It can also be termed as the side elevation of a structure longitudinal
sections of canals are very useful in determining the theoretical gradient
of the proposed structure based on the existing surface conditions.
3. Ater having fxed the alignment of canal on shajra sheet. The longitudinal
section of the alignment is taken on the field.
4. The longitudinal section should thereafter be plotted to a horizontal
scale of lcm = 160 m and to vertical scale of 2cm =1m.
5. Vertical scale should be changed if desired according to the magnitude
offall available.
3-14 F (CE-Sem-7) Sediment Transport
Full supply level of
parent channel
(157.70) FSL
VRB + Fall
Nalla Foot bridge
Fall
Bed level
Fall

Fig. 3.11.1. L-section.

Que 3.12. What do understand by schedule of area statistics ?

How is it prepared ?
Answer
Schedule of Area Statistics : The design of channel cross-section
from km to km is carried out in a tabular form called the schedule of
area statistics and channel dimensions.
The schedule of area statistics and channel dimensions is shown in
table 3.12.1.
Table 2.13.1. Schedule of area statistics and channel dimensions.
(ha/cumec)
Area to be Channel dimensions
irrigated (m/sec)
(cumec) (cumec)
discharge
Design f
area Culturable
commended
commended factor
(cumec) Total
discharge
(cumec) factor
(m) (m) flow silt
area (ha)
(ha)
(CCA) (%)
Perennial dischargeTotal
(ha)
(%)
dischargereach
Kharif
(cumec) Bed
loss slope
(c/km) (m)
depth
Water
bankWidth
|Rabi
(ha)
(%) (m)
width bankof or
of
|
Below
km - e| () Ratio
(ha)
(GCA) in of
OutletLosses
Outlet
Height Velocity
5Gross V/V,
Bed

(1)(2) (3) (4) (5)| (6) (7) (8) (9)(10)(11) (12)(13)|(14)(15)|(16) k17)|(18)(19)
0
1

Column 1. The actual design of channel is carricd from km to km.

Sometimes an off-taking channel may take offin between the kilometre
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 3-15 F (CE-Sem-7)

interval. The channel dimensions are then also found out at the
downstream of the cross regulator.
Column 2. This column indicates the gross commanded area, i.e., the
entire area under the command of the channel below the particular
kilometre at which it is being designed.
Column 3. In this column, the area actually under cultivation below
the particular km under the command of the channel is indicated.
Column 4 to 6. Indicate the percentage of area under rabi, perennial
and kharif crops. Mostly rabi crops are controlling crops for finding the
discharge of the channel. Channels either designed for rabi or kharif
erops suffice the purpose for sugar cane irrigation. However, under
some local conditions the discharge needed for sugar-cane irrigation is
found out.
Column 7. Indicates the outlet discharge factor for the controlling crop.
Column 8. Indicates the outlet discharge required and can be found
out by multiplying area to be irrigated to the outlet discharge factor.
Column 9. Indicates the losses in the reach from kilometre to kilometre.
Generally losses per million square metre of the wetted surface area
are known and so the channel losses in different reaches have to be
caleulated on the basis of tentative design for channels.
Column 10. Indicates the total losses in the channel below any particular
kilometre of the channel.
Column 11. Indicates the total discharge for which the channel has to
be designed. This discharge includes outlet discharge and losses.
Column 12 to 18. These columns pertain to channel dimensions and
are filled up after designing the channel in each reach based on Kennedy
theory using Garret's diagrams or on Lacey's theory using Lacey's
diagrams.

PART-6
Use of Garret's Diagram in Channel Design, Cross Section of an
Irrigation Channel Computer Programes for Design of Channels.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.13. Discuss in detail about cross section of an irrigation

channel.
 3-16 F (CE-Sem-7) Sediment Transport

Answer
Cross Section of Channel : Acanal is generally taken in such a way
that its section is partly in cutting and partly in fillingin order to approach
close to the balancing depth. Many times, however, the canal has to be
carried through deep cutting or filling.
Following are the types of channel section :
1. In Cutting :When the ground level is above the top of the bank, the
canal is said to be in cutting.
2. In Filling: Similarly, when the ground level is below the bed level of
canal, it is said to be in filling.
3. In Partial Cutting and Filling :A canal is in partial cutting or filling
when the ground level is in between bed level and top of bank.
Following are the components of cross section of channel :
i. Side Slopes :
a. For the computation of the values of hydraulie mean depth R, the

1
area and wetted perimeter are worked out with :1 side slopes
for design purpose even though in execution actually flatter slopes
depending upon stability and type of soils are adopted.
b The side slope depends upon the nature ofthe soil and the depth of
cutting or filling.
ii. Berm:
a Berm is narrow strip of land left at the ground level between the
inner toe of the bank and top edge of cutting.
b. The width of the berm is variable but it is kept such that the bed
line and bank line remain parallel.
Recommendations of IS : 7112-1973 for Berm Width:
a. When the canal is partly incutting and partly in filling the berm
may be kept at the ground level, with its width = 2D (i.e., twice the
fully supply depth).
b. When the canal is wholly in filling the berm may be kept at the full
supply level with its width equal to 3D.
C.
When the canal is wholly in cutting the berm may be kept at the
full supply level with its width equal to 2D.
iii. Free Board : Free board is the gap or the margin of height between
FSL and top of the bank. It is possible to ensure that water does not
overtop the bank.
iv. Top Width of Bank:Thepurpose of thebank is to retain water so long
as the berm is not formed. They thus have is to withstand full pressure
of waterabove the ground level. They should, therefore, be sufficiently
strong to withstand this initial strain. No special design is, however,
done and it is customary to provide width of bank.
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 3-17 F (CE-Sem-7)
V. Dowel or Dowla : Adowla is provided by the side of inspection road.
Top of dowla is kept above the FSL by a margin of free board. They are
provided as a measure of safety for automobiles driven on the service
road. They act as kerbs on the side of roadway towards the canal.
vi. Roadway Inspection:It is very necessary to have access to all parts
of canal system so that proper inspection may be done. It will also increase
the efficiency of the maintenance.
Que 3.14. Writea short note on :
i. L-section and X-section of canal.
ii. Garret's diagram.
ii. Initial and final regime of a channel.
AKTU2015-16, Marks 10

Answer
A. L-section of a Canal : Refer Q. 3.11, Page 3-13F, Unit-3.
B. X-section of a Canal : Refer Q. 3.13, Page 3-15F, Unit-3.

Service road Permanent land width

Free board Bank
Lo.3, +Dowla
GL15 F.S.L y G.L.

Berm Berm
Canal bed
b
(a) Canal section in part cutting and filling
1.5:1 Dowla
Permanent land width
.5:1 Service roade F.S.L Spoil bankGL.
AVIAVIAVIA
Boundary Canal bed
bank
-Berm
(b) Canal section in full cutting
Permanent land width
Service road, Dowla Bank
F.S.L
1.5:1

L.5:1 d Saturation
line
1.5:1
TAVIAVIA

(c) Canal section in flling

Fig. 3.14.1. X-section.
3-18 F (CE-Sem-7) Sediment Transport
C. Garret's Diagram :
1 Garret's diagrams give the graphical method of designing the channel
dimensions based on Kennedy's theory. The original diagrams were
prepared in FPS units.
2. The diagram has the discharge plotted on the abscissa. The ordinates on
left indicate the slope and that on right the water depth in the channel
and critical velocity Vg
D. Initial Regime : When only the bed slope of a channel varies due to
dropping of silt, and its eross-section or wetted perimeter remains
unaffected, even then the channel can exhibit 'no silting no scouring
properties, called Initial regime'.
E. Final Regime : If there is no resistance from the sides, and all the
variables such as perimeter, depth, slope, etc., are equally free to vary
and finally get adjusted according to discharge and silt grade, then the
channel is said to have achieved permanent stability, called final regime.
PART-7
Advantages and Types of Lining of Irrigation Channels.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.15. What are the advantages of canal lining ?

Answer
Advantages : Following are the advantages of canal lining:
i. The lining of canals prevents seepage loss and thus more area can be
irrigated by the water so saved. The cost of irrigation is, therefore,
reduced.
The lining of canal is an important anti-water logging measure as it
reduces seepage to the adjoining land.
iüi. The increased velocity minimizes the losses due to evaporation.
iv. The increased velocity helps to provide a narrow crosS-section for lined
channels.
V. Higher velocity helps in providing a flatter hydraulic gradient or bed
slope. Thus better command can be obtained.
vi. Higher velocity prevents silting of channel.
vii. Lining makes the banks more stable in light textured soil.
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 3-19 F (CE-Sem-7)

vi. Lining reduces maintenance costs and possibility of breaching due to

increased stability of section.
ix. Lining of a canal prevents or reduces weed growth.
X. Lining ofa canal increases available head for power generation as a
flatter gradient can be provided.
xi. Canal lining assures economical water distribution.
x. Canal lining prevents water to come in contact with harmful salts during
transit.

Que 3.16. Enumerate various types of linings used for canal.

Answer
Following are the various types of linings used in canal :
1 Concrete Lining :
i. Concrete lining is probably the best type of lining. It fulfills practically all
the requirements of lining.
It is durable, impervious, and requires least maintenance.
i. The smooth surface of the concrete lining increases the conveyance of
the channel. Properly constructed concrete lining can easily last about
40 years.
iv. Concrete linings are suitable for all sizes of channels and for both high
and low velocities.
V. The lining cost is, however, high and can be reduced by using mechanized
methods.
2. Shoterete Lining :
i. Shoterete lining is constructed by applying cement mortar pneumatically
tothe canal surface.
ü. Cement mortar does not contain coarse aggregates and, therefore, the
proportion of cement is higher in shoterete mix than in concrete lining.
ii. Equipment needed for laying shotcrete lining is light, portable, and of
smaller size compared to the equipment for concrete lining.
iv. The thickness of the shotcrete lining may vary from 2.5 to 7.5 cm. The
preferred thickness is from 4 to 5 cm.
Precast Concrete Lining:
Precast concrete slabs, laid properly on carefully prepared sub grades
and with the joints effectively sealed, constitute a serviceable type of
lining.
The precast slabs are about 5 to 8 cm thick with suitable width and
length to suit channel dimensions and to result in weights which can be
conveniently handled.
3-20 F (CE-Sem-7) Sediment Transport

ii. Such slabs may or may not be reinforced.

iv. This type of lining is best suited for repair work as it can be placed
rapidly without long interruptions in canal operation.
4 Lime Concrete Lining :
The use of this type of lining is limited to small and medium size irrigation
channels with capacities of up to 200 m²/sec and in which the velocity of
water does not exceed 2 m/sec.
ii. The materials required for this type of lining are lime, sand, coarse
aggregate, and water.
ii. The lime concrete mix should be such that it has a minimum compressive
strength of about 5.0 kN/m² after 28 days of moist curing.
5. Stone Masonry Lining :
Stone masonry linings are laid on the canal surface with cement mortar
or lime mortar.

ii. The surface of the stone masonry may be smooth plastered to increase
the hydraulic efficiency of the canal.
ii. Stone masonry linings are stable, durable, erosion-resistant, and very
effective in reducing seepage losses.
iv. Such lining is very suitable where only unskilled labour is available and
suitable quarried rock is available at low price.
6. Brick Lining :
i Bricks are laid in layers oftwowith about 1.25 cm of 1:3 cement mnortar
E: sandwiched in between.
Good quality bricks should be used and these should be soaked well in
water before being laid on the moistened canal surface.
iüi. Brick lining is suitable when concrete is expensive and skilled labour is
not available.
7 Boulder Lining: Boulder lining of canals, if economically feasible, is
useful for preventing erosion and where the ground water level is above
the bed of the canal and there is a possibility of occurrence of damaging
back pressures.
Earth Linings :
i. Different types of earth linings have been used in irrigation canals.
ü. They are inexpensive but require high maintenance expenditure.
iüi. The main types of earth linings are : (a) Stabilised earth linings, (6)
Loose earth blankets, (c) Compacted earth linings, (d) Buried bentonite
membranes, and (e) Soil-cement linings.
PART-8
Factor for Selection of a Particular Type.
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 3-21 F (CE-Sem-7)

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.17. What factors are responsible for selection for a

particular type of lining ?
Answer
Following are the factors which responsible for selection of lining :
1, Size and Importance of the Canal:
i. For smaller canals,which may be used only intermittently, one may
choose a lining, the construction of which may require little equipment
and machinery.
Larger canals on the other hand, may permit the use of cast in situ
operations.
ii. Moreover, larger and important canals may require continuous
operations and, hence may need stronger linings, such as concrete lining.
2. Canal Slopes and Alignments:These factors also need consideration
since frequent changes in alignment and steeper slopes may encounter
higher flow velocities, leading to selection of stronger linings. The limiting
safe velocities, in general used types of linings.
3. Climate of the Area : Higher quality linings should be used in areas
which are susceptible to severe frosts and temperature changes such as
in western countries.
4. Availability of Materials : The type of lining should be such that the
required materials are most easily available locally or in the vicinity of
the area from where they can be carted to site with least cost.
5. Initial Expenditure:
i Mathematically speaking, the most economical type of lining is the one
which shows maximum annual benefit-cost ratio.
iü. This lining may have higher initial cost but longer life, than some other
kind of lining having lesser value of annual benefit cost ratio.
iüi. From long term planning point of view,the first type of lining should be
chosen.

PART-9
Design ofLined Channels.
3-22 F (CE-Sem-7) Sediment Transport

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.18.Explain types of linedcanal and give design procedure

of trapezoidal shaped canal.
Answer
lined sections are
A. Types of LinedCanal Sections: The following two
generally adopted :
1. Circular Section : The bed is circular with its center
at the full supply
tangential to
level and radius equal to full supply depth D'. The sides are
1.
the curve. However, the side slope is generally taken as 1:

D/ 20 D
1:1 /1:1
D

Fig. 3.18,1.

