CERTCDAVAO BASIC EE/EcE COMPONENTS

Basic Electrical Components Fifth band

• Resistors that conform to
military specification.
Resistors • Indicates the RELIABILITY
- Passive electrical component used to "resist" (hence the level per 1000 hrs of
name resistor) or to impede the flow of electrons through them by operation
using the type of material that they are composed from.
The British Standard (BS 1852) Code.
Resistance Decimal point position is replaced by the suffix letters
- The property of a component which restricts the flow of • "K" for thousands or kilohms,
electric current. • "M" for millions or megaohms both of which denotes the
multiplier value
Where: • the "R" used where the multiplier is equal to, or less than one,
l V ρ = resistivity • with any number coming after these letters meaning it's
R= R= l = length
A I equivalent to a decimal point.
A = area
Capacitor
Temperature Coefficient of Resistance
- A passive device, and one which stores its energy in the
R = Rref 1 +  (T − Tref )  form of an electrostatic field producing a potential difference (Static
Voltage) across its plates.
- Sometimes referred to as a Condenser
Where:
- The energy is stored in such a way as to oppose any
R = final resistance at T
change in voltage.
Rref = initial resistance (usually at 20 C)
α = temperature coefficient
Factors Affecting Capacitance
T = final temperature
• The Area of the Plates
Tref = initial or reference temp.
• The Distance between the Plates
• The Dielectric Constant of the Material between the Plates
Resistors Classifications
• Fixed and Variable Resistors A Q
• Linear and Non-linear Resistors C k C
• General purpose and Precision Resistors d E

Where:
Q = charge stored
E = applied potential difference

A Simple Capacitor

Fixed Resistors

• Carbon Composition Resistor - Made of carbon dust or graphite Current and Energy in a Capacitor
paste, low wattage values
• Film or Cermet Resistor - Made from conductive metal oxide dv 1
i C W CV 2
paste, very low wattage values dt 2
• Wire-wound Resistor - Metallic bodies for heatsink mounting,
very high wattage ratings
• Semiconductor Resistor - High frequency/precision surface Capacitive Reactance
mount thin film technology
1 1
XC
2 fC C
Variable resitor

• Potentiometers Capacitor Losses

• Rheostats
Dielectric Hysteresis
Resistor Color Coding Dielectric Hysteresis is the effect in the dielectric material
similar to the hysteresis found in the magnetic material.

Dielectric Leakage
Dielectric Leakage in a capacitor as a result of leakage
current through the dielectric.

Inductor
- An inductor (or reactor) is a passive electrical
component that can store energy in a magnetic field created by the
electric current passing through it.

Inductance
Inductance is the characteristic of an electrical circuit that
opposes the change in value of current.

AN 2 N
L= L=
L I

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CERTCDAVAO BASIC EE/EcE COMPONENTS

Where: Parallel Opposing Inductors

μ = permeability of the core
L1L2 M2
A = inner core area LT
N = number of turns L1 L2 2M
l = length of coil
Φ = Magnetic Field linkage Transformer Equations
primarypower secondary power
Classifications of Inductors

Np Vp Np
2
Zp Np Is
Ns Vs Ns Zs Ns Ip

TRANSFORMER LOSSES

• Copper Loss
• Eddy-Current Loss

TYPES AND APPLICATIONS OF TRANSFORMERS

Inductive Reactance
• POWER TRANSFORMERS
X L = 2 fL • AUTOTRANSFORMERS
• AUDIO-FREQUENCY TRANSFORMERS
• RADIO-FREQUENCY TRANSFORMERS
Power Loss in an Inductor • IMPEDANCE-MATCHING TRANSFORMERS
• Copper Loss Electrical filter
• Hysteresis Loss
- A circuit that can be designed to modify, reshape or reject
• Eddy-Current Loss
all unwanted frequencies of an electrical signal and accept or pass
only those signals wanted by the circuits designer.
TRANSFORMERS
Ideal Filter Response Curves
- A device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit
to another by electromagnetic induction (transformer action).

Hollow-Core Shell-Type
Transformer Transformers

The Low Pass Filter

- A filter that passes low-
frequency signals but attenuates
(reduces the amplitude of) signals
with frequencies higher than the
cutoff frequency.
Mutual Inductance
Cut-off Frequency and Phase Shift
- Then when two or more coils are magnetically linked
together by a common magnetic flux they are said to have the
property of Mutual Inductance. fc =
1  = − arctan(2 fRC )
(assuming a perfect flux linkage) 2 RC

 N1 N 2 A 3
Time Constant (τ)
M =
l 1
Where:  = RC =
2 f c
µ is permeability of the core
N is in the number of coil turns
A is in the cross-sectional area in m2
l is the coils length in meters High Pass Filters
Mutual Inductance - Attenuates or rejects all
frequencies below fc and passes all
M k L1 x L 2 frequencies above fc.

Where: Cut-off Frequency and Phase Shift

k = coupling coefficient
L1 = self inductance of coil 1 1 1
fc =  = arctan
L2 = self inductance of coil 2 2 RC 2 fRC

Coupling Coefficient
Band Pass Filters
flux linking L1and L 2
k - Passes all signals
flux produced by L1 lying within a band between
a lower-frequency limit and
Cumulatively Coupled Series Inductors an upper-frequency limit and
essentially rejects all
LT L1 L2 2M frequencies that are outside
this specified band.

Differentially Coupled Series Inductors Resonant Frequency

LT L1 L2 2M
fR = fL x fH
Parallel Aiding Inductors
"Q" or Quality Factor
L1L2 M2 - A measure of how "Selective" or "Un- fR
LT
L1 L2 2M selective" the band pass filter is towards a given Q=
spread of frequencies. B

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Band-Stop Filter 11. A steady state direct current of 4 ampere passes through a solenoid
-Frequencies within a coil of 0.5H. What would be the voltage induced in the coil if the
certain bandwidth are rejected, and switch opened for 10mS and the current flowing through the coil
dropped to zero ampere.
frequencies outside the bandwidth
A. 150 V C. 200 V
are passed
B. 300 V D. 120 V
- Also known as notch, band-
reject or band elimination filter. 12. An iron ring of mean diameter 10 cm is uniformly wound with 2000
turns of wire. When a current of 0.25 A is passed through the coil
Filter Response a flux density of 0.4 T is set up in the iron. Find the relative
permeability of the iron under these conditions.
a. 200* c. 300
b. 250 d. 415

13. A toroid has a core of square cross section, 2500 mm^2 in area,
and a mean diameter of 250 mm. The core material is of relative
permeability 1000. Calculate the number of turns to be wound on
the core to obtain an inductance of 1 H.
a. 200 turns c. 400 turns
b. 300 turns d. 500 turns*

14. Two coils connected in series have a self-inductance of 20mH and

60mH respectively. The total inductance of the combination was
Practice Problems found to be 100mH. Determine the amount of mutual inductance
that exists between the two coils assuming that they are aiding
1. Calculate the power dissipated by the element of an electric fire each other.
ofresistance 30 when a current of 10 A flows in it. If the fire is onfor A. 24 mH C. 13 mH
30 hours in a week determine the energy used. B. 10 mH D. 19 mH
Determine alsothe weekly cost of energy if electricity costs 7.2p per
unit. 15. A transformer with primary and secondary voltage of 2000 volt and
a. 1 kWb. 2 kW c. 3 kW* d. 4 kW 200 volt takes a current 0.5 amp from the mains. Calculate the
resistance connected across the secondary.
2. An AWG #20 aluminum wire of diameter 32 mils has a resistance a. 10 c. 30
of 16.7 ohms per 1000 feet. What conductivity does this imply for b. 20 d. 40*
aluminum?
A. 43.6 MS/m C. 56 MS/m 16. A 15 ohm resistive load is connected to the secondary of a
B. 35.2 MS/m D. 78 MS/m transformer. The terminal
the current drawn from the supply. Assume an ideal
3. A battery is made up of 5 voltage cells in series. Each cell has an
open circuit e.m.f. of 1.6 V and an internal resistance of 0.08 ohms. transformer.
What is the battery terminal voltage for a load of 6 ohms. a. 16 A c. 10 A
a. 4.5 V c. 6.5 V b. 6.4 A* d. 4.2 A
b. 5.5 V d. 7.5 V*
16. A Low Pass Filter circuit consisting of a resistor of 4k7Ω in series
4. Determine the value of the resistor with color brown, green, gold with a capacitor of 47nF is connected across a 10v sinusoidal
and silver supply. Calculate the output voltage (Vout) at a frequency of 100Hz
A. 15 ohms C. .15 ohms and again at frequency of 10kHz.
B. 1.5 ohms D. 150 ohms A. 9.9 V, 0.718 V C. 8.3 V, 0.398 V
B. 3.4 V, 0.123 V D. 2.1 V, 2.45 V
5. Some aluminium wire has a resistance of 50 at 20°C. The wireis
heated to a temperature of 100°C. Determine the resistance of 17. A sinusoidal voltage with a peak-to-peak value of 18 V is applied to
thewire at 100°C, assuming that the temperature coefficient of an RC high-pass filter. If the reactance is zero at the input
frequency, the output voltage is
resistanceat 0°C is 0.004/°C
A. 9 V peak C. 18 V peak
a. 31.9 ohms c. 51.3 ohms B. 0 V peak D. 2 V peak
b. 48.1 ohms d. 64.8 ohms*
18. An RL low-pass filter consists of a 5.6 mH coil and a 3.3 k resistor.
6. Resistors of 20 Ω, 20 Ω and 30 Ω are connected in parallel. The output voltage is taken across the resistor. The circuit's critical
Whatresistance must be added in series with the combination to frequency is
obtain atotal resistance of 10 Ω. A. 93.8 kHz C. 39.3 kHz
B. 45.6 kHz D. 67.2 kHz
a. 2.5 ohms* c. 4.5 ohms
b. 1.5 ohms d. 3.5 ohm
Take Home Exam
7. How many plates has a parallel plate capacitor having a
1. A coil L1 produces 80uWb of magnetic flux. Of this total flux, 60
capacitanceof 5 nF, if each plate is 40 mm by 40 mm and each
uWb are linked with L2. Find the coefficient of coupling
dielectric is0.102 mm thick with a relative permittivity of 6. between L1 and L2.
a. 6 b. 7* c. 8 d. 9 A. 1.33 C. 0.75*
B. 4.8 X 10^-9 D. 0.48
8. A capacitor, consisting of two metal plates each of area 50 cm2
2. Which of the following circuit values has the greatest effect on the
andspaced 0.2 mm apart in air, is connected across a 120 V
figure of merit of the circuit?
supply.Calculate the potential gradient. A. Reactance C. Resistance*
a. 600 kV/m* c. 400 kV/m B. Inductance D. Capacitance
b. 500 kV/m d. 300 kV/m
3. The frequency beyond which a filter circuit no longer passes
9. A capacitor of capacitance 5μF is charged up to a PD of 250V. Its current is referred to as the
terminals are then connected to those of an uncharged capacitor A. filter frequency
B. cutoff frequency *
of capacitance 20μF. What would be the resulting voltage? C. resonant frequency
a. 20 V c. 40 V D. response frequency
b. 30 V d. 50 V*
4. On which of the following coil characteristics is the Q of a coil
10. Example Two capacitors 3 uF and 4 uF are individually charged dependent?
across a dc voltage source of 6.0 volts. After being disconnected A. Size C. Material
B. Length D. All of the above *
from the dc source, the capacitors are connected with the negative
plate of one end attached to the positive plate of the other. 5. Filter response that is characterized by overshoot or6ripples in the
Calculate the final charge on each capacitor. passband and with a rapid roll-off-rate greater than –20
• Ans. 18/7 uC – 3 uF dB/decade/pole.
• 24/7 uC – 4 uF A. Bessel C. Butterworth
B. Fourier D. Chebyshev *

