Transducers

Nabil Sabor
Associate Professor, Electrical Engineering Department,
Assiut University
2023/2024
[email protected]

Assoc. Prof. Nabil Sabor 2023/2024 1

 ‫‪Evaluation‬‬
‫‪ .1‬اعمال السنة ‪ 50‬تحسب كالتالي‪:‬‬
‫– ‪ 15‬درجة للكويزات‬
‫– ‪ 10‬درجات للمشاركة والغياب‬
‫– ‪ 25‬درجة امتحان تحريري (‪ 22‬نوفمبر ‪)2023‬‬

‫‪ .2‬االمتحان النهائي من ‪50‬‬

‫‪Assoc. Prof. Nabil Sabor 2023/2024‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬

 References

Assoc. Prof. Nabil Sabor 2023/2024 3

 Course Contents

Assoc. Prof. Nabil Sabor 2023/2024 4

 INTRODUCTION OF TRANSDUCERS

• A transducer is a device that convert one form of energy

to other form. It converts the measurand to a usable

• In other word it is a device that is capable of converting

the physical quantity into a proportional electrical

Pressure Voltage
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TRANSDUCERS

• Transducer contains two parts that are closely related to

each other i.e. the sensing element and transduction

• The sensing element is called as the sensor. It is device

producing measurable response to change in physical

• The transduction element convert the sensor output to

suitable electrical form.
 TRANSDUCERS SELECTION FACTORS
1. Operating Principle: The transducer are many times selected
on the basis of operating principle used by them. The operating
used may be resistive, inductive, capacitive ,

2. Sensitivity: The transducer must be sensitive enough to

produce detectable output.
3. Operating Range: The transducer should maintain the range
requirement and have a good resolution over the entire range.
4. High accuracy is assured.
5. Cross sensitivity: It has to be taken into account when
actual quantity is being measured is in one plane and the
transducer is subjected to variation in another plan.
6. : The transducer should maintain the expected input-
output relationship as described by the transfer function so as
 Contd.
7. Transient and frequency response : The transducer should meet
the desired time domain specification like peak overshoot, rise
time, setting time and small dynamic error.
8. Loading Effects: The transducer should have a high input
impedance and low output impedance to avoid loading effects.
9. Environmental Compatibility: It should be assured that the
transducer selected to work under specified environmental
conditions maintains its input- output relationship and does not
break down.
10. Insensitivity to unwanted signals: The transducer should be
minimally sensitive to unwanted signals and highly sensitive to
desired signals.
CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS

The transducers can be classified as:

I. Active and passive transducers.

II. Analog and digital transducers.
III. On the basis of transduction principle used.
IV. Primary and secondary transducer
V. Transducers and inverse transducers.
 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS
• Active transducers :
• These transducers do not need any external source of power
for their operation. Therefore they are also called as self
generating type transducers.

• The active transducer are self generating devices which

operate under the energy conversion principle.

Piezoelectric Transducer
CLASSIFICATION OF ACTIVE TRANSDUCERS
 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS

• Passive Transducers :
I. These transducers need external source
of power for their operation. So they are
not self generating type transducers.