2. Trapezoidal Section :The horizontal bed is joined to the side slope by

a curve of radius equal to full supply depth D. The side slope is generally
kept as l:1.

Rp D

Pig. 3.18.2. Trapezoidal shaped.

B. Design Procedure : In order to design a lined canal section following
data is required :
Discharge Q.
Rugosity co-efficient N.
ii. Longitudinal slope S.
iv. Side slopes.
V. Limiting velocity V.
C. Procedure :The procedure used for design of trapezoidal shaped channel
is given below :
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 3-23 F (CE-Sem-7)

1. Knowing limiting velocity V,the rugosity coefficient Nand longitudinal

slope, S,work out the value of hydraulic mean depth R by the use of
Manning's equation.
1
V= R28 g2 ...(3.18.1)
N
2. Find the area of crosS-section from the continuity equation.
A=
V

3. Find out the wetted perimeter of the sectior.

A
P=
R
4. Also, for trapezoidal shaped channel (Fig. 3.18.2), the area of cross
section,
2D cot 0
A = BD+2D2 = BD + D²0 + D²cot 9
21
or A = BD + D' (0 + cot 0) ...(3.18.2)
Perimeter, P= B+2D 0 + 2D cot =B+ 2D(0 + cot 0) ..(3.18.3)
Since Aand P are known from steps 2and 3, the value of bed width and
depth D can be worked out from eq. (3.18.2) and (3.18.3).
Que 3.19. Design aconcrete lined channel to carry a discharge of
200 cumecs with bed slope of 1 in 4000. The side slope is 2H:1V and
Manning's coeficient, N= 0.014. The limiting velocity in the canal is
2 m/sec. AKTU2015-16, Marks 05

Answer

Given : Discharge, Q= 200 cumecs, Bed slope, S = 1 in 4000, Side

slope = 2H: 1V, Manning's coefficient, N = 0.014, Velocity,
V= 2 m/sec
To Find : Design a concrete lined channel.
1. Use Manning's equation
1
Velocity, V=

1 1
2= x R2/3 X
0,014 J4000
Hydraulic mean radius, R = 2.36 m
2. The channel section is assumed to be trapezoidal. For side slope 2: 1,
3-24 F (CE-Sem-7) Sediment Transport

cot 9 = 0 =26.565°
1
and = 0.4636 radian
3. Area of cross section of the channel,

A= Q 200 = 100 m?
V 2
4. Perimeter of the section,
A 100
P= = 42.37 m
R 2.36
5. We know that
Area of channel, A, = BD + D' (0 + cot 0) ...(3.19.1)
Perimeter of channel, P = B+ 2D (0 + cot 0) ...(3.19.2)
6. Substituting the value of A, P, 0and cot e
100= BD + D' (2.4636) ...(.3.19.3)
42.37 = B+ D (4.9272) ...(3.19.4)
From eq. (3.19.4), we get
B= 42.37-4.9272 D
7 Substituting it in eg. (3.19.3), we get
D (42.37-4.9272 D) + 2.4636 D² = 100
42.37 D-4.9272 D2 + 2.4636 D²= 100
-2.4636 D² + 42.37 D - 100 =0
D'- 17.198 D + 40.59 = 0
Depth, D= 2.82 m
8 Width, B= 42.37- 4.9272 x 2.82=28.47 m
8. Thus, required bed width = 28.47 m, and depth = 2.82 m

Que 3.20. Design a concrete lined channel to triangular section

to carry a discharge of 45 cumecs at a slope of l in 10 km. The side
slopes of thechannel are 1.25: 1 and Manning's coefficient N may
be taken as 0.018. AKTU2016-17, Marks 10
Answer

Given : Discharge, Q = 45 cumecs, Slope, S = 1in 10 km, Side slope =

1.25:1, Manning's coefficient N= 0.018.
To Find: Design a concrete lined channel to triangular section.
1 The channel is assumed to be of
triangular section (Fig. 3.20.1)
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 3-25 F (CE-Sem-7)

2 Area, A = d+2 cot0 = d' (0 + cot )

T

where, d= Depth of central portion

3. Perimeter, P= 2nd +2d cot = 2d (0 + cot 0)

d' (0 + cot 0)
4. Hydraulic mean depth, R= = d/2.
2d (0+ cot 0)

FSL
2

Fig. 3.20.1. Triangular shaped or curved channel.

5. From Manning's equation,
2/3
1 1 d 1
V= ...(3.20.1)
N 0.0182. V10000 2.86
45
Also V=
A D'(0 + cot 0)
where, cot 0 = 1.25, since side slope is 1.25: 1
= 0.675 radian
45 45
Hence, V= ...(3.20.2)
D'(0.675 + 1.25) D' x1.925
6. Equating the eg. (3.20.1) and (3.20.2), we get
D23 45
2.86 D' x1.925
45 x 2.86
Hence D83= = 66.86
1.925
7. Depth of central portion, D = 4.835 m
Que 3.21. Design a concrete lined channel to carrya discharge of
350 cumecs at a slope of 1in 5000. The side slopes of the channel
may be taken as 1.5:1. The value of N for lining is 0.014. Assume
limiting velocity in the channel as 2 m/sec.
AKTU 2018-19, Marks 10|
3-26 F (CE-Sem-7) Sediment Transport

Answer
Given : Discharge, Q=350 m/sec, Slope, S = l in 5000
Side slope =1.5: 1, Manning's coefficient, N=0.014
Velocity of flow, V= 2 m/sec
To Find: Design the lined channel.
1. Use Manning's equation
1
Velocity, V=
N
1 1
2= x R23x
0.014 V5000
Hydraulic mean radius, R =2.786 m
2 The channel section is a trapezoidal. For side slope 1.5: 1.

cot = 1.5
1
0 = 33.69°
= 0.588 radian
3 Area of cross section of the channel,
Q 350
A= = 175 m?
2
4 Perimeter of the section,
A 175
P= = 62.814 m
R 2.786
5. We know that
Area of channel, A = BD + D² (0 + cot 0) ...(3.21.1)
Perimeter of channel, P = B+ 2D (0 + cot 0) ...(3.21.2)
6 Substituting the value of 0and cot
175 = BD + D²(0.588 + cot 33.69°) ...(3.21.3)
62.814 = B+2D(0.588 + cot 33.69°) ...(3.21.4)
7. From eq. (3.21.4), we get
B=62.814 -4.176 D ..(3.21.5)
8 Substituting it in eq. (3.21.3), we get
D(62.814 4.176 D) + 2.088 D² = 175
62.814 D -4.176 D'+2.088 D' = 175
-2.088 D+ 62.814D - 175 =0
Depth, D = 3.107 m
9 From eq. (3.21.5), we get
Width, B= 62.814 -4.176 x 3.107 = 49.84 m
Thus,required bed width = 49.84 m, and depth =3.107 m
Irigation Water RoHourco Bngineering -27 F (CE-Sem-7)

PART-10
Cross Seetion of Lined Channels, Economies of Canal Linings.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.22. Explain the terms used for the design of eross section of
linedcanal.
Anawer
The details of cross-section of linedcanal according to IS :4745-1968:
1. Side Slopes: Lining is usually made to rest on slopes corresponding to
the angle of repose of the natural soil so the slopes shall be such that no
earth pressure is exerted on the back of the lining.
2. Free Board :A free board of0,75 mshall be provided. Free board shall
be measured from the full supply level to the top of lining.
3. Bank Widths : The following bank widths shall be provided:
1. 8m for cutting and filling reaches for main canals.
: 6.5 m for cutting reaches for branches canals.
i. 6.5 mon left side and 5 mon the right side for filling reaches for branch
canals.
4. Velocity : Allowable velocity of about 1.5 to 2.0 m/sec is recommended
for lined canal.
i Critical velocity ratios are not applicable to lined canals but the possibility
of silting cannot be neglected and, hence, the critical velocity ratio should
be aimed at higher than unity.
ii. The velocity may be computed from the following formula.

V=
N

Que 3.23.How will you justify economically the necessity of lining

an existing canal ?
Answer
Justification for Lining the Existing Canals :
1. Annual Benefits :
3-28 F (CE-Sem-7) Sediment Transport
i. Irrigation water is sold to the cultivators at a certain rate. Let this rate
be rupees R, per cumec. If m cumecs of water is saved by lining the
canal, annually, then the money saved by lining =mR, rupees.
Lining will also reduce maintenance cost. The average cost of annual
upkeep of unlined channel can be worked out from previous records.
Let it be Rs. R,. Ifp is the percentage fraction of the saving achieved in
maintenance cost by lining the canal, then the amount saved = pR,
rupees.
iüi. The total annual benefits =mR, +pR, .(3.23.1)
(The value of pis generally taken as 0.4)
2. Annual Costs :
i. If thecapital expenditure required on lining is Crupees, and the lining
has a life of say Y years,then the annual depreciation charges will be
CÍY rupees.
i. Ifr percent is the rate of annual simple interest, then a locked up capital
of C rupees would earn, annually C(r/100) rupees as interest charges,
and since the capital value of the asset decreases from C to zero in Y
years, the average annual interest cost may be taken as C/2(r/100)
rupees.
iüi. The total annual costs of lining
C C
=

Y 2 100
Annual Benefits
3. Benefit cost ratio
Annual Costs

mh, +pR,
CC
Y 2 100
4. For project justification, benefit cost ratio must be greater than unity.
5. In addition to the benefits grouped above i.e., (water saving and reduction
in maintenance cost) there may be benefits, like prevention of water
logging, reduced cost of drainage for adjoining lands, reduced risk of
breaching, reduced incidence of malaria and other diseases in damp
areas.

PART-1 1
Water Logging, Definition Effect Causes,
Antiwater Logging Measures.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

 Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 3-29 F (CE-Sem-7)

Que 3.24. Explain the water logging.Describe the adverse effects

of water logging.
Answer
A. Water Logging :
An agricultural land is said to be waterlogged when its productivity or
fertility is affected by high water table.
The depth of water table at which it tends to make the soil water logged
and harmful to the growth and substance of plant life depends upon the
height of capillary fringe,which is the height to which water will rise
due to capillary action.
ii. The height of capillary fringe is more for fine-grained soil and less for
coarse-grained soil.
iv. The normal height of the capillary fringe met within agricultural soils
varies from 0.50 to 1.60 m.
B. Effects of Water Logging :Following are the effects of water logging:
1. Inhibiting Activity of Soil Bacteria :
i. The liberation of plant food is dependent upon the activity of soil bacteria,
which requires adequate amount of oxygen in the air for proper
functioning.
i. When the soil pores within the root zones of the crops normally grown
are so saturated as to effectively cut off the normal circulation of air, the
land is said to be waterlogged.
2. Decrease in Available Capillary Water:
i Plant life draws its substance from the soil-solution round the soil particles
which is drawn into the plants by capillary action and osmosis.
If the water table is high, the roots of the plants are confined to the top
layers of the soil above the water table while if the water table is lower.
the roots of plants have more room for growth.
3 Fall in Soil Temperature : Awaterlogged soil warms up slowly and
due to lower temperature, action of soil bacteria is sluggish and plant
food available is less.
4 Defective Air Circulation : When the water table is high, the drainage
becomes impossible and the carbon dioxide liberated by the plant roots
cannot be dissolved and taken away. Consequently fresh air containing
0xygen is not drawn and activity of soil bacteria and plant growth suffers.
5. Rise of Salt:
i. The rise of water table als0 causes accumulation of alkali salts in the
surface soil by the upward flow of water which is established in
waterlogged lands.
3-30 F (CE-Sem-7)
Sediment Transport
ii If the underlying layers contain alkali salts in solution they are brought
up with water which evaporates leaving the salt on the surface.
6. Delay in Cultivation Operations :
i. In waterlogged areas, cultivation operations such as ploughing and
mulching are either impossible or difficult and in any case they are
delayed.
i. Sowing of crops and their growth are also delayed.
iüi. Crop yield is poor and it arrives late in market causing loss to cultivators.
7. Growth of Wild Flora: In waterlogged soils, natural flora such as
water hyacinth grows profusely. This reduces the crop yield. Acultivator
has to waste money and time both for clearing it out.
8 Adverse Effect on Community Health: The climate of awaterlogged
area becomes damp. Formation of stagnant pools may become breeding
places for mosquitoes. The climate thus becomes extremely detrimental
to the health of community.