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6. What effect does inductance have on steady direct current? 21. One advantage of a carbon film resistor over a carbon composition
A. opposes the change in current resistor is:
B. opposes the change in voltage A. less circuit noise* C. higher wattage
C. opposes the change in both voltage and current B. smaller size D. poor tolerance
D. no effect *
22. One problem with mechanically variable resistors is noticeable in
7. The ratio of the lines of force produced by one coil to the lines of audio circuits as:
force cut by the other coil that link another coil A. scratchy noise*
A. coefficient of inductance B. lack of bass response
B. coefficient of coupling * C. variable volume
C. L/R constant D. too much treble response
D. RC constant
23. Wirewound resistors are usually used in circuits that have:
8. A transformer has 60 volts applied to its primary and 420 volts
A. high current*
appearing across its secondary. If there are 800 turns on the
B. negative temperature coefficients
primary, what is the number of turns in the secondary?
C. low power
A. 2300 turns C. 1300 turns
D. high voltage
B. 5600 turns * D. 2500 turns

9. A series resonant band-stop filter consists of a 68 resistor, a 24. Thick films are produced by screening patterns of conducting and
insulating materials on ceramic substrates. A thick film is a film of
110 mH coil, and a 0.02 F capacitor. The internal resistance, RW, material with a thickness that is at least ________ greater than the
of the coil is 4 . Input voltage is 200 mV. Output voltage is taken meanfree path of an electron in that material, or approximately
across the coil and capacitor in series. What is the output voltage __________ centimeter.
magnitude at fo? A. 10 times / 0.001 * C. 10 times / 0.01
A. 1.1 mV C. 11.1 mV* B. 20 times / 0.001 D. 20 times / 0.01
B. 111 mV D. 200 mV
25. A transformer has a turns ration of 7:1. If 5 volts is developed
10. A parallel resonant band-pass filter consists of a 90 resistor in across the secondary, what is the voltage applied to the primary?
series with a parallel network made up of a 60 mH coil and a 0.02 A. 715 mV C. 75 V
F capacitor. The output is taken across the capacitor/coil. The B. 35 V * D. 71.5 V
coil winding has a resistance of 20 . What is the center
26. What type filter is used to block the passage of current for a narrow
frequency of the filter?
band of frequencies, while allowing current to flow at all frequencies
A. 459 Hz C. 999 Hz
above or below this band?
B. 4,591 Hz* D. 2,176 Hz
A. low-pass filter C. band-pass filter
11. A series resonant band-pass filter consists of a 2 mH coil, a 0.005 B. band-reject filter* D. high-pass filter
F capacitor, and a 120 resistor. The winding resistance of the
27. What type of resistor, or combination of resistors, would you use
coil is 12 . The output voltage is taken off the resistor. Input as the volume control in a stereo compact-disc (CD) player?
voltage is 12 Vrms. What is the output voltage magnitude at the A. A set of switchable, fixed resistors
center frequency (fo)? B. A linear-taper potentiometer
A. 10.9 V* C. 1.1 V C. An audio-taper potentiometer *
B. 1.09 V D. 12 V D. A wire-wound resistors
12. An RL high-pass filter consists of a 470 resistor and a 600 mH
coil. The output is taken across the coil. The circuit's critical 28. With permeability tuning, moving the core further into a solenoidal
frequency is coil:
A. 125 Hz* C. 564 Hz A. Increases the inductance *
B. 1,250 Hz D. 5,644 Hz B. Reduces the inductance
C. Has no effect on the inductance, but increases the current-
13. In a series resonant band-pass filter, a lower value of Q results in carrying capacity of the coil
A. a higher resonant frequency D. Raises the frequency
B. a smaller bandwidth
C. a higher impedance 29. Transformer loss which is different for each frequency passed.
D. a larger bandwidth* A. Copper loss C. I^2R loss
14. How many basic types of resistors exist? B. Eddy current loss * D. Hysteresis loss
A. 1 C.3
B. 2* D. 4 30. A carbon resistor has a resistance of 50 ohms, and a tolerance of
5 percent. What are the colors of bands one, two, three, and four,
15. What are the parts of a rheostat? respectively?
A. wiper and resistor track* A. The bands are green, black, black, and gold *
B. solenoid and armature B. The bands are green, black, brown, and silver
C. contact and wirewound C. The bands are green, black, black, and silver
D. center tape and wiper D. The bands are green, black, none, and gold

16. How is a 3.9 k resistor color-coded?

A. red, white, red, gold
B. red, green, orange, silver “It does not matter how slowly you go so long as
C. orange, white, red, gold*
D. orange, green, orange, silver
you do not stop.”– Confucius
17. Which property does an incandescent lamp possess?
A. cold resistance
B. hot resistance
C. ballast resistance
D. both cold and hot resistance*

18. Resistors are identified as to wattage by:

A. Size*
B. color code
C. types of materials
D. internal construction

19. What type of resistors have a tolerance rating of 5% or greater?

A. precision C. general-purpose*
B. SIP D. wirewound

20. What are the three commonly available variable resistors?

A. mechanical, thermal, and electrical
B. optical, electrical, and mechanical
C. mechanical, thermal, and optical*
D. electrical, optical, and thermal

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RESONANCE & TRANSIENTS RC TRANSIENT CIRCUIT:

Contents:
1. Transients
2. Series Resonance
3. Parallel Resonance

I. ELECTRICAL TRANSIENTS
A temporary phenomenon occurring in electrical circuits prior
to reaching a steady-state condition.

Transient time is the time taken by the circuit to change over

from one steady-state condition to another steady state-
condition due to a sudden application of voltage or current. RC time constant
In an RC circuit, the value of the time constant (in seconds) is equal
The response of a circuit to the sudden application of a voltage to the PRODUCT of the circuit resistance (in ohms) and the
or current is called transient response. circuit capacitance (in farads)
General Transient Circuit Model:
 = RC

It is the time required to charge the capacitor, through the resistor,

to 63.2 (≈ 63) percent of full charge; or to discharge it to 36.8 (≈ 37)
percent of its initial voltage.

Percent Change:

TRANSIENT RESPONSE:  
 1 
% change =  1 −
t 
 − 
 e RC 

CAPACITOR TRANSIENT RESPONE: @ SW 

sw 

sw 

Idischarging

GENERAL RISING AND DECAYING EXPONENTIAL

CURVES AND EQUATIONS:
Vs

vR

ic

vc t
to t1

CHARGING A CAPACITOR:

v
0.37 S Decaying Current
EQUATIONS: R

y=y o e -x → negative exponential decaying curve

y=y o (1-e -x ) → negative exponential rising curve

Where: Storage Phase: (Initially uncharged capacitor)

R @ t0:
x= t → for RL transient When the switch is first closed, the voltage across the
L
capacitor (which we were told was fully discharged) is
t zero volts; thus, it first behaves as though it were a
x= → for RC transient
RC short-circuit. Over time, the capacitor voltage will rise
to equal battery voltage, ending in a condition where
the capacitor behaves as an open-circuit.

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@ t1: RL time constant

Current flowing to the capacitor stops. In an RL circuit, the value of the time constant (in seconds) is equal
Voltage across the capacitor is maximum. The to the RATIO of the circuit inductance (in Henry) to the
capacitor is fully charged and has stored maximum circuit resistance (in ohms).
energy in its electrostatic field.
L
=
R
Charging Capacitor Equations:
 Instantaneous Current (i) It is the time required for the current in the inductor to grow to 63.2
t (≈ 63) percent of its maximum value; or to decay to 36.8 (≈ 37)
V  - RC percent of the maximum current.
i=  S e
 R 
 Voltage across the capacitor and resistor Percent Change:
 -
t 
❖ v C =VS -v R =VS  1-e RC 
 
 
 1 
  % change =  1 −
R 
 - t   − t 
 e L 
❖ v R = iR = VS  e RC 
 
  INDUCTOR TRANSIENT RESPONSE
 Energy stored in the capacitor
1 2
❖ EC = ( vC ) C
2 sw 
: 2.97 s 3 time constan
sw 
DISCHARGING CAPACITOR: @ SW 

Vs

Discharge cycle: (Initially fully charged capacitor) vR

 Instantaneous Current (i)

V  -
t iL
i =  o  e RC
 R 

vL t
 Voltage across the capacitor and resistor to t1
t
-
❖ v C = v R = Vo e RC
 - t  CHARGING AN INDUCTOR:
❖ v R = iR = Vo  e RC 
 
 
 Charge in the capacitor

t
- v
❖ qC = C v c = Cv o e RC 0.63 S Inductor Energizing
R Current

0.37v S
RL TRANSIENT CIRCUIT:
Decaying Voltage

Energizing Phase: (Initially de-energized inductor)

@ t0:
4 the inductor
When switch SW1 is closed at to, voltage across
will immediately jump to battery voltage (acting as though it
were an open-circuit) and decay down to zero over time
(eventually acting as though it were a short-circuit).
@ t1:
Current flowing into the inductor is maximum
The is fully charged and has stored maximum energy in its
magnetic field.

Energizing Inductor Equations:

 Instantaneous Current (i)
 - t
R
vS 
iL = 1 -e L 
R  
 

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 Voltage across the inductor and resistor B. Resonant Frequency:

 -R t  The frequency at which X C = XL .
❖ v L =v R =VS  e L 
 
 
 - t
R
❖ v R = iR = v S  1-e L 
 
 
 Energy stored in the inductor
1 2
❖ EL = ( iL ) L
2

De -energizing Inductor Equations:

 Instantaneous Current (i)

R Resonant Frequency Formula:
vS - L t
i= e
R 1
fr =
2  LC
 Voltage across the inductor and resistor
Where:
fr = resonant frequency, (Hz)
 - t R
L = inductance, (Henry)
❖ v L =v R =VS  e L  C = capacitance, (Farad)
 
 
❖
C. Impedance in a series resonance circuit
II. RESONANCE
Natural Frequency, or frequencies, of any physical system or
object are the frequencies at which it will vibrate if physically
disturbed.

Resonance is the phenomenon that occurs when a physical

system is periodically disturbed at the same period of one of its
natural frequencies.

Some Types of Resonance:

1. Mechanical Resonance
2. Acoustic Resonance
3. Electromagnetic Resonance
4. Electrical Resonance

II. ELECTRICAL RESONANCE Sample At resonance the series resonant circuit appears
purely resistive. Below resonance it looks capacitive. Above
Electrical resonance is technically defined as the condition in an resonance it appears inductive.
RCL or LC circuit when the capacitive reactance (X C) equals
the inductive reactance (XL). D. Current in a series resonance circuit

Mathematically,

X C = XL

Electrical resonance may be defined also as the condition in an

RCL or LC circuit when the total circuit current IT is in phase
with the source voltage.