II. A DC power supply or an audio

frequency generator is used as an
external power source.
III. These transducers produce the output
signal in the form of variation in
resistance, capacitance, inductance or
some other electrical parameter in
response to the quantity to be measured.
CLASSIFICATION OF PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS
 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY
TRANSDUCERS
• Some transducers contain the mechanical as well as electrical
device. The mechanical device converts the physical quantity
to be measured into a mechanical signal. Such mechanical
device are called as the primary transducers, because they deal
with the physical quantity to be measured.
•The electrical device then convert this mechanical signal into
a corresponding electrical signal. Such electrical device are
known as secondary transducers.
mechanical
signal
Mechanical Electrical
physical Device Device electrical
quantity signal.
primary transducer secondary transducer
•Ref fig in which the diaphragm act as primary
transducer. It convert pressure (the quantity to be
measured) into displacement(the mechanical signal).
•The displacement is then converted into change in
resistance using strain gauge. Hence strain gauge acts as
the secondary transducer.
CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
According to Transduction Principle
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
According to Transduction Principle
CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCER:
•In capacitive transduction transducers, the measurand is converted to
a change in the capacitance.
• A typical capacitor is comprised of two parallel plates of
d
conducting material separated by an electrical insulating material
called a dielectric. The plates and the dielectric may be either
flattened or rolled. Area=A
• The purpose of the dielectric is to help the two parallel plates
maintain their stored electrical charges.
• The relationship between the capacitance and the size of capacitor
plate, amount of plate separation, and the dielectric is given by
C = ε0 εr A / d
d is the separation distance of plates (m) Either A, d or ε can be varied.
C is the capacitance (F, Farad)
ε0 : absolute permittivity of vacuum
εr : relative permittivity
A is the effective (overlapping) area of capacitor plates (m2)
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
According to Transduction Principle
ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSDUCTION:
•In electromagnetic transduction, the measurand is
converted to voltage induced in conductor by change in
the magnetic flux, in absence of excitation.
•The electromagnetic transducer are self generating active
transducers
•The motion between a piece of magnet and an
electromagnet is responsible for the change in flux
Current induced in a coil.
CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
According to the Transduction Principle

INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCER:

•In inductive transduction, the measurand is converted

into a change in the self inductance of a single coil. It is
achieved by displacing the core of the coil that is
attached to a mechanical sensing element
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
According to Transduction Principle

PIEZO ELECTRIC INDUCTION :

•In piezoelectric induction, the measurand is converted

into a change in electrostatic charge q or voltage V
generated by crystals when mechanically it is stressed
as shown in fig.

F is the applied force in g,

A is the area of the material in mm,
d is the thickness of the material,
k is the piezoelectric constant.

The polarity of the induced voltage depends on whether the material is

compressed or stretched.
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
According to Transduction Principle

PHOTOVOLTAIC (Photocell) TRANSDUCTION :

•In photovoltaic transduction, the measurand is

converted to voltage generated when the junction
between dissimilar material is illuminated as shown in
fig.
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
According to Transduction Principle

PHOTOCONDUCTIVE (Photoresistors) TRANSDUCTION :

•In photoconductive transduction, the measurand is
converted to change in resistance of semiconductor
material by the change in light incident on the material.
CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
Transducer and Inverse Transducer

TRANSDUCER:

•Transducers convert non electrical quantity to

electrical quantity.

INVERSE TRANSDUCER:

• Inverse transducers convert electrical quantity to a

non electrical quantity
CLASSIFICATION OF PASSIVE
TRANSDUCERS
 PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS

• Resistive transducers :
– Resistive transducers are those transducers in which the
resistance change due to the change in some physical

– The resistance of a metal conductor is expressed by a

simple equation.
– R = ρL/A
– Where R = resistance of conductor in Ω
L = length of conductor in m
A = cross sectional area of conductor in m2
ρ = resistivity of conductor material in Ω-m.
 RESISTIVE TRANSDUCER
There are 4 type of resistive transducers.

1. Potentiometers (POT)
2. Strain gauge
3. Thermistors
4. Resistance thermometer
 POTENTIOMETER
• The potentiometer are used for voltage division. They consist of a
resistive element provided with a sliding contact. The sliding contact is
called as wiper
• The contact motion may be linear or rotational or combination of the
two. The combinational potentiometer have their resistive element in
helix form and are called helipots
• Fig shows a linear pot and a rotary pot.
 STRAIN GAUGE
• The strain gauge is a passive, resistive transducer which
converts the mechanical ​extension and compression into a
resistance change.
• This change in resistance takes place due to variation in length
and cross sectional area of the gauge wire, when an external
force acts on it.
 TYPES OF STRAIN GAUGE

• The type of strain gauge are as

1. Wire gauge
a) Unbonded
b) Bonded
c) Foil type
2. Semiconductor gauge
 UNBONDED STRAIN GAUGE
• An unbonded meter strain gauge is shown in fig
• This gauge consists of a wire stretched between two points
in an insulating medium such as air.
• The wires may be made of various copper, nickel, chrome
nickel, or nickel-iron alloys.
• In fig the element is connected via a rod to the diaphragm
which is used for sensing the pressure.
• The wires are tensioned to avoid buckling when they
experience compressive force.
 UNBONDED STRAIN GAUGE