Que 3.25. What are the principal causes of water logging in a

canal irrigated forms ?
Answer
Following are the causes of water logging in canal irrigation :
1. Over and Intensive Irrigation: When apolicy of intensive irrigation
is adopted, then, the maximum irrigable area of asmallregionis irrigated.
This leads to, too much ofirrigation, in that region, resulting in heavy
percolation subsequent rise of water table.
2. Seepage of Water from the Adjoining High Lands: Water from the
adjoining high lands may seep into the sub soil of the affected land and
may raise the water table.
3. Seepage of Water through the Canals : Water may seep through
the beds and sides of theadjoining canals, reservoirs, etc., situated at a
higher level than the affected land; resulting in high water table.
4. Impervious Obstruction : Water seeping below the soil moves
horizontally (i.e., laterally) but may find an impervious obstruction,
causing the rise of water table on the upstream side of the obstruction.
5. Inadequate Natural Drainage : Soils having less permeable
sub-stratum (such as clay) below the top layers of pervious soils, will not
be able to drain the water deep into the ground, and hence, resulting in
high water level in the affected soil.
6. Inadequate Surface Drainage : Storm water falling over the land
and the excess irrigation water should be removed and should not be
allowed to percolate below. If proper drainage is not provided, the water
willconstantly percolate and will raise the level of the underground
reservoir.
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 3-31 F (CE-Sem-7)

7. Excessive Rains : Excessive rainfall may create temporary water

logging and in the absence of good drainage, it may lead to continued
water logging.
Submergence Due to Floods : If a land continuously remains
submerged by floods, water loving plants like grasses, weeds, etc. may
grow, which obstruct the natural surface drainage of the soil, and thus,
increasing the chances of water logging.
9. Irregular or Flat Topography : In steep terrain, the water is drained
out quickly. On flat or irregular terrain having depressions, etc., the
drainage is very poor.
Allthese factors lead to greater detention of water on the land, causing
more percolation and raised water table.
Que 3.26. Explain water logging and its causes. Explain adverse
effects of water logging. What are the various methods adopted as
anti water logging measures ? AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
OR
Explain 'water logging'. What are the various causes of water
logging? Describe the adverse effects of water logging. What are
the various methods adopted as anti-water logging measures ?
AKTU2016-17, Marks 10
OR
What is the problem of water logging ? What are the poor effects of
water logging ? Describe some suitable renedial measures against
water logging in brief. AKTU2018-19, Marks 10
OR
What is meant by water-logging ? What are its ill effects ? Describe
some anti-water-logging measures with suitable sketches.
AKTU2018-19, Marks 10
Answer
A Water logging and its illeffect : Refer Q. 3.24, Page 3-29F, Unit-3.
B. Causes : Refer Q. 3.25, Page 3-30F,Unit-3.
C. Anti-Water Logging Measure : Following are the various methods
adopted as anti-water logging:
1. Lining of Canalsand Water Courses: Attempts should be made to
reduce the seepage of water from the canals and water courses. This
can be achieved by lining them.
2. Reducing the Intensity of Irrigation : In areas where there is a
possibility of water logging, intensity ofirrigation should be reduced.
3-32 F (CE-Sem-7) Sediment Transport
3. By Introducing Crop Rotation :
i Certain crops require more water and others require less water. If a
field is always sown with a crop require more water, the chances of
water logging are more.
In order to avoid this, a high water requiring crop should be followed by
one requiring less water, and then by one requiring almost no water.
4. By Providing Intercepting Drains : Intercepting drains along the
canals should be constructed, wherever necessary. These drains can
intercept and prevent the seeping canal water from reaching the area
likely to be waterlogged.
5. By Provision of an Efficient Drainage System :
An efficient drainage system should be provided in order to drain away
the storm water and the excess irrigation water.
ii. A
good drainage system consists of surface drains as well as sub-surface
drains.
6. By Improving the Natural Drainage of the Area : To reduce the
percolation, the water should not be allowed to stand for alonger period.
Some relief in direction can be obtained by removing the obstructions
from the path of natural flow.
7. By Adopting Consumptive Use of Surface and Subsurface Water:
The introduction of lift irrigation to utilize ground water helps in lowering
thewater table in a canal irrigated area, where water-table tends togo
up.

PART- 12
Drainage of Water Logged Land, Type of Drain
Open & Closed, Spacing of Closed Drains.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.27. What are the types of drainsdeseribe in brief?

Answer
Types of Drains: Following are the various types of drains :
A Surface Drainage or Open Drainage :Surface drainage is the removal
of excess rain water falling on the fields or the excess irrigation water
applied to the field, by constructing open ditches, field drains, and other
related structures.
 Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 3-33 F (CE-Sem-7)

Open Drains can be Further Sub Divided into:

1. Shallow Surface Drains :
i It reduces percolation to ground water but is of no use if water has
already permeated to ground water reservoir.
This drains excess irrigation water applied to the field and accelerates
removal of storm water.
2. Deep Open Drains:
These can be used to reduce water logging without the provision of the
tile drains.
i. These will then have to be provided at a distance of0.75 km or even less.
i . They are also commonly used as outlet drains for closed drain system.
3. Under Drains or Tile Drains :
i. Tile drains are located at suitable depths below the ground surface
above the impervious clay stratum impeding the natural percolation of
water.
i. They are preferably placed in a medium or high permeability.
B. Sub Surface Drainage or Tile Drainage :
1. Plants need air as well as moisture in their root zones for their survival.
2. Excess irrigation farm water is free to move into the underground tile
drains, if provided.
3. This water, ifnot removed, retards the plant growth, because it fills the
soil voids and restricts proper aeration.

Que 3.28. What are the advantages of land drainage ?

Answer
Benefits of Drainage:Followingare the advantages of drainage system :
1 Adequate drainage improves soil structure and increases the productivity
of soil.
2. Waterlogged saline and alkaline lands can be reclaimed.
3. Adequate drainage leads to early ploughing and planting.
4 Drainage of the area lengthens crop growing seasons.
5. Drainage reduces water table in an area and thereby :
Provides more available plant food by increasing depth of root zone soil.
Increases soil ventilation.
üi. Favours growth of soil bacteria.
iv Assures high soil temperature.
6. Drainage decreases soil erosion and gullying by increasing water
infiltration into soil.
7. Excess salt from soil can be leached out.
 4
UNIT
Regulation and
Controls of Canal
System

CONTENTS
Part-1 : Purpose, Types of Canal Regulation.. . 4-2F to 4-7F
Works and Their Functional Aspects
Part-2 : Irrigation Outlets 4-7F to 4-9F
Requirements, Types
Part-3: Non-Modular Outlets 4-9F to 4-10F

Part-4 : Semi-Modular Outlets .4-10F to 4-11F

Part-5 : Rigid Modular Outlet, .4-11F to 4-13F

Selection Criterion

Part-6 : River Training : Objective .4-13F to 4-14F

and Need

Part-7 : Classification of Rivers and .4-14F to 4-16F

River Training Works

Part-8 : Meandering, Stages .4-16F to 4-18F

Part-9 : Method of River Training, .4-18F to 4-20F

Bank Protection

Part-10: Method for Measurement 4-20F to 4-21F

of Discharge

4-1F (CE-Sem-7)
4-2F (CE-Sem-7) Regulation and Control of Canal System

PART- 1

Purpose, Types of Canal Regulation Works and Their

Functional Aspects.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.1. Describe the canal regulation works. What are the
What are the
different types of canal regulation works provided ?
functions of a canal fall ? AKTU2018-19, Marks 10

Answer
Canal Regulation Work Structure: structures which are
1 Canal regulation structures are hydraulic
constructed to regulate the discharge, flow velocity, or supply level in an
irrigation channel.
working as well as for the
2 These structures are necessary for efficient
safety of an irrigation channel. of canal
Types of Canal Regulation Work: Fcllowing are the types
regulation works :
regulates the
1. Canal Fall : The canal fall (or, simply, the fall'or drop')
its bed elevation
in
supply level in a canal by negotiating the change slope.
necessitated by the difference in ground slope and canal
supply to an off
Distributary Head Regulator : This controls the
2
taking channel from the parent channel. water level of a channel
3. Cross Regulator:This structure controls the
hydraulic structure.
and the discharge downstream of another
supplies when the safety
4. Canal Escape: Canal escape disposes of extra closure of outlets by
rains or
of a canal is endangered due to heavy
farmers. level and
Function of aCanal Fall: It is used to lower down the waterwhich may
water
destroy the surplus energy liberated from the falling
scour the bed and banks of the canal.
a canal
Que 4.2. What are the basic principles of regulation of
of canal system.
system ? Explain the various method of regulation
AKTU2017-18, Marks 10
 Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 4-3F (CE-Sem-7)

Answer

1
Basic Principles of Regulationofa Canal System :
The principle underlying the distribution of water is apportioning available
canal supplies on the basis of irrigable area.
2. If the water is needed only occasionally then it may be supplied
according to the general agreement between cultivators and canal
administration.
3. A
canal has to be run with full supplies if there is a keen demand in the
commanded area, with part supplies if a part of commanded area only
needs water and with no supplies if the demand falls below a certain
minimum.
WarabandiSystem of Canal Regulation :
1. It is integral management system for conveying and distributing
irrigation water from the source (river or reservoir) down to the farm
gates (i.e., nakkas) of various land holders, so as to ensure supplies upto
the tail end of the command area.
2 The entire water conveyance system is divided into the following three
categories :
Primary distribution system.
:: Secondary distribution system.
üi. Tertiary distribution system.
3 Conveyance of water from the source into the main canal, feeding two
or more branch canals (which may operate by rotation) and may not
carry the total required supply, constitute what is known as the primary
distribution system. This primary distribution system runs throughout
the irrigation season with varying supply.
4. The secondary distribution system consists of a large number of
distributaries which run by rotation but usually carry full supply. They
are fed by the branch canals of the primary distribution system. The
water is finally released from the distributaries into the water courses
through the outlets (modules). The secondary distribution system ends
at this outlet point.
5. The water flowing into the water course or it branches, from an outlet of
a distributaries, is finally allocated to various fields situated along the
water course by a time roster. This is the tertiary distribution system.
6 In this warabandi system, each unit of culturable command area (CCA)
is allocated a certain rate of flow, called water allowance, whose value is
generally a comprise between the likely demand and the supply for a
given project.
7 The carrying capacities of the watercourses and the distributaries are
designed on the basis of this decided value of water allowance. Whenever
distributaries run, they are expected to carry their full supply.
8. The outlets to water courses are so planned and constructed that all the
water courses on a distributary withdraw their authorised shares of
water simultaneously.
4-4F (CE-Sem-7) Regulation and Controlof Canal System
9. The design capacities of distributaries and water courses in this warabandi
system are, thus, based on the hectares of culturable command area
(which is fixed), rather than on the basis of water demand of variable
cropping pattern adopted by the different farmers.
10. The warabandi system, thus, does not provide greater amount of water
to the farmers, who are growing more water consuming crops in their
fields.
11. Under the warabandi system, the distributaries are operated at full
capacities, usually on eight-day periods. The number of these periods
would depend on the availability of water and crop requirements. In a
normal year, it is possible to run the distributaries of the Bhakra project
for 18 periods during Kharif season and 16 periods during Rabi season.
Que 4.3. What is a canal fall ? What are the various types of canal
fall ?
OR
What are various regulation works in canals ? Explain about the
location of falls and various types of falls.
AKTU2015-16, Marks 05

Answer
Various Regulation Work: Refer Q. 4.1, Page 4-2F, Unit-4.
Canal Fall: It is an irrigation structure constructed across a channel to
lower down its water level and dissipate the surplus energy liberated
from the falling water which may otherwise scour the bed and banks of
the canal.
Types: Following are the various types of canal fall:
1. Ogee Canal Falls :
Ogee curve is the combination of convex and concave curves. So, Ogee
fall consists of both convex and concave curves gradually.
This gradual combination helps to provide smooth transition offlow and
also reduce the impact.
If the canal natural ground surface is suddenly changed to steeper
slope, ogee fall is recommended for that canal.
iv. Stone pitching is provided in the upstream and downstream of the fall.
Rubble masonry
Surface finished
with cement
Stone mortar
pitching

Concrete Concrete bed 4Stone pitching

verticalwall Fig.4.3.1.
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 4-5F (CE-Sem-7)

2. Rapid Canal Falls :

1. Rapid fall consists of a long sloping glacis. It is constructed if the available
natural ground surface is plane and long.
For this, a bed of rubble masonry is provided and it is finished with
cement mortar of1:3ratio.
iüi. To maintain the slope of bed curtain walls are provided at both upstream
and downstream.
iv. Rapid falls are high priced constructions.
U/S

DIS
1 in 15

Fig. 4.3.2. Rapid fall.

3. Stepped Canal Falls:
Stepped fall consist vertical steps at gradual intervals.
i. Stepped fall is the modification of rapid fall. It is suitable for the canal
which has it upstream at very high level as compared to downstream.
iüi. These two levels are connected by providing vertical steps or drops as
shown in Fig. 4.3.3.

|Drop |Drop
DYop
Rubble masonry
Fig. 4.3.3. Brick wall

4 Trapezoidal Notch Canal Falls :

i. In case of trapezoidal notch falls, a high crested wall is built across the
channel and trapezoidal notches are provided in that wall.
Trapezoidal falls are very economical and suitable for low discharges.
ii. Now a days this type of falls is widely used because of their simplicity
and popularity.
UIS FSL
Notch -Side wall
Notch pier/

Lsillof notch -Foundation wall

Fig. 4.3.4.
4-6F (CE-Sem-7) Regulation and Control of Canal System

5. Simple Vertical Drop Falls (Sarda Type fall) :

i. Simple vertical drop fall or Sarda fall consists, single vertical drop which
allows the upstream water to fall with sudden impact on downstream.
ü. The downstream acts like cushion for the upstream water and dissipate
extra energy.
ii. This type of fall is tried in Sarda Canal UP (India) and therefore, it is also
called Sarda Fall.
6. Straight Glacis Canal Falls :
i. This is the modern type of corstruction, in which a raised crest is
constructed across the canal and a gentle straight inclined surface is
provided from raised crest to the downstream.
i. The water coming from upstream crosses the raised crest and falls on
inclined surface with suffcient energy dissipation.
Que 4.4. Describe with neat sketches Inglis type fall.
Answer
Inglis Type Fall :
1. Designed by CC Inglis, the fall makes use of horizontal impact for
energy dissipation.
2 The design consists of a standard long throated weir flume followed by
aglacis slope and a pavement on which a baffle is fixed to dissipate the
energy.
3. The baffle holds the jump to stable on a horizontal platform.
4. Acistern downstream of the baffle with adeflector at the downstream
end of the cistern is provided.
5 Impervious floor is provided only up to the end of the deflector.
6 To the downstream of the deflector a second cistern is provided, which
is only pitched with bricks or stones (Fig. 4.4.1).
divergence 1 in 10
Side

Toe of fall
Deflector
Bafle

B, B

(a) Plan

(b)L-section
Fig.4.4.1. Inglis type fall.
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 4-7F (CE-Sem-7)

7. The maximum dissipation ofenergy by a hydraulicjump occurs when

the jump forms at the toe of the glacis.
8. However, the jump may also form either on the glacis, or at the
downstream of the toe.
9 If the jump forms on the sloping glacis, the baffle should be fixed on a
platform at a higher level than the canal bed level so that the natural
wave will form at the toe of the platform.
10. If the jump would form at the toe of the fall, the baffle should be fixed
at pavement level.
11. If, however, the jump would form at downstream of toe, the glacis
should be extended and a cistern provided of such depth as to bring the
wave to the toe and the baffle fixed on the bed of the cistern.
12. Even though the energy is effectively dissipated by baffle near the toe
of a fall, the distribution of velocities is normal; hence, a cistern and
deflector are provided.
13. The cistern and deflector are meant to restore the normal distribution
of velocities in the channel.