Types of Electrical Resonance:

1. Series Resonance
2. Parallel Resonance

II. THEORETICAL SERIES RESONANCE

The theoretical series resonance is consisting of the three
electrical components R, C, and L connected in series.
E. Series resonance “voltage rise” ratio
A. Theoretical Series Resonance Circuit: A series RLC circuit condition wherein the reactive voltage
exceeds the source voltage.

Vx = QVT

Where:
Vx = reactive voltage of either L or C
VT = total source voltage
Characteristics of a series RCL circuit at resonance:
Q = voltage rise ratio
XL = X C 5 = magnification factor or quality factor
The circuit is purely resistive
Impedance Z is minimum; ( Zmin = R ) QUALITY FACTOR, Q:
Phase angle is 0°. The Q, quality factor, of a resonant circuit is a measure of the
Power factor is unity (1). “goodness” or quality of a resonant circuit. A higher value for
this figure of merit corresponds to a more narrow bandwidth,
which is desirable in many applications.

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CERTCDAVAO RESONANCE & TRANSIENTS

A. Impedance in a parallel resonance circuit

Power stored  I2 X  X  1 L
L = L  =
Q= =
Power dissipated  I2R   R  R
 C

HALF-POWER BANDWIDTH, BW: inductive capacitive

The band of frequencies that will provide 50% or more of the
maximum power the circuit can provide. Also called -3dB
bandwidth.

A parallel resonant circuit is resistive at resonance, inductive below

resonance, capacitive above resonance.

B. Current in a parallel resonance circuit

Formula:
BW = fH − fL

Also,
2 2
fr R IT = (IR ) + (IL + IC ) = IR
BW = =
Q 2 L
Note:
As the bandwidth is taken between the two -3dB points, At resonance, the net reactive current is equal to zero.
the selectivity of the circuit is a measure of its ability to reject
any frequencies either side of these points. A more selective C. Parallel resonance “ current rise” ratio
circuit will have a narrower bandwidth whereas a less selective A condition in parallel RCL circuit wherein the tank current is
circuit will have a wider bandwidth. greater than the line current.

II. THEORETICAL PARALLEL RESONANCE Itank = QItotal

The theoretical parallel resonance is consisting of the three
electrical components R, C, and L connected in parallel. Where:
Itank = reactive current of either L or C
Itotal = total line current
Q = current rise ratio
= magnification factor or quality factor

QUALITY FACTOR, Q:

R R C
Q= = = R
XL XC L

Characteristics of a series RCL circuit at resonance:

Sample Problems
XL = X C
1. Calculate the time required for an initial charge of 20 V DC to
The circuit is purely resistive
decrease to 2.71 V DC in a 0.01-µFarad capacitor when
Impedance Z is maximum; ( Zmax = R ) connected to a 2-MΩ resistor.
Phase angle is 0°. A. 0.04 s * C. 0.02 s
Power factor is unity (1). B. 7.36 s D. 12.64 s

A tank circuit is a parallel combination of L and C that is used 2. Given an RL circuit where R=10kΩ; L=10mH; Vdc=50 volts. Find
in filter networks to either select or reject AC frequencies. the time constant τ
A. 10 µsec C. 1 µsec *
Resonant Frequency Formula: B. 0.1 µsec D. 100 µsec

1 3. A voltage across a 100u F capacitor varies as from 700V to 400V

fr = → ideal components in 2 seconds. What is the current during this period?
2  LC A. 7m A C. zero
B. 15m A * D. infinite
1 1 R2
fr = − → real components 4. A DC voltage of 100 volts is applied to an RL circuit in which R = 10
2 LC L2
ohms and L = 10 H. Find the time required for the current after
switching on to reach one half of its final value.
Where: A. 0.693 s * C. 0.0346 s
fr = resonant frequency, (Hz) B. 0.369 s D. 0.3046 s
L = inductance, (Henry)
C = capacitance, (Farad)
5. A circuit consists of an uncharged capacitor connected in series
with a 50 k Ohms resistor and has a time constant of 15 ms.

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CERTCDAVAO RESONANCE & TRANSIENTS

Determine the voltage drop across the resistor 5 ms after 8 The ratio of the energy stored to the energy converted in the
connecting the circuit to a 20 V, d.c. supply. circuit is called:
A. 14.47 V* C. 35.67 V A. dissipation factor C. figure of merit
B. 23.53 V D. 39.35 V B. reactive factor D. quality factor*
.
6. An inductor has a resistance of 20  and an inductance of 4 H. 9. For a given source voltage, what determines the current in a
It is connected to a 50 V d.c. supply. Calculate the time for the series-resonant circuit?
current to grow to 1.5 A A. the capacitive reactance
A.17.22 s C. 23.53 s B. the inductive reactance
B. 39.35 s D. 0.183 s* C. the total series resistance*
D. the Q the circuit
7. The impedance at the resonant frequency of a series RLC circuit
10. What is the value of the net reactive voltage at resonance?
with L = 20 mH, C = 0.02 F, and RW = 90 is
A. VL – VC C. 0*
A. 0 C. 20 k B. VC – VL D. infinite
B. 90 * D. 40 k
11. The Q of a series-resonant circuit is 50. What is the resonant
8. When operated at resonance a parallel LC circuit acts as a voltage rise if VT =10V?
what? A. 500 C. 5
A. short B. 50* D. 100
B. open *
C. series circuit 12. The ability of a resonant LC circuit to select a narrow band of
D. none of the above frequencies and reject frequencies higher or lower than the
selected frequency is called:
9. In a series RLC circuit, if the frequency of the source is below A. directivity C. selectivity*
the resonance frequency, then B. quality factor D. band selection
A. XC =XL
B. XC >XL * 13. Determine the bandwidth of a series LC circuit with a Q of 50
C. XC <XL and fr of 75kHz.
D. None of the above A. 15 kHz C. 0.15 kHz
B. 1.5 kHz* D. 150 kHz
10. For a series resonant circuit at low frequency circuit impedance is
__________ and at high frequency circuit impedance is 14. At parallel resonance, the phase angle is
__________ A. 0°* C. 180°
A. capacitive, inductive* C. inductive, capacitive B. 90° D. 120°
B. resistive, inductive D. capacitive, resistive
15. A parallel-resonant LC circuit is known as
11. In a series RLC circuit at resonance, A. barrel C. tank*
A. its impedance is maximum B. acceptor circuit D. dissipater circuit
B. its admittance is maximum *
C. its impedance is purely reactive 16. A parallel RCL circuit is _______ when operating above its
D. its current is minimum resonant frequency.
A. inductive
12. In a parallel resonant circuit, the current through the capacitor is B. purely resistive
A. equal to the line current C. capacitive*
B. greater than the line current * D. either inductive or capacitive
C. less than the line current
D. zero 17. The ability of a resonant circuit to sustain electron oscillation at
an essentially constant frequency.
A. Hall effect C. Lenz effect
Takehome Exam B. piezoelectric effect D. Flywheel effect*
18. Which of the following equations is not a correct statement of
1. At resonance the circuit impedance is the initial and final value formula?
A. Inductive C. purely resistive* A. v = Vf + (Vi -Vf)e-t/T
B. Capacitive D. complex B. v = If + (Ii - If)e-t/T
C. v = Vi + (Vf - Vi)e-t/T *
2. A low dissipation factor is an indication of D. None of the above
A. a low Q C. a high Q*
B. wide bandwidth D. high fr
19. A 10 resistor, a 90 mH coil, and a 0.015 F capacitor are in
series across an ac source. The impedance magnitude at
3. Which of the following is the circuit with unity power factor?
1,200 Hz below fr is
A. purely resistive circuit*
B. purely capacitive circuit A. 1,616 * C. 3,387
C. purely inductive circuit B. 161 D. 1,771
D. purely reactive circuit
20. In a series RLC circuit that is operating above the resonant
4. What is the reciprocal of quality factor? frequency, the current
A. reactive factor C. dissipation factor* A. lags the applied voltage *
B. rejection factor D. figure of merit B. leads the applied voltage
C. is in phase with the applied voltage
5. The phase angle of the circuit at resonance is D. is zero
A. 0°* C. 180°
B. 90° D. 120° 21. A 15 resistor, a 220 H coil, and a 60 pF capacitor are in
series across an ac source. What is the bandwidth of the
6. What is the relationship between XC and XL at resonance? circuit?
A. XL  X C C. XL = X C * A. 138 MHz C. 1,907 Hz
B. 10,866 Hz * D. 138 kHz
B. X C  XL D. XL = 1/ XC
22. A resistor of 3 k , a 0.05 F capacitor, and a 120 mH coil are
7. Determine the inductance required to provide a resonant in series across a 5 kHz, 20 V ac source. What is the
frequency of 10kHz if the capacitance is 0.01μF. impedance, expressed in polar form?
A. 23.5 mH C. 25.3 mH*
B. 11.3 mH D. 13.5 mH A. 636 C. 433
B. 3,769 D. 4,337 *

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CERTCDAVAO RESONANCE & TRANSIENTS

23. A 12 resistor, a 40 F capacitor, and an 8 mH coil are in

series across an ac source. The resonant frequency is
A. 28.1 Hz C. 2,810 Hz
B. 281 Hz * D. 10 kHz

24. A 24 resistor, an inductor with a reactance of 120 , and a

capacitor with a reactance of 120 are in series across a 60
V source. The circuit is at resonance. The voltage across the
inductor is
A. 60 V C. 30 V
B. 660 V D. 300 V *

25. A 6.8 k resistor, a 7 mH coil, and a 0.02 F capacitor are in

parallel across a 17 kHz ac source. The coil's 9 internal
resistance, RW, is 30 . The equivalent parallel resistance,
Rp(eq), is
A. 1,878 C. 18,750
B. 18,780 * D. 626

26. A 200 resistor, a coil with 30 of reactance, and a capacitor

of unknown reactance are in series across an ac source. The
circuit is at resonance. Circuit impedance
A. is 230
B. is 170
C. is 200 *
D. cannot be determined

27. If the resistance in parallel with a parallel resonant circuit is

reduced, the bandwidth
A. disappears
B. becomes sharper
C. increases
D. decreases *

28. A 90 resistor, a coil with 30 of reactance, and a capacitor

with 50 of reactance are in series across a 12 V ac source.
The current through the resistor is
A. 9 mA C. 13 mA
B. 90 mA D. 130 mA *

29. A resonant circuit has a lower critical frequency of 7 kHz and an

upper critical frequency of 13 kHz. The bandwidth of the circuit
is
A. 7 kHz C. 20 kHz 6 kHz
B. 13 kHz D. 4 kHz *

30. If the value of C in a series RLC circuit is decreased, the

resonant frequency
A. is not affected
B. increases *
C. is reduced to zero
D. decreases

“Either you run the day or the day runs you.”