• The unbounded meter wire gauges used almost exclusively in

transducer application employ preloaded resistance wire

• At initial preload the strain and resistance of the four arms are
nominally equal with the result the output voltage of the bridge
is equal to zero.
• Application of pressure produces a small displacement, the
displacement increases the tension in two wires and decreases
it in the other two, thereby increasing the resistance of two wire
which are in tension and decreasing the resistance of the
remaining two wires.
This causes an unbalance of the bridge producing an output
•
voltage which is proportional to the input displacement and
hence to the applied pressure
 BONDED STRAIN GAUGE
• The bonded metal wire strain gauge is used for both stress
analysis and for construction of transducer.

• A resistance wire strain gauge consists of a grid of fine

resistance wire. The grid is cemented to the carrier which
may be a thin sheet of paper bakelite or Teflon

• The wire is covered on top with a thin sheet of material

so as to prevent it from any mechanical demage.

• The carrier is bonded with an adhesive material to the

specimen which permits a good transfer of strain from the
carrier to the grid of wires.
 BONDED METAL FOIL STRAIN GAUGE
It consist of following parts:
1. Base (carrier) Materials: several types of base material are used to
support the wires.
2. Adhesive: The adhesive acts as bonding materials. Like other bonding
operation, successful strain gauge bonding depends upon careful surface
preparation and use of the correct bonding agent. Adhesive material should be
quick drying type and also insensitive to moisture.
3. Leads: The leads should be of such materials which have low and stable
resistivity and also a low resistance temperature coefficient.

• This class of strain gauge is only an

extension of the bonded metal wire
strain gauges.
• Metal foil strain gauges are used for
most general-purpose stress analysis
applications and for many
transducers.
 SEMICONDUCTOR GAUGE
• Semiconductor gauge are used in application where a high gauge
factor is desired. A high gauge factor means relatively higher change
• The resistance of the semiconductor gauge change as strain is
the piezo-resistive effect i.e. change in value of resistance due to
change in resistivity.
semiconductor gauges.
 VARIABLE-INDUCTANCE
TRANSDUCERS
• An inductive electromechanical transducer is a transducer that
converts the physical motion into a change in Inductance.
• Inductive transducers are mainly used for displacement
measurement.
• The inductive transducers are of the self-generating or the
passive type. The self-generating inductive transducers use the
basic generator principle i.e. the
• motion between a conductor and a magnetic field induces a
voltage in the conductor.
• The variable inductance transducers work on the following
principles.
1. Variation in self-inductance
2. Variation in mutual inductance
Assoc. Prof. Nabil Sabor 2023/2024 39
Assoc. Prof. Nabil Sabor 2023/2024 40
 Ultrasonic Transducers
• Ultrasonic devices are used in many fields of measurement,
particularly for measuring fluid flow rates, liquid levels, and
translational displacements.
• Ultrasound is a band of frequencies in the range above 20
kHz, that is, above the sonic range that humans can usually
hear.
• Measurement devices that use ultrasound consist of one
device that transmits an ultrasound wave and another
device that receives the wave.
• Changes in the measured variable are determined either by
measuring the change in time taken for the ultrasound wave
to travel between the transmitter and receiver or,
• Alternatively, by measuring the change in phase or
frequency of the transmitted wave.
Assoc. Prof. Nabil Sabor 2023/2024 41
 Ultrasonic Transducers
• The most common form of ultrasonic element is a
piezoelectric crystal contained in a casing, as illustrated in
Figure.
• The transmission speed of ultrasound varies according to
the medium through which it travels.
• When transmitted through air, the speed of ultrasound is
affected by temperature, humidity, and air turbulence.
• Of these, temperature has the largest effect. The velocity of
sound through air varies with temperature according to

where T is the temperature in oC

•

Assoc. Prof. Nabil Sabor 2023/2024 42

 Nuclear Sensors
• Nuclear sensors are uncommon measurement devices,
partly because of the strict safety regulations that govern
their use and partly because they are usually expensive.

Assoc. Prof. Nabil Sabor 2023/2024 43