PART-2
Irrigation Outlets : Requirements, Types.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.5. What is an outlet ? Write down the requirement that an

outlet should fulfill. Distinguish clearly between non-modular,
semi-modular and modular outlets with suitable examples.
AKTU2018-19, Marks 10
OR
What is an outlet ? Explain various types of outlets with examples
and sketches. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 05
OR
What are *modules" ?What are the requirements of a good module ?
Describe briefly with neat sketches the important types of modules
and their suitabilities for a particular project.
AKTU2018-19, Marks 10
Answer
Outlet : An outlet is a small structure which admits water from the
distributing channel to a water course or field channel. Thus, an outlet
4-8F (CE-Sem-7) Regulation and Control of Canal System
is a sort of head regulator for the field channel delivering water to the
irrigation fields.
Acanal outlet should fulfill the following
1. requirements :
The outlet should be strong, with no moving parts liable to be damaged
or requiring periodic attention and maintenance.
2. It should be so designed that the farmer cannot temper
with its
functioning and any interference from him should be easily detectable.
3 Since a large number of outlets are fixed on a distributing channel, the
most essential requirement is that it should be cheap.
4 The design should be simple so that it can be constructed or fabricated
by local masons or techniques.
5. It should be possible for the outlet to work efficiently with a small
working head.
6 The outlet should draw its fair share of silt carried by the distributing
channel.
Types of Outlets :Following are the various types of outlets :
1 Non Modular Outlet :
i. It is the one in which the discharge depends upon the difference in level
between the water levels in the distributing channel and the water
course.
The discharge through such an outlet varies in wide limits with the
fluctuations of the water levels in the distributing and the field
channels.
Head wall Top of bank
Parapet Tail wall
channel

Pipe line T
Field channel

L-section
Fig. 4.5.1. Pipe outlet (Non-modular type).
Example : Submerged pipe outlet (Extremely used in South India),
masonry sluice and orifice and wooden shoots.
2 Semi Module or Flexible Outlet :It is the one in which the discharge
is affected by the fluctuations in the water level of the distributing
channel while the fluctuations in the water levels of the field channeldo
not have any effect on its discharge.
Example :Kennedy's gauge outlet, Crump's open flume outlet, pipe-cum
open flume outlet (used in Punjab &Haryana) and orifice semi modules.
Top of bank
Roof block
FSL -Water
course
FSL
D 6. y
Bed level
Bed level

LR= 2H
Longitudinal section
Fig. 4.5.2. Orifice semi-module.
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 4-9F (CE-Sem-7)

3. Rigid Module:It is the one which maintains constant discharge, within

limits,irrespective ofthe fluctuations in water levels in the distributing
channel and/or field channel.
Example : Gibb's rigid module (used in Punjab), Khanna rigid module.
Arched roof covering -Inclined shoots

o" A
FSL
0
WSL

Fig. 4.5.3. Khanna's module.

PART-3
Non Modular Outlets.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.6. Discuss in brief about non modular outlets.

Answer
Non-Modular outlets : These outlets operate in such a way that the
flow passing through them is a function of the difference in water levels
of the distributing channel and the water course.
1. Non-Modular Irrigation Outlets :
Pipe Outlet :
1 It is provided in the form of a simple opening made in the canal banks
which leads water from the parent channel to the field channel
(Fig. 4.6.1).
2 The opening may be circular or rectangular in shape. In the non modular
pipe outlets, former pipeline may be used. The rectangular tunnel or
barrel may be constructed of masonry.
3 Fig. 4.6.1 shows the longitudinal section of a non-modular pipe outlet.
The diameter of the pipe may range from 10 to 30 cm. The pipeline is laid
on a light concrete foundation to prevent possibility of settlement.
4 The opening is generally drowned and hence the outlet discharge
depends on the difference of water level of parent and field channel.
The loss of head through pipe is given by well known relation.
H=0.5 +
4flv²)
2g 2 gd (2g)
4-10 F (CE-Sem-7) Regulation and Control of Canal System
5 First term gives entry loss, second friction loss and third velocity at exit.
6. Discharge is given by, q = KAVH.So, far as possible the pipe line or the
rectangular tunnel is constructed at right angles to the parent channel.
The pipeline or barrel is generally laid in horizontal position.
7. When the outlet is feared to draw more silt share the pipe line may be
laid in inversely inclined position with a rise of 1in 12 (Vertical :
Horizontal).
8. Then the parent channel end of the pipe is depressed whereas an exit
end is raised. The location of the entrance end depends on the type of
parent channel.
9 For channels in which the discharge variation is more sill of the opening
is kept at the bed level of the channel.
10. Whereas when there is no appreciable change in discharge conditions
the opening may be kept slightly below FSL of the parent channel.
11. To regulate the discharge through the outlet shutter may be fixed at
entrance end with some type of locking arrangement.

PART-4
Semi Modular Outlets.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.7. Explain the semi-module. Describe a semi-module

consisting of a submerged pipe. AKTU2017-18, Marks 05

Answer
Canal module/outlet is a device through which water is released from a
distributing channel intoa water course. There are various types of
modules :
1. Rigid modules.
2 Flexible modules or semi-modules.
3 Non-modular outlets.
Semi-Modules: In these structures, the discharge depends only on the
upstream water level and is independent of the water level in the
watercourse.
Semi-modular Consisting ofa Submerged Pipe :
1. This outlet is made of cast iron and consists of three main parts
Fig. 4.7.1.
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 4-11 F (CE-Sem-7)

Index Vent pipe Discharge

FSL
-L-iron
scale
[o
H, stay
Water
course

Cl expanding pipe Bellmouth

entry
Concrete pipe extension
(a)Section (b) Elevation
Fig.4.7.1. Kennedy'sgauge outlet.
i. An orifice with bell-mouth entry.
Along expanding delivery pipe.
ii. An intervening vertical air column above the throat.
2 Water from the distributing channel enters the outlet through bell
mouthed approach. From the narrowest diameter at the throat, the jet
shoots across the air in the base of the vertical air vent pipe.
3 The base of the air vent pipe is conical and allows free circulation of air
around the jet.
4 The jet is then received by a cast iron expanding pipe, about 3 mlong. At
the end of the C.I. pipe, cement concrete pipe extension is usually added
and the water is then discharged in the field channel.
5. The discharge through this semi-module is given by,
q= Cx a (2g H,
where, a= Areaof cross-sections of the pipe at the throat.
C= Coefficient of discharge which may be as high as 0.97.
H, = The distance of center line ofC.I. expanding pipe from the FSL.

PART-5
Rigid Modular Outlets, Selection Criteria.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.8. Describe the working of Gibb's module with neat sketch.
OR
Explain semi-module, rigid module and their types. Describe a semi
module consisting of a submerged pipe.
AKTU2017-18, Marks 10
4-12 F (CE-Sem-7)
Regulation and Control of Canal System

Answer
Semi Module : Refer Q. 4.7, Page 4-10F, Unit-4.
Rigid Module : The outlets without moving parts are called rigid
modules.
F:P
Types of Rigid Module : Following are two types of rigid module :
Gibb's rigid module.
Khanna's rigid module.
1 Gibb's Rigid Module:
i. This module has an inlet pipe under the distributary bank.
i. This pipe takes water from distributary to a rising spiral pipe
the eddy chamber. which joins
ii. This arrangement results in free vortex motion. Due to this free vortex
motion, there is heading up of water (owing to smaller velocity at larger
radius a characteristic of vortex motion)near the outer wall of the rising pipe.
iv. The water surface thus slopes towards the inner wall.
V. Anumber of baffle plates of suitable size are suspended from the roof of
the eddy chamber such that the lower ends ofthese plates slope
the flow direction. against
vi With the increase in head, the water bank up at the outer wall of the
eddy chamber and impinges against the baffles and spins round in the
compartment between two successive baffle plates.
vi. This causes dissipation of excess energy and results in constant
discharge.
vi. The outlet is relatively more costly and its sediment withdrawal is also
not good.
FSL Curved rising
pipe
Watercourse
bed

(a) Section
oer
Distributary Baffles
Bedy

Rising
1:10
Spout 1:10
Inlet pipe
(b) Plan
Fig. 4.8.1. Gibb'smodule.
2 Khanna's Rigid Orifice Module:
i This outlet is similar toan orifice semi module. But, in addition, it has
sloping shoots fixed in the roof biock.
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 4-13 F (CE-Sem-7)

These shoots cause back flow and thus keep the outlet discharge
constant.
ii. If the water level in the distributary is at or below its normal level, the
outlet behaves like an orifice semimodule (Fig. 4.5.3).
iv. But, when the water level in the distributary channel is above its normal
level, the water level rises in chamberA, and enters the first sloping
shoot.
s.V. This causes back flow and dissipates additional energy. This maintains a
constant discharge.
vi. The number of sloping shoots and their height above the normal level
can vary to suit local requirements.
vi. The shoots are housed in achamber to prevent them from being tampered
with.
vii. If the shoots are blocked, the outlet continues to function as a semi
module.

PART-6

River Training 0bjective and Need.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.9. What do you mean by river training and what are the
different objectives served by it ?
OR
What are the various purposes for which river training work is
required?
Answer

A. River Training:
1 River training includes all such measures as are taken for controlling
and regulating river flow and river configuration.
2. River training works are constructed either across a river, or along it.
3. River training structures include levees or embankments built along
the river to contain floods, and spurs and guide banks are constructed
for altering the local flow conditions and guiding the flow.
B. Objectives of River Training: Following are the objectives of river
training:
1. Flood Protection: River floods of verysmall frequency inundate the
fertile and thickly-populated plains adjacent to the river, and, thus,
cause considerable loss to human life, property,agriculture, and public
and private utilities.
4-14 F (CE-Sem-7) Regulation and Control of Canal System
2. Navigation :
i. For a river to be navigable, sufficient depth and width required for
navigation should be available even at low water level in the river.
i. River training for navigation is also known as low water training' or
training for depth'.
ii. Measures to achieve adequate depth in a river for navigation include
dredging the shallow reaches of the river and using spurs to contract
the river channel, thus, increasing its depth.
3. Sediment Control:
i. River training for sediment control is also called 'mean water training'
or training for sediment.
i. This type of training aims at rectification of river bed configuration and
efficient movement of sediment load for keeping the channel in a state
of equilibrium.
ii. River training methods for this purpose involve construction of such
structures which would induce the desired local curvature to the flow.
4. Guiding the Flow :
Hydraulicstructures, such as canal head works, andcommunication
structures such as bridges, have to be protected against outflanking and
the direct attack of flow.
:
i. This requires training ofthe river over its considerable reach by building
a system of guide banks,known as Bell's guide banks, on one or both
sides of the stream at the bridge site.
ii. The purpose of these guide banks is to make sure that water flows
between the abutments of the bridge.
5 Stabilization of River Channel:
i. Weak river banks, which are likely to cave in or get eroded, need to be
protected by training methods, such as stone pitching, lining, and so on.
In some cases, the stability of the bed may also be endangered in some
reaches due to increase in the bed shear on account of local flow conditions.

PART-7
Classification of Rivers and River Training Works.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.10. What are the different types of rivers and their
characteristics ?
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 4-15 F (CE-Sem-7)

Answer
Types of River:
A Based on Variation of Discharge in River :
1. Perennial Rivers : Perennial rivers obtain their water from melting
snow for the larger part of any year besides getting rain water during
the rainy season. Being snow-fed, perennial rivers carry significant
flow through the year.
2. Non-Perennial Rivers: Non perennial rivers are not snow fed rivers
and, hence, get completely dried up or carry insignificant flow during
the summer season. They get their supplies only during the monsoon as
a result of rains in their catchment areas.
3. Flashy Rivers: In case of flashy rivers,the river stage rises and falls in
a very short period ofa day or two due to the steep flood hydrograph. A
smallflow may, however, continue for some time.
4. Virgin Rivers:In arid regions, waters of some rivers may get completely
lost due to evaporation and percolation. Such rivers become completely dry
much before they join another river or sea, and are called virgin rivers.
B. Based on Stability of River :
1. Stable Rivers: When the alignment of ariver channel, river slope, and
river regime are relatively stable and show little variation from year to
year except that the river may migrate within its permanent banks (i.e.,
khadirs), the river is said to be stable. However, changes in bed and plan
forms of a stable river do take place, but these are small.
2,. Aggrading Rivers:
i When the sediment load entering ina river reach is greater than the
sediment load leaving a river reach, the river in that reach becomes an
aggrading river due to deposition of excess sediment.
i. This situation may arise due to obstructions (e.g., barrage or dam) across
a river, extension of delta at the river mouth, or sudden intrusion of
sediment from a tributary.
3.
Degrading Rivers:When the sediment load entering ariver reach is
less than that leaving the river reach, the river in that reach becomes a
degrading river due to erosion of the bed and bank material.
C. Based on the Location of Reach of River :
Mountainous Rivers : Rivers in mountainous reaches are further
1.
divided into incised rivers and boulder rivers. Incised rivers have a steep
of these
bed slope and high velocity of flow. The bed and the banks
rivers are made up of rocks and very large boulders which are, usually,
highly resistant to erosion.
Rivers in Flood Plains : After the boulder stage, a river enters the
2.
The
alluvial plains. The bed and banks are now made up of sand and silt.
smaller than
bed slope and the velocity of flow in the river are much
those of boulder rivers.
Tidal Rivers: All rivers ultimately meet the sea. In the reach of ariver
just upstream of the sea, there occur periodic changes in water levels
river.
due to tides. This reach of the river is called tidal
4-16 F (CE-Sem-7) Regulation and Control of Canal System
tidal river, may split into
4 Delta Rivers : Ariver, before becoming aslopes resulting in shoal
number of branches due to very flat bed
This part of the river reach is
formation and braiding of the channel.
a stage, rather than a type
called delta river. The delta river indicates
of river. the
Straight Rivers:In the straight reaches ofa river, itssection has of
5. velocity of flow occurs in the middle
shape of a trough and maximum the straight reach of an alluvial
find
the section. It is very difficult to
river over large lengths.
River:
D. Based on the Plan-Form of
1. Meandering Rivers :
Rivers having such meandering patterns are
comprise a series of bends
known as meandering rivers which, in plan,
of alternate curvature.
twoor more channels around
2 Braided Rivers : When ariver flows in
alluvial islands, it is called a braided river.
discharge, depths and
Que 4.11. Explain river training for
sediments.