~ Jim Rohn

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CERTCDAVAO SEMICONDUCTOR THEORY

SEMICONDUCTOR THEORY Bound electrons

• the term for eight valence electrons because they are tightly
MATERIALS CLASSIFICATION held by the atoms. When an atom has bound electrons , it is
described as filled or saturated since valence orbit can hold not
1. Conductor – a substance, body or material more than 8 electrons
• which has more electrons that are free to move (free
Ambient temperature
electrons)
• is the temperature of the surrounding air ( usually 0 oK or – 273
• which supports charge carriers flow o
C)
• which is a good conductor of electricity
• which supports the flow of electricity
Free electrons
• which allows electric current to flow with ease
• the released electron dislodged from its original shell due to
• which has a very low electrical resistance increase in temperature which joins into a larger orbit
• which usually has one valence electron
Examples : metals (such as silver ,copper gold etc), electrolytes Hole
and ionized gases. • the term used to refer to the vacancy left by free electrons when
it departs from its original shell and usally behaves like a
2. Insulator positive charge since it can attract and capture electron in the
• a substance body or material which has a in the immediate vicinity
characteristic that is extremely opposite to that of a
conductor. Recombination
• with more than four valence electrons but ideally , it • the merging of a free electron and a hole inside the silicon
has 8 valence electrons crystal
Examples : glass, mica and hard rubber
Lifetime
3. Semiconductor • the amount of time between the creation and disappearance of
• a substance body or material that has a a free electron. It usually varies from a few naonseconds to
characteristic in between a conductor and insulator. several microseconds, depending on how perfect the crystal is
• with four valence electrons and other factors
Examples:
1. elementary semiconductors (IV A): Doping
a. Silicon (Si)
b. Germanium (Ge)
Doping process
2. compound semiconductors (III A – VA);
• adding a pentavalent or trivalent impurities
a. Gallium Arsenide (GaAs),
to an intrinsic material.
b. Aluminum Arsenide (AlAs)
c. Gallium Phosphide (GaP)
Two types of impurities
1. Pentavalent impurities
The outermost shell is called the valence shell and the electrons
on that shell are called valence electrons • with five valence electrons (donor atom) such as
antimony (Sb), arsenic(As) and phosphorus (P).
BONDING OF ATOMS 2. Trivalent impurities
• With three valence electrons (acceptor atom) such
1. Ionic bonds or Electrovalent bonds or Electrostatic bonds as boron(B),gallium(Ga) and indium(In).
- results from attractive forces between positive and negative
ions or between pairs of oppositely charges ions. Two types of semiconductors

2. Metallic bonds - attractive forces results from a group of 1. intrinsic semiconductor

positive ions and electrons which are free to move about • it is a pure semiconductor
among its ions. • every atom in the crystal is a silicon atom
• At room temperature, a silicon crystal acts
3. Covalent bonds - occurs when atoms shares two or more approximately as like an insulator beacause it has
electrons; i.e. shared electrons are attracted simultaneously to only a few electrons and holes produced by thermal
two atoms and the resulting energy stability produces the bond. energy

COVALENT BONDING OF SEMICONDUCTORS 2. extrinsic semiconductor

• a doped semiconductor
• result of adding an impurity atom to an intrinsic
crystal to alter / increase its electrical conductivity

Extrinsic semiconductor can be

a. N – type
• produced when a pentavalent atoms are added to the
molten silicon , producing an excess of electrons

b. P – type
• produced when a trivalent atom are added to the
molten silicon, produces an excess of holes
At 0 oK or absolute zero (-273.15 oC) there are no free DOPED SEMICONDUCTORS
electrons in a semiconductor because they are locked at the (extrinsic materials)
valence bond, however at room temperature (300 oK, 25oC) valence
electrons can acquire sufficient energy and become free as they N TYPE
move to the conduction bond.

Intrinsic carrier
• Free ectrons in a material due only to natural causes; i,e.
due to increase in temperature. At room temperature there
are approximately 1.5 X 1010 of free electrons in a cubic
centimeter for intrinsic silicon and 2.5 X 10 13 for germanium
materials

Silicon crystal
• an arrangement of silicon atoms combine to form a solid such
that there are now 8 electrons in the valence shell

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CERTCDAVAO SEMICONDUCTOR THEORY

P TYPE c. Forward bias

Note
1. allows majority carriers to flow
2. anode (A) must be positive with respect to
cathode (K).

Voltage drop
= 0.7 for Silicon
= 0.3 for Germanium
Note
The conductivity of a semiconductor material can be controlled by
the amount of impurity added ; that is
a. lightly doped semiconductor has a high resistance Vth T 1 = Vth T 0 + k (T 1 − T 0 )
b. heavily doped semiconductor has a low resistance
VthT1 – threshold voltage at T1
VthT0 – threshold voltage at T0
Some reasons why Si and Ge are mostly used
= 0.7 – Si ; 0.3 – Ge
1. Can be manufactured to a very high purity level.
k = - 2.5 mV/0C – Ge
2. Has the ability to change electrical characteristics (conductivity)
- 2.0 mV/0C – Si
from poor conductor to a good conductor

Si vs Ge CHARACTERISTIC CURVE

1. Si diodes have higher PIV and current rating , and wider

temperature range than Ge diodes
2. Si has higher forward – bias voltage require to reach
conduction

Other terms

1. Conductance
• the property or ability of a material to support charge flow
or electron flow (electric current).
• the reciprocal of resistance and has a unit of mho or
Siemens.

2. Conductivity
• specific conductance per unit length
• the reciprocal of resistivity (Siemens per meter or
mho per meter).
Diode Current Equation ( Id )
3. Resistance
kVd
• the property of a material to oppose or resist current flow.
Id = Is ( e Tk − 1)
4. Resistivity
• specific resistance or resistance times the cross- Where:
sectional area of current flow and per unit Id - diode current
length of current path. Is - reverse saturation current or leakage current
Vd - forward voltage across the diode
The junction diode is formed when an n - type and a p - n type Tk - room temperature in oK
materials are brought together = T + 273 oC
k = 11,600 / n ;

For low levels of diode current

n = 1 for Ge and n = 2 for Si

For higher levels of diode current

Operation n = 1 for both Si and Ge

a. No bias – no applied voltage Temperature Effects on Is

k (T1 −T0 )
IST 1 = IST 0 e

Where:
IsT1 = saturation current at temperature T1
Note : IsTo = saturation current at room temperature
1. Depletion region k = 0.07/oC
– the region of uncovered positive and negative ions T1 = new temperature
2. In the absence of an applied bias voltage, the net flow of To = room temperature (250C)
charge in any one direction for a semiconductor diode is zero
DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
b. Reverse bias
1. Ideal diode

2. Simplified model
Note
1. only minority carriers can flow.
2. cathode (K) is more positive than anode (A).
3, Piecewise linear model
3. reverse saturation current ( Is)
– the current that exists under reverse condition

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CERTCDAVAO SEMICONDUCTOR THEORY

DIODE RESISTANCE
5. Calculate the change in barrier potential of a P-N junction at
1. DC or static - defined as a point on the characteristic curve 300ºK if doping on the N-side is increased 1000 times while
2. AC or dynamic - defined by a tangent line at the Q-point keeping doping on P-side unchanged.
3. Average AC - defined by a straight line between limits of 179 mV
operation
6. A certain P-N junction diode has a leakage current of 10^−14
DIODE CAPACITANCE A at room temperature of 27ºC and 10−9 A at 125ºC. The diode
is forward-biased with a constant-current source of 1 mA at
room temperature. If current is assumed to remain constant,
calculate the junction barrier voltage at room temperature and
at 125ºC.
0.66 V, 0.5 V

7. A silicon diode has a forward voltage drop of 1.2 V for a forward

Forward-bias capacitance
dc current of 100 mA. It has a reverse current of 1 μA for a
CF - diffusion capacitance or storage capacitance
reverse voltage of 10 V. Calculate
(a) bulk and reverse resistance of the diode
Reverse-bias capacitance
(b) ac resistance at forward dc current of (i) 2.5 mA and (ii) 25
CR - transition capacitance or depletion-region
mA.
capacitance
a) 5 ohm, 10 Mohm, b) 15 ohm, 6 ohm
Note
8. A parallel combination of a germanium diode and a silicon
1. At low frequency , diode capacitance is equivalent to an open
diode is connected in series with a 1Kohm resistor. A 10V
circuit
voltage source is then connected in the circuit in such a way
2. At high frequency , diode capacitance is equivalent to a short
that its positive terminal is connected to the anodes of the
circuit
diodes and the negative terminal to the ground. Determine the
voltage across the 1 Kohm resistor
Graph
0.3 V*

9. Solve for I2, I1 and Id2.

Take note that the capacitance of the diode increases rapidly at

forward-bias region 10. Solve for Vo and identify what circuit.

REVERSE RECOVERY TIME ( trr)

TAKE HOME EXAM

Trr = ts + tt 1. It is a neutral particle that has no electrical charge.
A. Proton C. Neutron
Trr – reverse recovery time B. Electron * D. Atom
ts - storage time
tt - transition time 2. A substance which can not be reduced to a simpler substance by
chemical means.
A. Molecule C. Element *
SAMPLE PROBLEMS B. Atom D. Matter

1. Determine the diode current at 20 oC for a silicon diode with Is = 3. It is defined as anything that occupies space and has weight.
50 nA and an applied voltage of 0.6V. A. Atom C. Matter *
B. Compound D. Molecule
2. Determine the diode current at 20 oC for a silicon diode with Is =
0.1A at a reverse – bias potential of -10 V. 4. The lightest kind of atom or element.
A. oxygen C. Hydrogen *
3. When a silicon diode is conducting at a temperature of 25 B. Titanium D. Helium
degrees celsius , 0.7 V drop exists across its terminals , what
is the voltage at 100 degrees celsius 5. In order to have a good conductor material, such material shall
have _____ valence electron/s.
4. Calculate the barrier potential at room temperature for P-N A. more than ten C. five
junction in silicon which is doped to a carrier density of 10^21 B. one * D. twenty one
6. What composes all matter whether a liquid, solid or gas?
m^−3 on the P-side and 10^22 m^−3 on the N-side. The
intrinsic carrier density for silicon is 1.4 × 10^16 m^−3. A. Atoms * C. Electrons
B.Protons D. Neutrons
0.641 V

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CERTCDAVAO SEMICONDUCTOR THEORY

7. What is a physical combination of compounds or elements not 26. A molecule is the smallest possible particle
chemically combined that can be separated by physical means? that retains the characteristics of which of
A. Molecule C. Atom the following substances?
B. Substance D. Mixture * A. An element C. A mixture
B. A compound * D. A solution
8. ____ has a unit of electron volt.
A. Charge C. Potential difference 27. Example of an atom having five valence electrons.
B. Energy * D. Current A. Antimony * C. Indium
B. Si D. Boron
9. Determine which has the least number of electrons found at the
outer shell. 28. PN junctions are protected from contamination during the
A. Insulator C. Semiconductor fabrication process by which of the following materials?
B. Conductor * D. Semi – insulator A. oxide * C. germanium
B. silicon D. phoetch
10. What do you call the elements that conduct electricity very readily?
A. Insulators C. Semi – conductors 29. What is the overall electrical charge of the N-material in a
B. Conductors * D. Dielectric semiconductor?
A. Zero *
11. A chemical combination of elements be separated by chemical B. Some negative value
means but not by physical means. It is created by chemically C. Some positive value
combining two or more elements. D. Depending upon the balance of electrons, it will be positive or
A. Compound * C. Molecules negative
B. Matter D. Mixture
30. What criteria determine whether an atom is a good conductor?
12. When an atom gains an additional _____, it results to a negative A. The number of free electrons that are available *
ion. B. The number of protons that are available
C. Both the number of protons and electrons
A. neutron C. proton
D. The number of neutron that are available
B. electron * D. atom

13. Electric charge of neutron is the same as

A. proton
B. current
C. electron
D. atom *
“What you do today can improve all
14. Ion is ________.
your tomorrows.”
A. an atom with unbalanced charges *
B. free electron
~Ralph Marston
C. proton
D. nucleus without protons

15. How many junctions are there in a semiconductor diode?

A. Two C. One *
B. None D. Four

16. What type of bias opposes the pn junction barrier?

A. No bias C. Reverse bias
B. Direct bias D. Forward bias *

17. A p type semiconductor has a shortage of which of the following?

A. Neutrons C. Holes
B. Electrons * D. Doping

18. Semi – conductors which are doped with either N or P types of

impurities are called ______.
A. intrinsic C. P – type
B. extrinsic * D. N – type

19. Type of impurities in p – type semiconductor like boron and gallium.

A. Covalent C. Bivalent
B. Pentavalent D. Trivalent *

20. Protons are about _____ heavier than electrons.

A. 1800 times * C. less than thrice
B. less D. twice
1836 times

21. Term used to described sudden reverse conduction of an electronic

component caused by excess reverse voltage across the device.
A. Cut – off C. Saturation
B. Avalanched * D. Reversion

22. Each atom in a silicon crystals has how many valence electrons
A. 4 C. 2
B. 6 D. 8 *
23. The reverse saturation current will just about double in magnitude
for every what increase in temperature?
A. 1 oC C. 100 oC
B. 10 oC * D. 0.1 oC

24. Silicon is capable of operating

A. from 0°C to 350°C
B. from -273°C to 350°C
C. from -176°C to 350°C*
D. from 176°C to 350°C
25. An atom is the smallest possible particle that retains the
characteristics of which of the following substances?
A. An element * C. A mixture
B. A compound D. A solution

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CERTCDAVAO DIODE APPLICATION

DIODE APPLICATIONS 1. Series clipper

1. Rectification
2. Clipping
3. Clamping
4. Voltage multiplication

1. RECTIFICATION
2. Parallel clipper
a. Rectifier circuits - converts ac to dc

2 General classifications
1. Half wave rectifier
2. Full wave rectifier

1. Half wave rectification – process of removing ½ of the input

signal

3. Clamping

Clamper
• clamp a signal to a different dc level
• must have a capacitor, a diode and a resistive
Note element
Vdc = 0.318 Vm • can employ independent dc supply to introduce an
PIV rating >= Vm additional shift
Circuit
Where:
Vdc – average value Vm – peak
value PIV – peak
inverse voltage

2. Full wave rectification – uses the full 360o cycle of the input
signal

Two types :
1. Bridge type full wave rectifier
2. Full wave rectifier with center – tapped transformer Steps in analyzing clamping network :
1. start analysis by considering that part of the input signal that
1. Bridge type full wave rectifier will forward bias the diode
- most familiar full – wave rectifier circuit 2. During the on state of the diode , capacitor will charge up
- uses four diodes 3. During the off state , the capacitor will hold on to its established
voltage level

Note:
The total swing of the total output must match the swing of the input
signal

4. VOLTAGE MULTIPLICATION

Voltage multiplier
• stepping – up the output voltage
2 types:
Note:
Vdc = 0.636 Vm 1. Voltage doubler
PIV rating >= Vm
a. Half wave voltage doubler / Full wave doubler
2. Full wave rectifier with center – tapped transformer
- uses only two diodes but center tapped transformer is
required

Note :
Vdc = 0.636 Vm 2. Voltage Tripler and Quadrupler
PIV rating >= 2Vm

2. CLIPPING

Clippers
• have the ability to clip off a portion of the input signal
• usually uses one resistor and one diode

Two categories
1. Series clippers – defined as one where the diode is in series
with the load
2. Parallel clippers – has the diode in a branch parallel to the load

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CERTCDAVAO DIODE APPLICATION

Other semiconductor diodes Wd – depletion width

A. Zener diode In terms of the applied reverse bias voltage

- Fabricated to utilize zener breakdown region
- Has a stable and accurate reverse breakdown voltage CT= K / ( VT + VR ) n
- Operated in the reverse region
- Used as a voltage reference or regulator Where:
CT – as defined above
Symbol K – constant determined by the semiconductor material and
construction technique
VT – knee voltage
VR – reverse voltage
N – ½ for alloy junctions and 1/3 for diffused
- + Junctions

In terms of capacitance at zero bias condition

CT = C(o) / ( 1 + (VR / VT)n)

Important Where:
parameter C (o) – capacitance at zero bias potential

Also
Vz – zener or Tcc = C / Co (T1 – To )
breakdown voltage Where:
Izmax – maximum zener current Tcc – temperature coefficient
Pzmax – maximum power dissipation T1 – To – change in temperature
Co – capacitance at To
The temperature coefficient ( Tc ) reflects the percent change in
Vz with temperature. It is mathematically defined as Take Home EXAM
Vz
Tc =
V z ( T1 − T0 ) 1. What is the purpose of a PN junction diode?
A. To convert halfwave current into fullwave current
Where: B. To convert direct current into alternating current
Vz – change in Vz C. To convert pure current into direct current
Vz – nominal voltage D. To convert alternating current into direct current
T0 – room temperature
T1 – final temperature
2. In reference to the schematic symbol for a diode, do electrons
Example: flow toward or away from the arrow?
A. Away C. Sometimes toward
1. At what temperature will the IN961 10 – V Fairchild zener B. toward D. Sometimes away
diode have a voltage of 10.75 (Tc = 0.072 %/ 0C) ? 3. What type of PN diode is formed by using a fine metal wire and
a section of N-type semiconductor material?
Zener diode used as a regulator
A. Point-contact C. Double contact
B. Double point D. Tripple point

4. Conduction in which type of semiconductor material is similar

to conduction in a copper wire?
A. P-type material C. Both A and B
B. N-type material D. None of the above

5. What is the name of the area in a PN junction that has a

B. Varactor diode or varicap diode shortage of electrons and holes?
• also called variable capacitance , voltage – variable capacitor ( A. Shaded region C. Depletion region
VVC) or tuning diode B. Empty region D. Black region

Symbol 6. In order to reverse bias a PN junction, what terminal of a battery

is connected to the P material?
A. Positive C. Either
Characteristic curve B. Negative D. Both

7. In order to forward bias a PN junction, what terminal of a battery

C(pF) is connected to the P material?
A. Positive C. Either
B. Negative D. Both

8. In order to reverse bias a PN junction, what terminal of a battery

is connected to the N material?
A. Positve C. Either
B. Negative D. Both
VR
9. In order to forward bias a PN junction, what terminal of a battery
is connected to the N material?
At reverse bias condition: A. Positve C. Either
CT =  A / Wd
B. Negative D. Both
Where:
CT – transition capacitance which is due to the established 10. What is a load?
covered charges on either side of the junction A. Any device that draws resistance
A – pn junction area B. Any device that increases capacitance

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CERTCDAVAO DIODE APPLICATION

C. Any device that decreases capacitance 22. Define AVERAGE RECTIFIER FORWARD CURRENT?
D. Any device that draws current A. The average rectified forward current at a specified
temperature, usually at 120 Hz with a resistive load.
11. What is the output of a half-wave rectifier? B. The average rectified forward current at a specified
A. A pulsating dc voltage temperature, usually at 60 Hz with a inductive load.
B. A pulsating ac voltage C. The average rectified forward current at a specified
C. A pure dc voltage temperature, usually at 120Hz with a capacitive load.
D. A pure ac voltage D. The average rectified forward current at a specified
temperature, usually at 60 Hz with a resistive load
12. What type of rectifier is constructed by sandwiching a section
of semiconductor material between two metal plates? 23. The peak current specified for a given number of cycles or
A. Ametallic rectifier C. Metallic rectifier portion of a cycle.
B. Fullwave rectifier D. halfwave rectifier A. DC BLOCKING current
B. AVERAGE RECTIFIER FORWARD CURRENT
13. What type of bias makes a diode act as a closed switch?
C. AVERAGE FORWARD VOLTAGE
A. Reverse bias
D. PEAK SURGE CURRENT
B. Forward bias
C. Either reverse or forward 24. The small value of direct current that flows when a
D. neutral bias semiconductor diode has reverse bias.
A. Backward current C. Forward current
14. What type of bias makes a diode act as an opens witch?
B. Reverse current D. Negative current
A. Reverse bias
B. Forward bias
25. What indicates the maximum reverse-bias voltage that may be
C. Either reverse or forward
applied to a diode without causing junction breakdown?
D. Neutral bias
A. Peak reverse voltage
B. Limit voltage
15. What is used to show how diode parameters vary over a full
C. Saturated voltage
operating range?
D. Dummy voltage
A. A truth table
B. A characteristic curve
26. What is the output DC of a fullwave rectifier circuit if the input
C. A schematic diagram
voltage maximum is 100 Volts
D. Operating point
A.31.8 V C. 63.6 V
16. What is meant by diode ratings? B. 50 V D. 45 V
A. They are the unlimiting values of operating conditions
outside which operations could cause diode damage 27. What useful electrical property is displayed by a varactor?
B. They are the limiting values of operating conditions outside A. Variable reactance C. Variable capacitance
which operations could cause diode operate B. Variable resistance D. Variable inductance
C. They are the unlimiting values of operating conditions
outside which operations could cause diode operate 28. The primary use of zener diode in electronic circuits.
D. They are the limiting values of operating conditions outside A. Rectifier C. Current regulator
which operations could cause diode damage B. Voltage regulator D. Resistance regulator

17. What does the letter "N" indicate in the semiconductor 29. The anode of a semiconductor diode indicates a ___ charge
identification system? during conduction
A. A negative material A. Positive
B. A semiconductor B. Either depending on the design
C. A neutral material C. Neutral
D. A conductor D. Negative

18. What type of diode has orange, blue, and gray bands? 30. What is the output DC of a halfwave rectifier circuit if the input
A. 1N368 B. 1N258 voltage maximum is 100 Volts
B. 2N368 D. 2N258 A. 31.8 V C. 63.7 V
B. 50 V D. 45 V
19. What is the greatest threat to a diode?
A. Current
B. Power
C. voltage
D. Heat
“What is not started today is never finished
tomorrow.”
20. When checking a diode with an ohmmeter, what is indicated by
~ Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
too high resistance measurements?
A. The diode is short or has a high-forward resistance.
B. The diode is open or has a low-forward resistance.
C. The diode is open or has a high-forward resistance.
D. The diode is short or has a low-forward resistance.