Answer
1 High Water Training :
i This is also called training for discharge.
and efficient cross-sectional
The river is trained to provide sufficient
flood.
area for the expeditious passage of maximum
iii. It concerns mainly with
alignment and height of embankment for a
given flood discharge.
2 Low Water Training:
depth for navigation
1 In this case the river is trained to provide sufficient
during low stage of river.
achieved by contraction
This is also called training for depth and is usually
of the width of the channel.
3. Mean Water Training :
configuration of river bed
i. In this case the river is trained to correct the
order to keep the channel
for the efficient transport of sediment load in
sediment.
in good shape. It can be called training for
PART-8

Meandering, Stages.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 4-17 F (CE-Sem-7)

Que 4.12. Explain meandering. Give the causes of meandering and

write the basic factors controlling the process of meandering.
Answer
Meandering : Ariver meandering through an alluvial plain has a series
of consecutive curves of reversed order connected with short straight
stretches called crossing.
1, Width of Meandering Belt M,:It is the transverse distance between
the apex point of one curve and apex point on reverse curve.
2. Length of Meander M, : It is the air distance along river between
tangent point of one curve and tangent point of other curve of same
order.
3. Degree of Sinuosity : It is the ratio between the curved length and the
straight air distance.
Meander length M,
Axis of river
Meander
width M,
Fig. 4.12.1. Meandering of river.
Cause of Meandering: Following are the causes of meandering :
1. Primary cause of meandering is the excess of total charge during floods,
when excess of turbulence is developed.
2 Experiments have shown that when charge is in excess of that required
for stability, river tends to build to a steeper slope by depositing the
charge on the bed.
3 This increase in slope tends to increase, in its turn, the width of the
channel if the banks are not resistant.
4. Only a slight deviation from uniform axial flow is then necessary to
cause more flow towards one bank than towards the other.
5 Additional flow is immediately attracted towards the former bank, leading
to shoaling along the latter, accentuating the curvature of flow and
producing, finally, meander in its wake.
Basic Factors Controlling the Process : Following are the factors
controlling the process :
1. Valley Slope : This is overall slope of terrain traversed by the stream
and is measured down the axis of the valley.Achange in the valley slope
always produces change in the meander pattern.
2. Stream Load: Composition of steamload as well as its rate of movement
materially affects the meander pattern.
3. Discharge : This concerns seasonal stream flow variations as
represented by the average hydrograph. There is a close relationship
between the rate of discharge and the rate of the bed load movement
and, therefore, it affects meandering.
4-18 F (CE-Sem-7) Regulation and Control of Canal System
4. Bed and Side Resistance : Boundary resistance are characterised by
the nature of materials composing the alluvium, more particularly by its
resistance to erosion. Grain size, specific gravity, cohesion and roughness
are important factors.

PART-9

Method of River Training, Bank Protection.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.13. What is the concept of river training ? Explain river

training for discharge, depths and sediments. List various types of
river training workS. AKTU2015-16, Marks 10
OR
What do you mean by river training ? Describe the method used for
river training. AKTU2016-17, Marks 15
OR
What is the concept of do you mean by river training for discharge
river training for depth sediment ? List the various types of river
training works and explain any one of them with suitable sketches.
AKTU2016-17, Marks 10
OR
What are the various purposes for which river training work is
required ? What are different types of river training works ?
AKTU2017-18, Marks 10

Answer
River Training and Purpose :Refer Q. 4.9, Page 4-13F, Unit-4.
Type: Refer Q. 4.11, Page 4-16F, Unit-4.
Methods of River Training : Following are the methods of river
training:
1 Levees. 2. Spurs.
3 Guide banks. 4. Launching apron.
5. Bank protection. 6. Pitch islands.
7. Flush bunds. 8. Secondary current generating structures.
1. Levees:
i. A levee (also known as an embankment, dike or bund) is constructed
along a river bank to protect the adjacent area from getting flooded.
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 4-19 F (CE-Sem-7)
This is the oldest method used for flood protection.
i. The method of flood control by levees is fairly simple and also
as it uses locally available material and labour for their economical
construction.
iv. Levees have been constructed recently on many major rivers of the
world,
such as the Ganga, the Kosi, the Mahanadi, the Gandak and others.
The levees should follow the general alignment of the river keeping in
view:
The desirability of having high discharge capacity of the river for a
given stage.
b The requirement that the entire meander belt (Fig. 4.13.1) be within
the levees so that they are not attacked by river flow.
V The top width of levees is generally kept between 3 to &mand its height
is decided so that it is able to contain a 500-year flood witha free board of
about 1to 2m. The side slopes oflevees may vary from 2H: 1V to 6H:1V.
Meander wave length
Concave M, width
belt
Meander Erosion
bank Crossing -Point bar
Crossing
Convex bank Point VErosibn
bar

(a) Definition sketch (6) Pattern of erosion and deposition.

0
?
Scale (1000 ft)
(c) Reach of the buyuk (Great) Menderes river, Turkey.

Fig. 4.13.1. Meandering channel.

Que 4.14. Write the classification of groynes based on functional
considerations and describe each with neat sketch.

Answer
Classification : According to functional consideration it classified as
follows:
1. Attracting Groyne:
i. The attracting groyne is constructed in such a way that it points
downstream the direction of normal flow.
When a groyne points downstream, it causes scour holes to form closer
to the bank than the groyne inclined at right angles, therefore they tend
to maintain the deep current close to the bank.
iü. The attracting groyne bears the full fury to the frontal attack of the
river on its upstream face and has, therefore, to be adequately strong.
iv. An equally heavily protection is not necessary on the downstream slope.
4-20 F (CE-Sem-7) Regulation and Control of Canal System
River

Scour

45 to 60" Bank
AIAIIAIAVAvAVZAVIAWAVAAT
Fig. 4.14.1. Attracting groyne.
2. Deflecting Groyne : Adeflecting groyne has a much shorter length
than arepelling groyne and it is generally taken in ariver perpendicular
to the bank it only deflects the flow.

River

Bank
AVAvIAVANZAVIAAVAVAVAVIAVZS
Fig. 4.14.2. Deflecting groyne.
3. Repelling Groynes :
The repelling groyne is constructed in such a way that it is pointing towards
upstream at an angle of 10° to 30° to the line normal to the bank.

Scour
River

S i
p l
o lc k e t

Bank
VINAVAVAAS
60° to 80°

Fig. 4.14.3. Repelling groyne.

The head of the groyne causes the current to be deflected ina
direction
nearly perpendicular to itself.
iüi. The current coming into contact with still water area adjacent to the
spur causes vertical eddies and deep scour.

PART- 10
Method for Measurement of Discharge.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 4-21 F (CE-Sem-7)

Que 4.15. Describe the methods used forflow measurement.

Answer
Following are the method used for flow measurement :
1. Weirs:
Weirs have been in use as discharge measuring devices in open channels
for almost two centuries.
Aweir is an obstruction over which flow of a liquid occurs. Head Hover
the weir is related to the discharge flowing and, hence, the weir forms a
useful discharge measuring device.
iiüi Weirs can be broadly classified as thín-plate (or sharp-crested) and broad
crested weirs.
2 Flume :
i It is a flow measuring device formed by a constriction in an open channel.
The constriction can be either a narrowing of the channel or a narrowing
in combination with a hump in the invert.
iü. By providing sufficient amount of constriction, it is possible to produce
critical flow conditions there.
ii. When this happens, there exists a unique stage-discharge relationship
independent of the downstream conditions. The use of critical-depth
flumes for dischargemeasurement is based on this principle.
iv. The main advantage of a critical-depth flume over a weir is in situations
when material (sediment or sewage) is being transported by the flow.
This material gets deposited upstream of the weir and affects the
discharge relation and results in a foul-smelling site in case of sewage
flow.
V. The critical-depth flumes consisting only of horizontal contraction would
easily carry the material through the flume.
vi. Critical-depth flumes can begrouped into two main categories:
Long throated flumes.
b Short-throated flume.
3. Current Meter:
i. The current meter is a widely used mechanical device for the
measurement of flow velocity and, hence, the discharge in an open
channel flows.
ii. It consists of a small wheel with cups at the periphery or propeller blades
rotated by the force of the flowing water, and a tail or fins to keep the
instrument aligned in the direction of flow.
4 Other methods :
i. Mean velocities in open channels can, alternatively, be determined by
measuring surface velocities using surface floats.
For measuring discharge in a pipeline, one may employ either orifice
meter or venturi meter or bend meter.
 5
UNIT
Groundwater Hydrolgy

CONTENTS
Part-1 : Zone of Underground Water. 5-2F to 5-3F

Part-2 : Aquifers and their Types. 5-3F to 5-5F

Important Terms
Part-3: Determination of Discharge 5-5F to 5-10F
through Unconfined and Confined
Aquifers with Steady Flow Condition
Part-4 : Interference Among Wells .5-10F to 5-11F
Part-5 : Determination of Aquifer Constant ....5-12F to 5-14F
Part-6 : Well Loss, Specific Capacity, .5-14F to 5-16F
Efficiency of a Well
Part-7: Types of Water Wells, Bored and .5-16F to 5-18F
Open Wells
Part-8 : Specific Yield of a Well .5-18F to 5-19F
Part-9 : Relative Merits of Well and ..........5-19F to 5-20F
Canal Irrigation
Part-10: Types of Tube Wells .5-20F to 5-23F

Part-11 : Well Shrouding and Well .5-23F to 5-25F

Development
Part-12: Suitable Site Selection ,5-25F to 5-25F
for Tube Well

Part-13 : Types of Open Wells... .5-26F to 5-27F

Part-14: Method of Lifting Water . . ,5-27F to 5-30F
Part-15 : Infiltration Galleries ,5-30F to 5-31F

5-1F (CE-Sem-7)
5-2 F (CE-Sem-7) Groundwater Hydrology

PART-1
Zone of Underground Water.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.1. Describe various zones of underground water.

Answer
A. Occurrence of Subsurface Water (Groundwater) :
Water in the soil mantle is called subsurface water and is considered
in two zones:
Land surface

Soil water
ZOne
Zone of
Intermediate aeration
Water table Zone

|Capillary fringe
Saturated Zone of saturation
ZOne (groundwater zone)
unconfined

Bed rock
Fig. 5.1.1. Classification of subsurface water.
1. Saturated Zone : This zone, also known as groundwater zone, is
the space in which all the pores of the soil are filled with water. The
water table forms its upper limit and marks a free surface, i.e., a
surface having atmospheric pressure.
2 Zone of Aeration: In this zone the soil pores are only partially
saturated with water. The space between the land surface and the
water table marks the extent of this zone. The zone of aeration has
three subzones :
i. Soil Water Zone:This lies close to the ground surface in the major
root band of the vegetation from which the water is lost to the
atmosphere by evapotranspiration.
ii. Capillary Fringe : In this the water is held by capillary action. This
zone extends from the water table upwards to the limit of the capillary
rise.
 Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 5-3F (CE-Sem-7)

iii. Intermediated Zone:

This lies between the soil water zone and the capillary fringe.
b. The thickness of the zone of aeration and its constituent subzones
depends upon the soil texture and moisture content and vary
from region to region. The soil moisture in the zone of aeration
is of importance in agricultural practice and irrigation engineering.
PART-2
Aquifers and their Types Important Terms.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.2. What are aquifers and discuss their types.

Answer
Aquifers : Aquifers are the permeable formations having structures
which permit appreciable quantity of water to move through them under
ordinary field conditions. Thus, these are the geologic formations in
which ground water occurs (i.e.,sands and gravels).
Types of Aquifers : Following are the various types of aquifer :
1. Unconfined Aquifers:
An unconfined aquifer is one which signifies the absence of any geological
layer confining the zone of saturation (above the watertable).
ii The unconfined aquifer is in direct contact with atmosphere through
the zone of aeration.
i. The hydraulic pressure head at any point within the unconfined aquifer
is equal to depth of the point from the watertable.
Water level in wellland 2
will be equal to the level
of the watertable
Ground level

WL in well
WL in well
WT
3WT

Aquifer, say sand

and gravel
Fig. 5.2.1.
iv. In unconfined aquifer, the watertable goes down if water is withdrawn
from the aquifer storage and the watertable moves up if water is added
into the aquifer storage.
54F (CE-Sem-7) Groundwater Hydrology
V. This aquifer is also known as watertable aquifer or phreatic aquifer.
2. Perched Aquifers:
i. Aspecial case of unconfined aquifer is known as perched aquifer, is
formed when infiltrated rain water is intercepted within the zone of
aeration by an impermeable layer and a local zone of saturation is formed.
i. The upper surface of such local zone of saturation is known as perched
watertable.
ii The perched aquifer occurs at higher elevation than the rogional
watertable.