21. The maximum reverse dc voltage that will not cause

breakdown.
A. DC BLOCKING VOLTAGE
B. AVERAGE RECTIFIER FORWARD CURRENT
C. AVERAGE FORWARD VOLTAGE
D. PEAK SURGE CURRENT

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CERTCDAVAO BJT

Bipolar Junction Transistor Forward – biased P-N junction is basically a low resistance
path for current flow. Conversely, a reverse – biased P-N
TRANSISTOR junction reperesents a high resistance path
• On december 23, 1947, the first transistor was demonstrated
by Three transistor currents
1. Walter H. Brattain 1. IB – base current
2. John Bardeen 2. Ic – collector current
at the Bell Telephone Laboratories and its name then 3. IE – emitter current
is the “point – contact transistor”
Definition Relationship
• contraction of transfer and resistor IE = IB + IC
• a three terminal solid state device which is capable of
amplifying signals Note :

Bipolar Junction transistor Collector current is composed of two components

• technically described as bipolar junction transistor 1. majority current
abbreviated as BJT's 2. minority current
• “Bipolar “ because they use two different types of
semiconductor materials namely N type and P type and IC = I majority + Iminority
because they use opposite polarity biasing voltage
• “ Junction “ because they use current – carrying PN Note :Iminority is also called leakage current
junction
• reflects the part that holes and electrons participate in the Note:
injection process into the oppositely polarized material
• Usually termed as a 3–terminal current controlled device • The collector current , Ic, is always much larger than
• It consists of a three – layer semiconductor device of either the base current
2 n and 1 p type layers of material ( npn type) or 2 p and • Typically , Ic is between 49 and 300 times greater
1 n type layers of material ( pnp type) than Ib

Note: Unipolar – only one carrier is employed DC Transistor Parameters :

Two types of transistor 1.  - common base , short circuit amplification factor

1. PNP transistor • ratio of change in collector current to change in
2. NPN transistor emitter current with VCB constant
• matehmatically defined as
1. PNP transistor = ( IC /IE) Vcb = constant
Construction / symbol :  IC / IE

2.  - common – emitter forward – current amlpification factor

• the ratio of change in collector current to change in
base current with VCE constant
• matehmatically defined as
= ( IC /IB) Vce = constant
 IC / IB
For a PNP transistor, the emitter arrow points in toward the
base (Pointing iN) Example 1 :
1. The collector current is 1.2 mA when the base current is 24
micro ampere. What is the current gain ,  , of the transistor
2. NPN transistor
2. The  of a certain BJT is known to be approximately 180.
Construction / symbol:
How much base current is required in order to have 18 mA of
collector current

Example 2 :

1. The collector current for a certain BJT is 9.8 mA when the

emitter current is 10 mA. What is  ?
For an NPN transistor , the arrow points outward and away from
the base ( not pointing iN) 2. How much emitter current flows in a BJT that has a base
current of 100 micro Amperes and a collector current of 10mA?
For NPN and PNP
3. Suppose you measure the base current for a certain BJT and
0.150 in find it is 15 A. The correspondingcollector current is 2mA.
What is the dc current gain ,, of the BJT if it is an NPN transitor
? If it is a PNP transistor ?

Transistor Amplifying Action

0.001 in
P N P
Ratio = widthtotal / widthbase = 0.150 / 0.001 = 150

Basic operation
RL

20Ω 100kΩ

• If the current is almost the same through a given high

resistance, the I2R in the high resistance is greater than in the
low resistance
• This is one basic principle on which power gain is produced by a
transistor. In effect, the transistor has transferred the signal from

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CERTCDAVAO BJT

low resistance ( input) to a high resistance (output). Thus, Characteristics Curve

the the word transistor relates the concept of transfer and
resistance

Note :
• Transistor uses a small amount of base current to control a
large amount of collector current
• The base region in a BJT is extremely thin and very lightly
doped. This is why it is possible to force current to flow between
the emitter and collector whenever base-emitter junction is
forward biased.

Three transistor circuit configuration

1. Common base configuration ( CB )

• the emitter is common to both input and output side
of the circuit

Basic features of Common Emitter Amplifiers

a. The input signal is introduced into the base circuit , and
the output is taken from the collector circuit ( the emitter is
Reverse saturation current common to the input and output)
b. The input circuit is low impedance . Typically , the input
E C impedance is in the range of 25 to 5 k
c. The output circuit is medium to high impedance ,
IE = 0 approximately 50  to 50k.
ICBO= ICO d. Current gain is always greater than 1
e. There is 180 degrees phase reversal between the input
and output signals.
B
3. Common Collector configuration ( CC )
• the collector is common to both input and output side
ICBO – collector base leakage current with emitter – base open of the circuit
circuited ( CB)

Basic features of common base amplifiers

a. The input signal is introduced into the emitter , and the output
is taken from the collector circuit ( the base is common to input
and output )
b. The input circuit is very low impedance , usually between 1 
and 50  . Reverse saturation current
c. The output circuit is high impedance (about 1k to 1 M )
d. Current gain is always lesser than 1 E
e. There is no phase reversal between the input and output B C
signals.
IB = 0
IECO= ICO
2. Common Emmiter configuration (CE)
• the emitter is common to both input and output

C
Note :the
output characteristics of the common collector are the same as for
the common emitter configuration but the plot must only be I EVs
VEC

IECO– emitter – collector leakage current with base collector open

Reverse saturation current
circuited ( CC)

C Basic features of Common Collector Amplifiers

B a. The input signal is introduced into the base circuit , and
the output is taken from the emitter circuit ( the collector is
IB = 0 common to both the input and output)
ICEO= ICO
b. The input circuit can have a very high impedance
c. The output impedance is relatively low
d. The circuit provides voltage gain less than 1
e. There is no phase reversal between the input and output
signals
E Relationship between  and  :
= /(1+) ;=/(1-)
ICEO – collector emitter leakage current with base – emitter open
circuited ( CE) DC BIASING of BJT :
To use the devices for amplification of voltages or current
, or as a control elements , it is necessary to bias the device
Reason for biasing
• To turn the device and place it in operation in the region of its
characteristics where the device operates most linearly

Quiescent or Q point – operating point

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CERTCDAVAO BJT

Operating region 3. Beta () – independent dc bias circuit / voltage

• area of current or voltage within the maximum limits for the divider
particular device • Provide a dc bias circuit that is independent of the
transistir beta
Operating point

4. Dc bias with voltage feedback

• Also provides improved dc bias stability

Three transistor regions of operation

1. Saturation
• is the condition in which voltage across the device
is as small as possible with the current in the device
path reaching a limiting or saturating value

2. Cut – off
• is the condition in which the device no longer
conducts
3. Linear Bias stabilization
• is the condition in which the device conducts at
normal operation , that is , an amplifying action occurs Sensitivity factor / stability factor
• The magnitude of current is between cut – off and • A measure of of the stability of the network due to
saturation some parameter variations ( temperature )
• `A common region of operation when a transistor is
used as an amplifier Note : In any amplifier employing a transistor the collector current
IC is sensitive to each of the following parameters
Conditions :
a. - increases with increase in temperature
a. Linear region operation b. VBE– decrease about 7.5 mV per degree Celsius increase
Base – emitter ----- Forward biased in temperature
Base – collector ----- Reverse biased c. ICO– reverse saturation current – doubles in value for every
b. Cut – off region operation 10 oC increase in temperature

Base emitter ------- reverse biased STABILITY FACTOR (S)

• is defined for each of the parameters affecting bias stability
c. Saturation region operation
Base – emitter ----- Forward biased S ( ICO) = IC / ICO
Base – collector ----- Forward biased S ( ICO) = IC / VBE
S ( ICO) = IC / 
Basic uses of BJT
1. switching Notes :
2. amplifying • Networks that are quite stable and relativly
insensitive to temperature variations have low
Types of biasing stability factor
1. fixed bias circuit • The higher the stabiltity factor, the more sensitive the
• dc bias currents and voltages remain closer to where network to variations in that parameter
they were set by the circuit even when outside
condition SMALL SIGNAL ANALYSIS : BJT

Bipolar Junction TRANSISTOR:

2 models
1. Hybrid Equivalent
2. Re Model

The following set of equations relates the 4 variables to each other

Vi = h11 I in + h 12 Vo
Io = h21 I in + h22Vo
2. fixed bias circuit with emitter resistor / emitter
stabilized The parameters relating the four variables are called h -
• contains a resistor to provide better bias stability than parameters from the word Hybrid
the fixed bias circuit
If Vo = 0
h11 = V i / I in ohms
where:
h11 = short circuit input – impedanceparameter

Io= 0
R h12 = V i / Vounitless
E

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CERTCDAVAO BJT

Where: 4. instantly available for use requiring no warm – up period

h12 = open circuit reverse transfer voltage ratio parameter 5. low operating voltages
Three classes of operation for BJT amplifiers are
Vo= 0
1. Class A
2. Class B
h21 = Io / I inunitless
3. Class C
where:
In Class A operation, collector current flows at all times, or
h21= short circuit forward transfer current ratio parameter
during 360 of the input siganl cycle. In Class B operation, current
I in= 0
(180). In Class C operation, collector current flows for
h22= Io / Vo siemens
approximately 120 of the input signal cycle.
where:
h22 = open circuit output impedance ratio

h11----------------input resistance---------- hi TAKEHOME EXAM

h12---------reverse transfer voltage ratio--------hr 1. Date, transistor was demonstrated.
h21----------forward transfer current ratio ------- hf A. December 23, 1947 *
h22----------------output conductance ---------- ho B. January 23, 1947
C. December 23, 1948
Equivalent circuit : D. January 23, 1948

a. Common – emitter 2. What is the ratio of the width of the base to the total width of
the transistor?
A. 0.150 C. 1.50
B IB B. 15.0 D. 150 *
C
hie 3. Which of the following currents is the largest?
+ A. IC C. IB
hreVCE _ hfeIB B. IE * D. cannot be determined
hoe
4. What was the first name given to a transistor?
A. point contact * C. double contact
E B. point-double contactD.double-point contact
5. For a PNP transistor, the emitter arrow points ____ the base.
A. Away C. either A and B
b. common - base
B. Towards * D. neither A nor B