Perched aquifer Land surface

Perched:
water Saturated
table Pervious:H
material
Patch of
Unconfined
impervious)
aquifer Generalwater table stratum

Impervious

Fig. 5.2.2. Perched aquifers.

3. Confined Aquifers (Artesian aquifers) :
i It is the one which is overlain by an impermeable layer or an aquiclude.
Unlike the unconfined aquifer, the water in the confined aquifer is not
in direct contact with the atmosphere.
Recharge area in
the catchment Ground surface Imaginary
pressure surface
or Piezometric
WL
surface Water flowing
out under
pressure

8K
Pervious artesian aquiImpeclruvdeious(ShaleN
Sand & Impervious aquifeSides
r (sand stone)
Gravel \aquiclude (Shale)
Fig. 5.2.3. Confined aquifers.
4. Leaky Aquifer : Aquifers which are overlain or underlain by semi
permeable strata are referred to as leaky aquifers. In such aquifers a
significant portion of the yield may be derived by vertical leakage or
seepage through the semiconfining formations into the aquifer.
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 5-5F (CE-Sem-7)

Que 5.3. Write the short notes on :

1. Aquitard. 2. Specific retention.
3. Aquiclude. 4 Porosity.
5. Permeability. 6. Flownet.
7. Radius of influence. 8 Cone of depression.
9. Aquifuge.
Answer
1. Aquitard :
i It is a formation through which only seepage is possible and thus the
yield is insignificant compared to an aquifer.
ii. It is partly permeable. Asandy clay unit is an example of aquitard.
iüi. Through an aquitard appreciable quantities of water may leak to an
aquifer below it.
2. Specifie Retention: The fraction of water held back in the aquifer is
known as specific retention. It is also called as field capacity S,. Thus,
Porosity, n =S, + S
3. Aquiclude :
It is a geological formation which essentially impermeable to the
flow of water.
. It may be considered as closed to water movement even though it
may contain large amounts of water due to its high porosity. Clay is
an example of an aquiclude.
4. Porosity :The amount of pore space per unit volume of the aquifer
material is called porosity. It is expressed as
n=u

where, V, and V= Volume of voids and porous medium.

5. Permeability: Permeability is an ability of aporous material to allow
fluids topass through it.
6.
Flownet :Agrid obtained by drawing a series of equipotential lines and
streamlines is known as flownet.
7. Radius of Influence : The areal extent of the cone of depression is
called area of influence and its radial extent radius of influence.
8. Cone of Depression : If the aquifer is homogeneous and isotropic and
the water table assumes a conical shape called cone of depression.
9. Aquifuge:
i. It is a geological formation which is neither porous nor permeable.
transmit
There are no interconnected openings and hence it cannot
water.
iü. Massive compact rock without any fractures is an aquifuge.
PART-3

Determination of Discharge through Unconfined and

Confined Aquifers with Steady Flow Condition.
 Groundwater Hydrology
5-6F (CE-Sem-7)

Questions-Answers
Type Questions
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer

steady state discharge

Que 5.4. Develop an equation relating the watertable at two
and depth of
from awell in an unconfined aquifer clearly all the assumption
known positions from the well. State
involved in your derivation.
OR
from a well in unconfined
Derive an expression for discharge
aquifer. The well fully penetrates it.
Answer
assumptions of Dupuit's theory:
1. Assumptions: Following are the tangent of the hydraulic
The velocity of flow is proportional to the
gradient instead of sine.
in the vertical sect1on.
The flow is horizontal and uniform everywhere
and of infinite areal extent.
ii. Aquifer is homogeneous, isotropicwater from the entire thickness of
iv. The well penetrates and receives
the 'aquifer.
all places and at all
V. The coefficient of transmissibility is constant at
time.
vi. Flow is laminar and Darcy's law is applicable.
2. Expression :
free aquifer to
1. Fig. 5.4.l shows a well penetrating an unconfined or
its full depth.
Let, r = Radius of the well. impermeable
H= Thickness of the aquifer, measured from the
layer to the initial level of watertable.
s = Drawdown at the well.
h= Depth of water in the well measured above impermeable
layer. of
ii Considering the origin of co-ordinates at a point O at the centre
the well at its bottom, let the co-ordinates of any point P on the
drawdown curve be (x, y).
Then, from Darcy's law, Q = kA, i,
where, A = Areaof cross-section of the saturated part of aquifer at P
= (2 nx) x (y) = 2 Xy
i, =Hydraulic gradient at P = dy
dx

i. Discharge, Q = k(2 nx y) dy
dx
dx
Q=2 nky dy
 Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 5-7F (CE-Sem-7)

iv. Integrating between the limits (R, r) for xand (H, h) for y, we get
R dx
H

r
2nk[y dy
h

Qllog x = 2nb 2

nk(H - h²) 1.36 k(H- ')

Q= R R
log. log10
Ground level
7IAVIAVVAV rIrWAWAVAVAVIAVIAVZAVT
R
-Initial water table I

yS1 P
Cone of
S
, y) depression
Observation
wells

Impervious layer
Fig, 5.4.1. Unconfined aquifer.
Que 5.5. Describe an expression for discharge from a well fully
penetrating a confined aquifer.
Answer
Expression for Discharge from a Well fully Penetrating a
Confined Aquifer :
1 Fig. 5.5.1 shows a well completely penetrating a horizontal confined
aquifer of thickness B.
2. Consider the well to be discharging a steady flow, Q.
3. The original piezometric head (static head) was H and the drawdown
due to pumping is indicated in Fig. 5.5.1.
4. The piezometric head at the pumping well is h,, and the drawdown S,.
5. At a radial distance r from the well, if h is the piezometric head, the
velocity of flow by Darcy's law is
5-8F (CE-Sem-7) Groundwater Hydrology

dr

Pumping well dia. = Original piezometric surface

S s,A S2

-Piezometricsurface
Aquiclude
under pumping
h

Flow
B
Confined
aquifer
Aquiclude
R
Fig. 5.5.1. Well operating in a confined aquifer.
6 The cylindrical surface through which this velocity occurs is 2rB.
Hence by equating the discharge entering this surface to the well
discharge,
Q= (2rB)| k
dh
dh =
Q dr
dr 2kB r
7. Integratingbetween limitsr,and r, with the corresponding piezometric
heads being h, and h, respectively,
Q
2rkB
In2 =(h,-h)
Q= 2rkB(h, - h) ...(5.5.1)
In 2
8 This is the equilibrium equation for the steady flow in a confined
aquifer. This equation is popularly known as Thiem's equation.
9 If the drawdown s, and s, at the observation wells are known, then
by noting that s, =H-h,, s, =H-h, and kB =T
Eq. from (5.5.1), we get
2nT(s, - S,) ...(5.5.2)
In2
10. Further at the edge of the zone of influence, S, =0, r, =Rand h, =H;
at the well wall r, = h , =h, and s, = s, Eq. (5.5.2) would then be
Q= 2rT's,w ..(5.5.3)
In R/r
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 5-9 F (CE-Sem-7)

Que 5.6. Describe an expression for the yield of tube wells for the
case of an unconfined aquifier. Two tube wells each of 20 cm diameter
and spaced at 100 m distance penetrate fully a confined aquifer of
12 m thickness. Calculate the discharge if only one weil is
discharging under a depression head of 3 m. What will be the
percentage decrease in the discharge of the well ifboth the wells are
discharging under the same depression head of 3 m?
Take R = 250 m for each well and k = 60 m/day
AKTU2015-16, Marks 15
Answer
Expression for Yield of Tube wells : Refer to Q. 5.4, Page 5-6F,
Unit-5.
Numerical :

Given : Diameter of tube wells =20 cm, Space, B=100 m, Thickness of

aquifier, b = 12 m, Drawdown, s = 3 m, Coefficient of permeability,
k= 60 m/day,Radius of influencecurve, R= 250 m
To Find: Discharge, when only one well discharging.
Percentage decrease in the discharge.
1 When only one well is discharging, the discharge is given by,
2.72 b k s
Q= R
log
R 250
= log10 3.398
log10 r 0.1
2.72 x 12 x 60 x 3
Q= 3.398 mlday =1729 m³lday
= 72.0m³/hour
2 When both the wells are discharging, the discharge from each wellis
given by,
2 n kb (H-h) 2.72 k bs
R R
log. rB ]og10 -B
2,72 x 60 x 12 x 3 2.72 x 60 x 12 x 3
250 x 250 3.796
log10 0.1x 100
= 1548 mlday =64.5 m/hour
3. Percentage decrease in the discharge
72-64.5
x 100 = 10.43 %
72
5-10 F (CE-Sem-7) Groundwater Hydrology
Que 5.7. Describe an expression for the yield of tube wells for the
case of an unconfined aquifer. A 30 cm well fully penetrates an
unconfined aquifer of 25 m depth. When a discharge of 2100 liters/
minute was being pumped for a long time, observation wells at
radial distances of 30 m and 90 m indicated drawdown of 5 m and 4 m
respectively. Estimate the coefficient of permeability and
transmissibility of the aquifer.
Answer
Expression : Refer Q. 5.4, Page 5-6F,Unit-5.
Numerical :

Given : Diameter of tube well, d,,w= 30 cm, Depth of aquifer = 25 m,

Discharge, Q = 2100 lit/min, Distance of observation well-1, r, = 30 m,
Distance of observationwell-2, r, =90 m,Drawdown in well-1, s, =5m,
Drawdown in well-2, s, = 4 m
To Find :Coefficient of permeability, and Transmissibility.

1. Discharge is given by, Q =

log,
Where, h, = H- S, = 25 5= 20 m
h, = H- S, = 25 4= 21 m
2100 x 10-3
Q= 2100 lit/min = m³lsec
60
= 0.035 m³/sec
Therefore, coefficient of permeability,
90
Qlog, 0.035log, 30
k=
I(21 -20²)
k= 2.98 x 104 m/sec.
2. Transmissibility, T= bk= 25 x 2.98 x 104
T=7.46x 10- m²sec.

PART-4

Interference Among Wells.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.8.Write a short note on interference among well.

Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 5-11 F (CE-Sem-7)

Answer
Interference Among Wells :
1 When two wells, situated near to each other, are discharging, their
drawdown curves intersect within their radius of zero drawdown.
2 Thus, though the total discharge is increased, the discharge in individual
well is decreased due to interference.
3 Fig. 5.8.1shows interference between two wells. If the two wells are a
distance a apart, and have the same diameter and drawdown and
discharge over the same period of time, it can be shown with the help of
method of complex variables, that the discharge through each well is
given by,
2nkB (H-h)
R'
log. ra
where, R= Radius of area of influence (R >> a).
4 If there were only one well, then the discharge, under the same
drawdown, would have been, from equation
2rkB (H-h)
Q=
R
log.
R R
Since, R>> a,
ra r
Hence, Q >Q

TIAVIAV VATT

Drawdown curve
Drawdown curve
for Q,only
Composite for Q,only
drawdown curve
H

Confined
aquifer

Fig. 5.8.1. Interference between two wells.

5 Thus, discharge in each well decreases when the interference decreases.
6 Similarly, if there are three wells forming equilateral triangle a distance
a on a side, and if all the three wells have the same characteristics,
2kB (H - h)
R'
log. ra
5-12F (CE-Sem-7) Groundwater Hydrology

PART-5
Determination of Aquifer Constant.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.9. Explain the method of determiningthe aquifer constant

or coefficient of transmissibility of a confined aquifer by pumping
out test. How can this method be extended for unconfined aquifer?
OR
Derive an expression for the confined aquifer. Evaluate the aquifer
permeability ? AKTU2018-19, Marks10

Answer
A. Expression : Refer Q. 5.5, Page 5-7F, Unit-5.
B. Aquifer Constant for Confined Aquifer:
1 The aquifer constant T(coefficient of transmissibility)can be determined
by a pumping out test, and by obeerving drawdown at various observation
wells.
2 Pumping must continue at a uniform rate for a sufficient time to approach
a steady state condition for which equilibrium equation is applicable.
3. Steady state condition is the one in which the drawdown changes
negligibly with time.
Let, s, = Drawdown in observation well 1 =(H-h,)
S,= Drawdown in observation well 2=(H-h,)
h, - h, =(H-8,) -(H-s) =s, -s,
2.72T (h, -h,) 2.72T (s, - s,) ...(5.9.1)
4 Then equation,
log10 log10
.(5.9.2)
2.72 (s, - s,)log10
.:. Transmissibility constant, T=

5 Choosing r, =10 r,, we find log,0

Hence, T= ..(5.9.3)
2.72 (s, - S,) 2.72 As
where, As = Difference in drawdowns.
6. The method, therefore, consists in observing drawdowns s,, 8, ., s, at
certain observation wells r,, r,...., etc., and plotting a graph between
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 5-13 F (CE-Sem-7)

s, as ordinate and log,o , as abscissa, thus getting a straight line as

shown in Fig. 5.9.1.
7. From the graph, As can be obtained for one log cycle of distance and can
be substituted in eq. (5.9.2) to get T.
12

Drawdown,
s 10
Asl

0
1 10 100 1000
log10
Fig. 5.9.1.
B. Unconfined Aquifer: extended to
1. The above method of determination of T can also be
unconfined aquifer Fig. 5.9.2.
12
drawdown,
s'Modified
10

As
6

10 100 1000
log10 >
Fig. 5.9.2.
h, =H-sh, =H-s,
h; - hË =(H-s,-(H-s,
- 2H (s - s;)

2 where, s and s, are modified drawdowns given by,

, S, =s, 2H
2H

nk (h; A;) 1.36 k(h; - A)