IE 6. A BJT is a
E C A. Voltage controlled device
hib B. Current controlled device *
+ C. Power controlled device
hrbVCB _ hfbIE hob D. Resistance controlled device
7. Who demonstrated the transistor in the year 1948?
B A. Walter Brattain C. Both A & B *
B. John Barden D. None of the above
8. For an NPN transistor, the arrow is pointing_____
a. Common collector
A. in C. away *
B. in and away D. in or away
IE
B E 9. Ratio of change in collector current to change in emitter current
hic
with VCB constant
A. α * C. μ
+
hrcVEC _ hfcIE B. ß D. θ
hoc
10. Ratio of change in collector current to change in base current
with VCE constant
C A. α C. μ
B. ß* D. θ
Approximate hybrid equivalent model 11. The collector current is 130 mA when the base current is 26
mA. What is the current gain, ß , of the transistor?
H – parameters typical values A. 5 * C. 1
B. 50 D. 10
CE CB CC
hi 1 k 20  1 k 12. The ß of a certain BJT is known to be approximately 200. How
hr 2.5 X 10-4 3 X 10-4 1 much base current is required in order to have 18 mA of
hf 50 - 0.98 -50 collector current?
ho 25 s 0.5 s 25s A. 1 mA C. 0.024 mA 9uA
B. 0.05 mA D. none of the above *
Comparison between three transistor configuration 13. Transistor uses a small amount of base current to control a
large amount of _________.
CB CE CC A. collector current* C. emitter currrent
B. base current D. all of the above
Zi low moderate high
Zo high moderate low 14. The base region a BJT is extremely thin and very
Ai ow1 high moderate A. lightly doped * C. either A or B
B. heavily doped D. neither A nor B
Av high high low 1
Ap moderate high low 15. What is the reason why it is possible to force current to flow
Shift none 180onone between the emitter & collector whenever the base-emitter
junction is forward biased?
Note : A. the base is thin & lightly doped *
Common base : hib = re ; hfb = -1 B. the base is thick and heavily doped
Common emitter : = hfe ;re = hie C. the base is thin and heavily doped
D. the base is thick and lightly doped
Advantages of transistor over vacuum tubes 16. Which of the following configurations has low input impedance
1. smaller and light weight & high output impedance?
2. had no heater requirement A. common collector C. common base
3. more effecient since less power absorbed by the device B. common emitter * D. all of the above

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CERTCDAVAO BJT

17. There is no phase reversal between the input and output.

A. common collector* C. common base *
B. common emitter D. all of the above

18. In common base configuration, the input signal is introduced

into the
A. collector C. base
B. emitter * D. both A and B
19. What is the leakage current in common base configuration?
A. ICBO * C. IECO
B. ICEO D. ICCO

20. The condition in which the device no longer conducts.

A. saturation C. linear
B. cut off * D. active

21. What region of operation in which the device conducts at

normal operation?
A. saturation C. linear / active *
B. cut off D. none of the above

22. In linear region of operation, the base-emitter junction is

__________.
A. reverse bias C. both A and B
B. forward bias * D. none of the above

23. In cut-off region, the base collector is

A. reverse bias C. either A or B *
B. forward bias D. none of the above

24. What is the purpose of emitter resistance bias in emitter

stabilized circuit?
A. bias the circuit
B. stabilize the circuit*
C. normalize the circuit
D. none of the above
25. DC bias currents and voltage closes to where they were set by
the circuit even when outside condition is change
A. fixed bias circuit *
B. fixed bias circuit with emitter resistor
C. ß independent circuit
D. emitter follower
26. What region of operation where a transistor is used as an
amplifier?
A. saturation C. linear / active *
B. cut off D. none of the above
27. Area of current and voltage within the maximum limits for the
particular device
A. shaded area C. saturating region
B. operating region * D. normal region
28. In saturation region, the base collector is
A. Cut off C. open
B. Reverse D. forward bias *
29. What are the basic uses of BJT?
A. timing and clocking
B. switching and amplifying *
C. registering and storing
D. counting and shifting

30. What is the typical input impedance ( range) of common emitter

amplifier?
A. 5k – 10k C. 10k – 20k
B. 25 – 5k * D. 1k – 2k

“Do not wait to strike till the iron is hot;

but make it hot by striking.”
~ William Butler Yeats

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CERTCDAVAO FET

FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR The effect of the gate – source voltage will be to create a depletion
region in the channel and thereby reduce the channel width to
FET increase the drain – source resistance resulting in less drain current
• Field effect transistor
• Unipolar device Drain – Source characteristic
• Three terminal device containing one basic PN junction • a plot of drain current versus the drain – source
voltage
The FET’s terminals are
1. gate – equivalent to the base of the transistor
2. drain – equivalent to the collector terminal of the
transistor
3. source – equivalent to the emitter of the transistor

2 types

1. J FET ----- Junction FET

2. MOSFET ----- Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET

2 Types of MOSFET
a. Depletion Mosfet
b. Enhancement Mosfet

General Comparisons between FET and BJT

JFET Transfer characteristics
• plot of drain current as a function of gate – source
1. The Fet has extremely high input resistance with about 100 M
voltage
ohms typical (BJT input resistance typically 2 k ohms)
2. The FET has no offset value when used as a switch
N – channel
3. The FET is relatively immune to rafiation , but the BJT is very
sensitive
40
4. The FET is less noisy than BJT VGS
I D = I DSS (1 − )2
5. The FET can be operated to provide greater thermal stability Saturation current 30 VP
than BJT
20
6. FET is smaller than BJT Pinch off voltage
IDS
7. FET has smaller gain bandwith than BJT
8. FET has greater susceptibilty to damage in handling 10
2 I DSS VGS
gm = (1 − ) 0
JFET schematic symbol VP VP
-4 -3 -2 -1 0
VGS

NJFET PJFET
JFET Parameters
Idss = drain – source saturation current
Vp = Vgs(off) , pinch – off or gate source voltage
N TYPE JFET P TYPE JFET
BVgss = device breakdown voltage
JFET construction
gm = gfs , device transconductance
Drain
rds = drain – source resistance when the device is turned on
N type gm = gfs = (Id / Vgs ) | Vds = 0
= gmo ( 1 – Vgs / Vp)
Where gmo is the maximum ac gain parameter of the JFET

Gate Examples
P N P 1. Determine the drain current of an n channel JFET having a
pinch off voltage Vp = - 4 volts and drain – source saturation
current = 12 mA at Vgs = 0 v and Vgs = -3 volts.

2. Calculate the transconductance , gm , of a JFET with Idss =

P type
Source
12mA and Vp = - 4 volts at bias point Vgs = - 1.5 V.

3. What is the value of Idss for an n channel JFET with gmo =

4.5 mS and Vp = - 3volts?
Basic Operation of JFET
4. What is the value of Vp of a p channel JFET having Idss =
12 mA and gmo = 6500 s?
DEPLETION REGION
5. Determine the value of gmo for a p channel JFET having Vp =
-3.8 V and Idss = 6.8 mA.

6. A p- channel JFET with Idss = 13.5 mA , Vp = 5 volts is

operated at Id = 9.5 mA. What is the value of gm at this
operating point.

7. What is the maximumu value of transconductance of a JFET

( Vp = -4 volts if the transconductance is 4500 s when
operated at Vgs = - 1 V?

MOSFET
• Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET
The supply voltage, VDD, provides a voltage across drain – source , • Gate terminal insulated from the channel
VDS, which results in current ,ID , from drain to source (electrons in
an n channel actually move from the source ) . This drain currrent 2 types of MOSFET
passes through the channel surrounded by the p type gate . A a. Depletion MOSFET
voltage between gate and source , VGS , is to be set by a voltage b. Enhancement MOSFET
supply, VGG. Since the polarity of this gate – source voltage will
reverse bias the gate – source junction , no gate current will result.

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CERTCDAVAO FET

DEPLETION MOSFET CONSIDER THE FOLLOWING FEATURES OF E-MOSFETs

• channel is physically constructed and current THAT ARE COMMON WITH D-MOSFETs:
between drain and source will result if a voltage is
connected across the drain source 1. Charge-carrier flow is from source to drain. For an N-channel
E-MOSFET, this means electron flow is from source to drain;
ENHANCEMENT MOSFET negative voltage is connected to the source and positive to the
• no channel is formed when the device is drain. For a P- channel version, hole flow is from source to
constructed. A voltage must be applied to the gate to drain- positive voltage is connected to the source and negative
develop a channel so that a current results when a to the drain.
voltage is applied across the drain – source terminal
2. The type of semiconductor material used for the channel is
CONSTRUCTION : opposite the type of material used for the substrate. An N-
channel E-MOSFET uses a P-type semiconductor for its
substrate. A P-channel version uses an N-type semiconductor
for its substrate.

3. The arrow part of the schematic symbol indicates the type of

material that is used for the substrate. An inward-pointing arrow
signifies a P-type substrate material (therefore an N-
channel device). An outward-pointing arrow represents an N
type substrate (and a P-channel device).

FET BIASING
• DC bias of a FET device requires setting the gate – source
voltage , which results in a desired drain current V gg is used
to reverse bias the gate so that Ig = 0

Symbols Circuit Configurations

NMOS PMOS

N Type D Mosfet P Type D Mosfet

b. Enhancement

1. Fixed – Bias 2. Self Bias 3. Voltage Divider

Example

1. Determine the drain current and drain source voltage for the
following circuits.
16
+V
A. B. 18V
Symbols +V
2k
NMOS PMOS IDSS=10mA 2k
NJFET
VP= -8V
2M
IDSS=8mA
NJFET
1M VP = -4V

2V 270k 1.5k
N type E Mosfet P type Mosfet
+

20
C. +V

Examples 3.3k

1. A depletion MOSFET with Idss =12 mA, Vp = - 4 V is operated IDSS=10mA

at Vgs = - 0.5 V. What is the value of transconductance at this VP= -6V
2N3796
opeating point ?
1M 1k
2. What is the value of threshold voltage for an n channel
enhancement MOSFET that operates at Id = 4.8 mA when
biased at 7 Volts?

3. An enhancement MOSFET having threshold voltage of 3.5 V SUMMARY:

is operated at Vgs = 5 volts. What current results ? Use k = 0.3 Field-effect transistors are unipolar devices. This means
mA / V current through the devices is carried by just one type of charge
carrier (either holes or electrons, depending on the type of
4. Determine the value of circuit transconductance for an n semiconductor being used). This is in contrast to bipolar devices
channel enhancement MOSFET having Vt = 2.8 volts when (BJTs) where holes carry the charge through one part and electrons
operated at 6 volts. carry the charge through a second part.

5. An enhancement MOSFET operated at Vgs = 7.5 volts has The terminals on an FET are called gate, source, and drain. The
transconductance of 2.5 mS. What is the value of a device flow of charge carriers is always from the source to the drain. The
threshold voltage? bias voltage that is used to control drain current is applied to the
gate.