3. We know that, Q=
log, log10
5-14 F (CE-Sem-7) Groundwater Hydrology

4. Substitute the value of (h, -h)from above, we get

1.36 k[2H (s -s,)) 2.72 kH (s -s,)
log1o
5. Since, H =Aquifer thickness, we have kH =T
2.72T (s - s)

From which, T= ...(5.9.4)

2.72 (s - s)-log,0
6. It should be noted that eg. (5.9.1) and (5.9.4) are identical. Choosing
T, =10 r, as before, we get
T= ...(5.9.5)
2.72 A s'
7. Thus, the observed drawdowns are corrected or modified, and a graph is
plotted between the modified drawdowns (s') and logarithm of distance
of observation wells from the discharge well.
8. Measuring As' for one log cycle of distance, we get Tfrom eq. (5.9.5).
PART-6

Well Loss and Specific Capacity, Efficiency of a Well.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.10. Define the following termsin brief:

i. Well losses.
ii. Specificcapacity.
iii. Well efficiency. AKTU2016-17, Marks 15

Answer
A. Well Loss :
1. When water is pumped out of a well, the total drawdown caused includes
not only that of the logarithmic drawdown curve at the well face, but
also drawdown caused by flow through well screen and axial movement
within the well. The latter drawdown is called well loss.
2 Since, turbulent flow generally occurs near the well face, this loss may
be taken to be proportional to Q".
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 5-15 F (CE-Sem-7)

Rewriting equationQ= and adding well loss cQ" to it,

log. r
For confined aquifer, s = (H -h) =(Q/2nkB) log, (R/r) +CQ" ..5.10.1)
where the constant Cis governed by several factors such as well radius,
construction and condition of the well.
3. Rewriting the above, we get, s = C,Q+CQ" ...(5.10.2)

where, log, (R/r) ;C,@= Aquifer loss and CQ" =Well loss.
C= 2rkB
4. Fig. 5.10.1(a) illustrates that the total drawdown consists of the sum of
the aquifer loss (C,Q) and the well loss (CQ).
5 Fig. 5.10. 1(6) shows the variations of drawdown and well loss with the
discharge.
Ground surface
7IAVZAYZAy7AVZAVZAYZAVIAYZAYZAY
Initial piezometric surface
(s)
Drawdown

H Drawdown curve

|cQ" I Well loss

Drawdown

h
Confined aquifier Wellloss,

AVZAVZAVZAY
(a) (6) Discharge (Q)
Fig. 5.10.1. Well loss in confined aquifer.
6. For a screen which is not clogged or encrusted and whose size is
compatible tothe srrounding porous media, the portion of the well loss
caused by water entering the well is small in comparison with the portion
resulting from axial movement inside the well to the pump intake.
B. Specific Capacity: The specific capacity of awell is defined as the well
yield per unit of drawdown.
Discharge of well 1
Specific capacity =
Drawdown CQ+ C,Q C, + C,Q
The equation clearly shows that the specific capacity of the well is not
constant but decreases as the discharge increases.
C. Well Efficiency:The well loss is a measure of the efficiency ofthe well
that is defined as
Formation loss
Well efficiency = n,, =
Total drawdown measured inside the well
5-16 F (CE-Sem-7) Groundwater Hydrology
S.
(S,, + S, +S,) (CQ+ C,Q') =1 (CQ+C,Q)
PART-7
Types of Water Wells Bored and Open Wells.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.11. What are water wells ?

Answer
Water Well : A water well is a hole usually vertical, excavated in the
Earth for bringing groundwater to the surface.
Types: The wells may be classified into two types :
1. Open Wells:
i. These are generally open masonry wells, having comparatively bigger
diameters,and are suitable for low discharges of the order of 1-5 litres
per second.
The diameter of open wells generally varies from 2to 9m, and they are
generally less than 20 m in depth.
im. The walls of an open well may be built of precast concrete ringsor in
brick or stone masonry.
Type of OpenWells:The open wells may be classified into the following
two types :
a. Shallow open wells.
b. Deep open wells.
GL
wT
Pervious
Deep:
well
Shallow well
Mota layer
Pervious cavity. CBore hole
Sand layers free from finer grains
Fig. 5.11.1. Shallow and deep dug wells.
i. Tube Wells :
a The discharge from an open well is generally limited to 3to 6litres/sec.
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 5-17F (CE-Sem-7)

b. Mechanical pumping of small discharges available in open wells is

not economical.
To obtain large discharge mechanically, tube well, which is a long
pipe or a tube, is bored or drilled deepinto the ground, intercepting
one or more water bearing stratum.
Types of Tubewells :The tubewells can be broadly classified into the
following two categories :
Cavity type tubewells. b Screen tubewells.
Que 5.12. Distinguish clearly between a shallow well and a deep
well. How does a deep well differ from atube-well in confined aquifer ?
Answer
Difference between Shallow Well and Deep Well:
S. No. Shallow Well Deep Well

1. Shallow well rests in previous Deep well rests on an impervious

strata and draws its supplies 'mota' layer and draws its supply
from the surrounding from the previous formation laying
materials. below the mota layer.
2. Shallow well draws water from Deep well is not liable to get
the top most water bearing impurities and infections.
stratum, and hence water is
liable to be contaminated by the
percolating water.
3
Shallow well cannot supply Larger discharge and larger
large discharge of water. supplies can be obtained from a
deep well
Ashallow well of an equivalent Ahollow, much larger in area than
4.
sectional area of the well.
yield, the well area will have to the cross
in deep wells and
be increased equal to the area may safely form
of the cavity under the deep thereby giving higher yields.
well.
Aquifer:
Difference between Tube Well and Deep Well in Confined
Tube Well
S. No. Deep Well
long pipe or a
1 Deep well is the one which |Tube well, which is
drilling deep into
rests on an impervious 'mota' tube, is bored or or
intercepting one
layer and draws its supply from the ground, bearing stratum.
previous formation lying below more water
the mota layer, through a bore
hole made into the 'mota' layer.
5-18 F (CE-Sem-7) Groundwater Hydrology
2 Deep well generally discharge Tube well generally discharges
1-5 lit/sec. |3-6lit/sec.
3 Deep well have mainlyTube well have mainly diameter
diameter of 2-9 m. of 0.5-0.56 m.

Que 5.13. Differentiate between open wells and tube well. What
are the advantages of tube well over open well ?
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10

Answer
A Difference :Refer Q. 5.12, Page 5-17E, Jnit-5.
B. Advantages of Tube Well: Following are the advantages of tube well
over open well :
1 Tube well requires less space.
2. It can be constructed quickly-not time consuming.
3. Fairly sustained yield of water can be obtained even in years of drought.
4 Economical when deep seated aquifers are encountered.
5. Generally good quality of water is tapped.
PART-8

Specific Yield of a Well.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.14.Write short note on specific yield of a well.

Answer
Specific Yield:
1. The capacity of a formation to contain water is measured by porosity.
However, a high porosity does not indicate that an aquifer will yield
large volumes of water to a well. The only water which can be obtained
from the aquifer is that which willflow by gravity.
2 The specific yield of an aquifer is defined as the ratio expressed as
percentage of the volume of water which after being saturated, can be
drained by gravity to its own volume.
Volume of water drained by gravity
Thus, Specific yield = Total volume
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 5-19 F (CE-Sem-7)

Or S,= x100
where, V, = Volume of water drained by gravity.
3. Specific yield is an indication of water yielding capacity of an unconfined
aquifer.
4 The yield from an open well can be found by the following two tests :
Constant level pumping test :
h
Q= kA.i= k.A, =T. Ah

Recuperation test:
2.303
Q= AH m°/hour
T log1o
PART-9

Relative Merits of Well and Canal Irrigation.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.15. Describe in brief the advantages and disadvantages of

well irrigation over canal irrigation.
Answer
Advantages :
1. The well is under the direct control of the owner. Hence wells may be
sunk and equipped as required.
2. Isolated area can be irrigated by a well. Wells may be sited to command
any desired land.
3. The supply from a well can be maintained fairly constant. Water can
be turned off at any moment, taking advantage of the rainfall.
4. Since a well is generally centrally located, the loss in transit is very
much reduced. The duty of water in well irrigation is generally higher.
5. Volumetricassessment is possible.
6. Well irrigation is helpful in lowering the sub-soil water level and in
draining off irrigated land which might become water logged. In canal
irrigation, the chances of water logging are much more than in the
well irrigation.
7. Unless drought continues for several years, well irrigation does not
failin drought seasons,while a canal may fail.
8 With the help of well irrigation, more than one crop in a year can be
grown.
5-20 F (CE-Sem-7) Groundwater Hydrology
9. The well water, which is warmer in cold weather and cooler in hot
weather, is more agreeable to crops.
10. The cost of construction of a well is low and irrigation in a locality can
be introduced in stages.
Disadvantages :
1 Since water has to be lifted from the well, the working expenses are
very high in comparison to the canal irrigation.
2 Due to mechanical defects in the pump or due to interruption in electric
supply,water may not be made available to the crop in right time.
3 The well water is clear and free from silt. Clear water does not have
the manuring value which silt provides in canal water.
4 The tube well strainer is subjected to progressive determination due
to mechanical and chemical action. Thus, replacements are necessary
after frequent interval of time.
5. The maintenance of mechanical and electrical machinery also requires
great care and more funds.

PART- 10
Types of Tube Wells.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.16. Describe various types of tube wells.

AKTU2016-17, Marks 10
Answer
Types of Tube wells: Following are the various types of tubewells :
1. Strainer Type Tube well :
i. The strainer well is the most common and widely used well. In common
term, the word "tube well' refers to the strainer type of tube well.
In this type of well, a strainer, which is a special type of wire mesh, is
wrapped round the main tube of the well.
i. The main pipe contains bigger holes or slots than the openings of the
strainer.
iv. The total area of the openings of the tube is kept equal to the openings
of the strainer so that the velocity of flow does not change.
V. Due to fineness of the openings of the strainer, a higher operational
velocity of water can be permitted.
vi. Little annular space is left between the strainer and the pipe so that the
open area of pipe perforations is not reduced.
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 5-21 F (CE-Sem-7)

Ground surface
7AVIAYZAVZAVIAYIAVZAY WAWATVAT
Water table
-Blind pipe

Impervious layer

Confined aquifer Strainer

Impervious layer Blind pipe

Confined aquifer
Strainer:

Impervious layer B8888 Plug

Fig. 5.16.1. Strainer type tube well.

vi. Astrainer well may draw water either from an unconfined aquifer of
unlimited extent, or from one or more confined aquifer layers.
viü. The strainers are provided only in that length of the pipe where it
crosses the aquifer.
ix. The pipe in the aquifer portion is kept perforated. In the rest of the
portion, plain or blind pipe is provided.
2 Cavity Type Tube well :
i This is a special type of tube well in which water is not drawn through
the strainer, but it is drawn through the bottom of the well where a
cavity is formed.
ii. The tube well pipe penetrates a strong clay layer which acts as a strong
roof. Thus, a cavity tube well is similar to a deep well.

Aquifer

Squichude

.Strong Aquiclude
Cavity
Aquifer Sand free
from fine
material
Critical velocity surface
Fig. 5.16.2. Cavity type tubewell.
iüi. However,a deep well draws from the first aquifer below the mota layer
while a cavity well need not do so.
5-22 F (CE-Sem-7) Groundwater Hydrology
efficiently is to
iv. The essential condition for acavity tube well to function
have
have confined aquifer of good specific yield, and the aquifer should
a strong impervious material above it.
V.
or an
In the initial stage ofpumping with the help of a centrifugal pumphollow
air lift pump, fine sand comes with water and consequently a
cavity is formed.
radial
vi. As the spherical surface area of cavity increases outwards, the
critical velocity decreases, and the sand particles stop entering the well.
vii. At this stage, equilibrium in the cavity formation is established and
clean water continues to enter the well on further pumping at the saine
constant discharge.
vii. After the formation of the cavity, the velocity of entry of water at the
bottom of the pipe is lesser than the critical.
3. Slotted Type Tube Well :
i. A slotted tube well is resorted under two circumstances :
-Compressed air

Casing pipe Main pipe

(Removed later) Top soil

Gravel Slots
shrouding:
Water bearing strata

Fig. 5.16.3. Slotted type tube well.

a.
Sufficient depth of water bearing stratum is not available even
upto a depth of 75 to 100 m, so that strainer type tube well cannot
be used.
b. Suitable strong roof is not available so that a cavity well cannot be
formed.
In such a circumstance, a slotted well is used and it is made to penetrate
to some depth in the water bearing strata.
iii. A slotted tube well essentially consists of a slotted tube penetrating
the confined aquifer.
iv. The size of slots may be 25 mm x 3 mm at 10 to 12 mm spacing. In
order to prevent the fine particles entering the pipe, it is shrouded
with a mixture of gravel and bajri (coarse sand).
Que 5.17. What is meant by tube wells ? What are their types ?
Describe the widely used type of tube well with neat sketch. What
are the approximate values of the average yield and depth of such
a tube well ? AKTU2018-19, Marks 10

Answer
Tube Well :Tube well, which is long pipe or a tube, is bored or drilling
deep into the ground, intercepting one or more water bearing stratum.
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 5-23 F (CE-Sem-7)

Types: Refer Q. 5.16, Page 5-20F, Unit-5.

Tube Well Approximate Values
Average Yield Depth of Well
Shallow 20 lit/sec 30 m - 60m

Deep 200 lit/sec 60 m - 300 m

PART- 11

Well Surrounding and Well Development.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.18. What is the development of tube wells and also explain
tube well development method.
Answer
A. Development of Tube Wells: It is the process by which the finer
particles from around the screen are removed to increase the
permeability of the formation through which water moves towards
the well.
B. Method:Following are the methods commonly adopted for development
of a tube well :
1. Development by Pumping :
particles.
i It is the simplest and most common nmethod of removing fine rate equal
i In this method water is ultimately pumped from the well at a
over-pumping.
toor higher than the design discharge. So it is a case of
ii. A variable speed pump oflarge capacity is
used.
rate in the beginning. Then the rate
iv. Water is withdrawn at a very slow
the steps, the rate of
of withdrawal is increased in steps. In between particles are removed.
withdrawal is kept constant until no further sand
2. Development by Compressed Air:
pipe (air line)of smaller
i The main components of thisassembly are air
diameter and a drop pipe of bigger diameter. assembly is similar
The drop pipe is also called discharge pipe because the
that of air lift pump assembly. in turn is
connected to an air tank which
iii. An air compressor is directly valve.
connected to the air pipe through a quick openingdiameter and drop or
smaller
iv. In this method an assembly of air pipe of introduced into the well till it
discharge pipe surrounding the air pipe is
reaches nearly bottom of the first strainer pipe.
5-24 F (CE-Sem-7) Groundwater Hydrology
V.
The air pipe is so adjusted that its bottom end is about 30 cm above the
lower end of discharge pipe. It is called pumping position of the air pipe.
3. Development by Surging:
1. A surge is formed by the reciprocating movement of a plunger in the
well.
The water moves alternately into the soil and comes out in the well
during downward and backward stroke respectively.
i. The speed of the plunger is slowly inereased. The plunger is operated in
the casing pipe provided above the sereened portion of the well.
1V The repeated application of surging force draws the fine particles into
the well, leaving coarser particles intact in the aquifer.
4. Development by Back-Washing :
i. As the name suggests it is a process in which the water is made to flow
into the aquifer formation from the well through the screen.
The back-washing causes agitation of the formation and breaks down
the bridging of sand particles.
ii. Back-washing thus helps in effective removal of fine particles.
5. Development by High Velocity Jetting:
1. It is one of the most effective methods of development.
In this method high velocity jets released through the jetting tool pass
through the screen and the formation behind the screen gets agitated.
iii. It loosens the fine particles which can be removed from the well by
pumping or bailing the well water.
6. Development by Using Chemicals :
Dispersing agents are many times added to the water used for back
washing or jetting.
The dispersing agents counteract the property of clay to stick to sand
particles.
ii. The common dispersing agents which are quite effective are various
polyphosphates like tetrasodium pyrophosphate, sodium
tripolyphosphate, sodium hexametaphosphate (calgon) and sodium
deptaphosphate.
iv. Once the dispersing agent neutralises colloidal property of clay it can be
easily removed by surging and back-washing.
Que 5.19. What do you understand by well shrouding ?

Answer
1. Well shrouding is a process of interposing coarse material such as gravel
and coarse sand between the well-pipe (strainer pipe) and the aquifer
soil to prevent finer particles of soil coming in contact with the strainer
and chocking it.
2. This is essential in sandy and unconsolidated formations of aquifer.
3. This is also essential in slotted type tube well where a strainer is not
used.
4 Such a tube well is also sometimes known as a gravel-packed well.
 Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 5-25 F (CE-Sem-7)
5 The shrouding increases the eftective well diameter, acts as a strainer
to keep fine material out of the well, and protects the well-pipe from
caving of surrounding formations.
6 Gravel packed well has agreater specific capacity than one ofthe same
diameter not shrouded by gravel.
7 A minimum thickness of 40 cm gravel pack is necessary to make it
effective.
8 The proper grain size distribution of the shrouding material depends
upon the mechanical analysis of the aquifer and upon the perforation or
Screen slot size.

PART- 12
Suitable Site Selection for Tube Well.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.20. What are the various factors governing the selection of
suitable site of a tube well ? AKTU2015-16, Marks 10
Answer
Selection of the Suitable Site: The following points should be
consideredfor the selection of the site :
1. Tube wellshouldbe selected at asite where large underground reservoir
exists.
2 If the geological explorations indicate ridges and depressions of
impermeable strata inside the ground, the tube well should be located
where there is the valley.
3. The area should have an access for the availability of a cheap electric
supply so that motor driven pumps can be fitted with tube wells without
an exorbitant cost.
4. The area should have a well distributed and uniform demand for
irrigation throughout the year. Ifthe demand is not uniform, tube well
will be idling for some time or has to work inefficiently and thus the cost
for overall irrigation willincrease.
5 The area around the tube well should have an intensive cultivation and
the tube well should be located centrally so as to reduce the length of
gulf and thereby transient losses.
6.
The water available from the tube well should be tested to find out the
irrigation quality of water. If the water is found to have harmful salts,
the site may have to be changed in spite of various advantages.
5-26 F (CE-Sem-7) Groundwater Hydrology

PART- 13
Types of Open Wells.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.21. Deseribe in brief classification of open well.

Answer
Classification : The open well may further be classified as:
1 Kachha well or unlined well.
2. Wellwith impervious lining.
3 Well with pervious lining.
1. Kachha Well :
Akachha well is a temporary well of a very shallow depth. It is suitable
only in hard formations whose walls can stand vertically.
ii They are suitable only when the water table is very near the ground
surface. Such well often collapse after some time and are dangerous.
2 Well with Impervious or Pucca Lining :
This is the most common type of open well, and is suitable for all types of
formations.
Once constructed, it becomes a permanent source of water supply.
ii. Impervious lining for an open well in sandy formations is most essential
to give structural stability to the well.
AVZ SAV/AVZ

Mota Layer

Aquife
(a) Shallow well with pucca lining (6)Deep well with pucca lining
Fig. 5.21.1. Well with the pucca lining.
iv. The thickness of impervious lining (steining) varies from 30 to 60 cm
and may be either in brick masonry or in stone masonry.
V The linings carry well curbs under them. Well curbs may be constructed
of wood, iron or reinforced concrete.
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 5-27 F (CE-Sem-7)

vi. Inapucca well, the flow is not radial. Water enters only from the bottom
and, aftera virtual cavity has been formed at the bottom, the flow is
spherical.
3. Well with Pervious Lining:
i. Such types of wells are suitable in coarse formations. The lining consists
of dry bricks or stones with no mortar or binding material. Due to this,
water enters form the sides, and the flow is, therefore, radial. Such
wells are generally plugged at the bottom.
ii If there is no plug at the bottom the flow isa combination of radial and
spherical pattern.
iii. Ifa well with pervious lining is constructed in a sandy formation, brick
ballast up to 20 mm size and gravel is placed behind the lining to prevent
sand coming into the well along with the flowing water.
7AVZAYIAYAVAVZAVZAVZAVZAY
Steining
Water table

Ballast
&
gravel

Curb
Concrete plug
Fig. 5.21.2. Well with pervious lining.

PART-14
Method of Lifting Water.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.22. Enlist the methods for lifting of water.

Answer
The various methods for lifting watercan be divided into two heads:
A. Indigenous methods.
B. Mechanical methods.
A. Indigenous methods : They include:
1. Basket, 2. Doon,
5-28 F (CE-Sem-7) Groundwater Hydrology
3. Archemedian screw, 4. Denki,
5 Rati or girni, 6. Windlass,
7 Mote or Churus, and 8. Persian wheel.
B. Mechanical methods : They include :
1 Windmill, 2. Hydrauic ram, and
3. Pumps.
Pumps:
1 The discharge from a shallow open well is usually less, and hence hand
operated pitcher pumps, wind mill operated plunger pumps, turbine
pumps, turbine gear pumps or centrifugal pumps may be used.
2 For deep wells and tube wells, where the lift is more than 8m, large
capacity pumps are used.
3 The following common types of pumps are suitable for deep well and
tube welloperation :
i Deep wellturbine pump.
Deep well jet pump.
ii. Air lift pump.
i. Deep Well Turbine Pump:
a This is the most common type of pump used in tube wells. Deep
well turbines are available for diameters varying from 10 cm to
35 cm, and their usual lengths vary from 20 to 60 cm.
b For each 5 to 8 mlift, small diameter impellers or bowls are used in
series.
C. The power impellers are of centrifugal type and the upper impellers
are of mixed flow type.
d. The driving shaft is enclosed in a pipe and the space between the
two pipes serves as an outlet for water.
ii. Deep Well Jet Pump:
Jet pumps are used only for small discharges and are suitable for 10
to 20 cm diameter wells and for lifts between 6 to 50 metres.
b. In a jet pump, a rotor pumps water into a draft tube which has a
valve at the lower end.
C Water rises up in the tube due to suction created by the jet. Some
quantity of water is again utilized by the jet.
iii. Air Lift Pumnp:
a In thistype, a compressor is used to force air intoa small diameter
pipe, called the air pipe. The air pipe is placed in a bigger diameter
discharge pipe, sometimes known as the education pipe.
b. When air is forced into water, air-water mixture is formed whose
specific gravity is below that of water. Due to this, water rises in the
education pipe and is discharged out. Due to this, water rise in
arranging air and education pipes.
Que 5.23. What are different types of pumps used for tube wells ?
What are their limitation; and relative advantages and
disadvantages ? AKTU2017-18, Marks 10
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 5-29 F (CE-Sem-7)

Answer
Pump: Refer Q. 5.22, Page 5-27F, Unit-5.
1. Limitations of Centrifugal Pump:It can be used only where the
water is available at smaller depths from the surface, (i.e., generally for
shallow cavity wells).
2 Limitations of Air Lift Pump:
i. It cannot be used for high discharge and head.
It cannot lift water when the level of water in tube well goes down below
limit.
3 Limitations of Jet Pumps:
i.
Jet pumps are, generally not used for irrigation tube wells, because of
their low efficiency (35 %).
Jet pumps are not easily adapted to the locations where ground water
levels are subject tolarge seasonal fluctuations, or where severe corrosion
or incrustation may cause enlargement or blocking of the jet nozzles.
4. Advantages of Centrifugal Pumps :
1. Initial and maintenance cost are comparatively low.
Their size is compact and can be installed in limited space.
111 Their mechanism is simple. Less skilled labour is regquired for its operation
and repairs.
Can be operated with high speed electric motors, or gas engines and
steam turbines.
V Discharge is steady and non-pulsating.
vi. Can be used for pumping water containing silt, sand etc.
vii. Durable and safe against pressure.
5. Disadvantages of Centrifugal Pumps :
Requires priming.
For higher head, efficiency is low.
iüi. Discharge varies with the head of water. When uniform discharge is
required at varying heads, the pumps has to be rotated at variable
speeds which is neither, practical nor economical.
iv. Their ordinary suction lift is limited (about 6 m or so).
6. Advantages of Air Lift Pumps:
i In spite of low efficiency, an air lift pump can deliver large amounts of
water from small diameter wells.
Not harmed by sedimented water.
üi. Cheaper, reliable and simple in operation.
iv, Nomoving parts which may be in contact with water-used for highly
acidic or alkaline water.
V Yield of awell, using such pump,can be increased by using more amount
of compressed air.
7 Disadvantages of Air Lift Pumps:
i. Not adopted for raising water much above the ground level.
Efficiency is low.
Flow obtained is not continuous but is intermittent.
iv. Less flexible in fulfilling variable demands.
5-30 F (CE-Sem-7)
Groundwater Hydrology
8, Advantages of Jet Pumps:
Tolerates solids.
ii. No moving parts.
ii Easy to replace/resize nozzles.
iv. Can produce multiple wells from a single surface
V.
Unaffected by doglegs or deviation.
installation.
9. Disadvantages of Jet Pumps :
Low drawdown.
ii. Surface hydraulicpumps are noisy.
ii. Low power efficiency.
iv. Need larger diameter tubing/casing for high rates.

PART- 15|
Infiltration Galleries.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.24.Write short note on infiltration galleries.

Answer
1. Infiltration Galleries :
i. These are horizontal or nearly horizontal tunnels constructed at shallow
depths (3 to 5 metres) along the bank of the river through the water
bearing strata, as shown in Fig. 5.24.1. They are sometimes called
horizontal wells.
These galleries are generally constructed of masonry walls with roof
slabs, and derive their water from the aquifer by various porous drain
pipes.

Pervious river I Aquifer

bank RCC s l a b .nfiltration
River or A8allery
stream channel Masonry
Gravel

Porous drain
Foundation pipes
Fig. 5.24.1. Section of an infiltration gallery.
Irrigation &Water Resource Engineering 5-31 F (CE-Sem-7)

ii. These pipes are generally covered with gravel, so as to prevent the
entry of the fine sand particles into the pipe.
iv. These tunnels or galleries are generally laid at a slope and the water
collected in them is taken to a sump well, from where it is pumped,
treated and distributed to the consumers.

VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.

Q. 1. Describe an expression for discharge from a well fully

penetrating a confined aquifer.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.5, Unit-5.
Q.2. Describe an expression for the yield of tube wells for the
case of an unconfined aquifier. Two tube wells each of 20 cm
diameter and spaced at 100 m distance penetrate fully a
confined aquifer of 12 m thickness. Calculate the discharge
if only one well is discharging under a depression head of
3 m. What will be the percentage decrease in the discharge
of the well if both the wells are discharging under the same
depression head of 3 m ?
Take R = 250 m for each well and k =60 m/day.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.6, Unit-5.
Q.3. Derive an expression for the confined aquifer. Evaluate the
aquifer permeability?
Ans. Refer Q. 5.9, Unit-5.
Q.4. Define the following terms in brief :
i. Well losses. ii. Specific capacity.
iii. Well efficiency.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.10, Unit-5.
Q.5. What is mneant by tube wells ? What are their types ?
Describe the widely used type of tube well with neat sketch.
What are the approximate values of the average yield and
depth of such a tube well ?
Ans. Refer Q. 5.17, Unit-5.
Q.5. What are the various factors governing the selection of
suitable site of a tube well ?
Ans. Refer Q. 5.20, Unit-5.