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CERTCDAVAO FET

FETs use a voltage (Vgs) to control the flow of current (I d) 8. What is IDSS?
through the device. This is in contrast to BJT, which uses a current A. The maximum possible drain current*
(Ib) to control a current (Ic).The current flowing through the channel B. The drain current with the source shorted
of an FET (Id) rises sharply with increasing drain-source voltage C. The drain current at cut – off
(Vds), but only to a certain poinFt called the pinch-off voltage. Once D. The midpoint drain current
the pinch-off voltage is reached, further increase in V ds causes
9. Where is the channel of a JFET connected?
almost no increase in Id.
A. Between the drain and source *
B. Between the drain and gate
The family of drain characteristic curves and the
C. Between the source and gate
transconductance curve for a JFET shows that it conducts fully (Idss)
D. Anywhere
when no potential is applied to the gate-source junction (Vgs = 0 V).
Increasing the amount of Vgs causes the amount of drain current (Id) 10. Which of the following is true about JFET?
to decrease. A. The gate to source PN junction is reverse bias *
B. The gate to source is forward bias
MOSFETs differ from JFETs by the way the gate voltage is C. The drain is always connected to the ground
separated from the channel current. In JFETs, this separation is D. The gate is grounded
accomplished by means of a reverse-biased P-N junction. In 11. At cutoff, what is the condition of the JFET channel?
MOSFETs, the gate voltage is separated from the channel current A. extremely wide C. reverse – biased
by means of an extremely good insulating material called B. forward – biased D. almost closed *
silicon dioxide.
12. The arrow for a P-channel JFET points _____source-drain
The channel material in MOSFETs is opposite the type of connections.
material used as the substance. So an N-channel MOSFET uses a A. away * C. toward
P-type material as its substrate, and a P-channel MOSFET uses an B. diagonally D. can’t be determined
N-type material as its substrate.
13. In an N-channel JFET, the source-drain voltage must be
The arrow portion of the symbos for MOSFETs indicates the type connected so that the positive polarity is applied to what
of substrate material used. An inward-pointing arrow indicates P- terminal?
type substrate, and an outward-pointing arrow indicates an N-type A. Drain * C. Source
substrate. B. Gate D. None of the above
14. In a P-channel JFET, the source-drain voltage must be
The family of drain characteristic curves and the connected so that the positive polarity is applied to the
transconductance curve for a D-MOSFET show that it conducts fully ________terminal of the JFET and the negative polarity is
when the maximum amount of enhancement-mode voltage is applied to the ______terminal.
applied to the gate-source junction. For an N-channel D-MOSFET, A. source,drain * C. drain, gate
the enhancement-mode polarity is positive, for a P-channel version, B. drain, source D. source, gate
the polarity is negative. Reversing the polarity causes the D -
MOSFET to enter its depletion-mode of operation, where increasing 15. The charge carries in the channel material of a FET always flow
the amount of gate-source voltage causes drain current to decrease from the ______terminal to the ___________terminal
until cutoff occurs. A D-MOSFET can be operated in both the A. source, drain * C. drain, gate
enhancement and depletion modes. B. drain, source D. source, gate
16. In an N-channel JFET, the gate-source voltage must be
A D-MOSFET is a natural choice for a Class A FET amplifier connected to that the positive polarity is applied to the
because the device operates about halfway between cutoff and _______terminal of the JFET and the negative polarity is
saturation when there is no voltage applied to the gate. applied to the ____terminal.
A. source, drain C. drain, gate
B. drain, source D. source, gate *
TAKE HOME EXAM 17. In a P-channel JFET, the gate-source voltage must be
connected so that the positive polariy is applied to the
1. JFET is the abbreviation for ___________ _________terminal of the JFET and the negative polarity is
A. Junction Field Effect Transistor * applied to the _______terminal.
B. Junction Forward Effect Transistor A. gate, source * C. drain, source
C. Junction Field Effect Thyristor B. source, gate D. source, drain
D. Junction Forward Effect Thyristor
18. What is the mode of operation of an N channel D – MOSFET
2. The arrow in the terminals on a JFET are called if VGS is positive?
_____,_______, and _______. A. depletion mode C. enhancement mode*
A. gate, emitter, base B. cut – off D. saturation
B. base, emitter, source
C. source, drain, gate* 19. A MOSFET differs from a JFET mainly because
D. source, emitter, collector A. of the power rating
B. the MOSFET has two gates
3. The arrow in the symbol for an N-channel JFET points_____ C. the JFET has A PN junction *
the source-drain connections. D. MOSFETS do not have a physical channel
A. away C. diagonally
B. toward* D. can’t be determined 20. What isolate the gate and the channel in IGFET?
A. thin dielectric barrier *
4. What is the Fet’s terminal which is equivalent to the base of the B. thin conductor
transistor? C. thick dielectric barrier
A. Drain C. Source D. thick conductor
B. Gate * D. None of the above
21. No conductive channel exists between the source and the drain
5. The gate terminal in a D-MOSFET is separated from the A. Depletion – enhancement mode IGFET
channel material by a thin layer of __________. B. Depletion – mode IGFET
A. SiO C. Si2O2 C. Enhancement – mode IGFET *
B. Si2O D. Si O2 * D. All of the above
6. What FET configuration has the signal applied to the gate 22. What is the most commonly used IGFET structure?
terminal and taken from the A. p – channel enhancement mode device *
source terminal ? B. n – channel enhancement mode device
A. common source C. common drain * C. p – channel depletion mode device
B. common gate D. common base D. n – channel depletion mode device
7. What best describe a JFET? 23. What is the typical Threshold – Voltage ranges for silicon gate
A. a unipolar device p – channel IGFET?
B. voltage controlled device A. 1.5 – 2.0 V* C. 4.0 – 5.0 V
C. a bipolar device B. 2.0 – 3.0 V D. 6.0 – 6.5 V
D. both A and B*

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CERTCDAVAO FET

24. A depletion MOSFET has Idss = 10 mA and Vp = - 4.5 v.

Calculate the drain current at gate – source voltage of 0 V
A. 3.8 mA C. – 12 mA
B. – 3.8 mA D. 10 mA *
25. The common- ________FET amplifier has the
input signal applied to the source terminal
and the signal taken from the drain.
A. Drain C. source
B. Gate * D. base
26. The common- ________FET amplifier has the signal applied to
the gate terminal and the output signal taken from the drain.
A. Drain C. source *
B. Gate D. base
27. The common- ________FET amplifier has the signal applied to
the gate terminal and taken from the source terminal.
A. Drain * C. source
B. Gate D. base
28. What is the Fet’s terminal which is equivalent to the emitter of
the transistor?
A. Drain C. Source *
B. Gate D. None of the above
29. What is the Fet’s terminal which is equivalent to the collector of
the transistor?
A. Drain * C. Source
B. Gate D. None of the above
30. For an N channel E – MOSFET, what is the direction of electron
flow ?
A. The electron flow is from source to drain*
B. The electron flow is from drain to source
C. The electron flow is from source to gate
D. The electron flow is from drain to gate

“The gem cannot be polished without friction, nor

man perfected without trials.”

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CERTCDAVAO ELECTROMAGNETISM

Electromagnetism Electric Flux Density

- is produced when an electrical current flows through - A measure of the strength of an electric field generated by a free
a simple conductor such as a piece of wire or cable. electric charge, corresponding to the number of electric lines of
force passing through a given area.
Electricity - It is measured in coulombs per square meter.
- A general term encompassing a variety of
phenomena resulting from the presence and flow of Q
D = oE
D=
electric charge. 4 r 2

Atom
Gauss’s Law

“The electric flux through any closed surface is proportional to the

enclosed electric charge”.
- Also known as Gauss's flux theorem
An atom is the smallest particle of an
element that retains the characteristics of Electrical Potential
that element. - The ability of a charged body to do work on charged particles
such as electrons.
Subatomic particles
Q
a)Elementary particles V =
4 o r
Quarks, leptons and gauge bosons

b)Composite particle - are bound states of two or more Potential Difference

elementary particles. - The amount of energy per unit charge needed to move a charged
- proton and hadrons particle from a reference point to a designated point in a static
electric field.
Subatomic particles
- voltage
W
V =
Q

Electromotive Force
- Emf is the external work expended per unit of charge to produce
Electron an electric potential difference across two open-circuited terminals.
- discovered by noted British Physicist J.J. Thomson in 1896
Current
Proton Electric current is a flow of electric charge through a medium.
- discovered by Ernest Rutherford in the year 1918
Q dQ
Neutron I= =
- discovered byJames Chadwick in the year 1932 t dt

Electrostatics
Current density
• The branch of science that deals with the phenomena I
and properties of stationary or slow-moving (without J =
acceleration) electric charges. A
The Atom
Coulomb’s Law of Electrostatics
Electron Shells
Coulomb’s First Law of Electrostatics - The shells, and the number of electrons required to fill them, may
– The size of the force of attraction or repulsion be predicted by the employment of Pauli’s exclusion principle.
between two charges is directly proportional to
the value of each charge. Noe = 2n 2

Coulomb’s Second Law of Electrostatics Valence electron

– The size of the force varies inversely as the - The electrons residing in the outermost shell
square of the distance between two charges. - DETERMINES THE CHEMICAL AND ELECTRICAL
PROPERTIES OF THE ATOM.
where :
Q1Q2 Valence Band
F =  = permittivity of the medium
4 r 2
F
 o = permittivity of free space = 8.854 x 10 12 - The region where the valence shell and valence electrons are
m occupying.
 r = relative permittivity - It is the highest energy level before the conduction band.
r = distance
Conduction Band
The electric field - The region where free electrons and said to be present.
- The electric field is defined as the force per unit - Electrons at this band have a high energy level than those
positive charge that would be experienced by a electrons at the valence band.
stationary point charge at a given location in the field
Energy Gap
F V  Q - The energy difference between the valence band and conduction
E=   E= band.
Q m 4 r 2
- The unit is electron volt (eV).
• Conductors = 0 eV
Electric flux • Insulators  5 eV
- Flux is a measure of the number of field lines passing through an • Semiconductor = 1 eV
area.
Conductors
 =Q • Materials with less than four (4) valence electrons.
• Conductors allow electrical current to flow easily because
of more free electrons.

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CERTCDAVAO ELECTROMAGNETISM

Drift velocity materials become magnetic and will stay magnetic while the field is
- Average velocity that a particle, such as an electron, attains due present. When the strong magnetic field is removed the net
to an electric field. In general, an electron will 'rattle around' in a magnetic alignment is lost and the magnetic dipoles relax to a
conductor at the Fermi velocity randomly. random motion.

mobility: vd =  e E Ferromagnetism
0.0012 for aluminum - Ferromagnetic materials exhibit parallel
m 2
0.0032 for copper  e = mobility of an electron   alignment of moments resulting in large net
0.0056 for siver  V .s  magnetization even in the absence of a
magnetic field.
Current density
Ferrimagnetism
J =E
conductivity: - A ferrimagnetic material is one in which
3.82 x 10^7 for alumunim  = conductivity 
S

V = EL the magnetic moments of the atoms on
5.80 x 10^7 for copper m different sublattices are opposed, however,
6.17 x 10^7 for silver in ferrimagnetic materials, the opposing
moments are unequal and a spontaneous
Semiconductor magnetization remains.
• Materials with exactly four valence electrons.
• Semiconductors have electrical characteristics between Antiferromagnetism
conductor and insulators. - In materials that exhibit
antiferromagnetism, the magnetic
Insulator moments of atoms or molecules, usually
• Material with more than four (4) valence electrons. related to the spins of electrons, align in a
• Insulators will not allow the flow of current because there regular pattern with neighboring spins (on
are less or no free electrons. different sublattices) pointing in opposite
directions.
Magnetism
A property of materials that respond at an atomic or subatomic Classification of Magnets
level to an applied magnetic field.
Diamagmetic materials
Magnetic materials – With relative permeability slightly less than 1.
Paramagnetic materials
• Natural magnets – With relative permeability slightly greater than 1
– Magnetite, also called "iron oxide", ( FE3O4 ) Ferromagnetic materials
– lodestone,also called "leading stone". – Materials with relative permeability very much
• Artificial magnets greater than 1.
– Permanent
– temporary Properties of Magnetic Materials

Weber’s Theory • Reluctance

• Permeance
- This theory assumes that all magnetic substances are composed • Permeability
of tiny molecular magnets. • Reluctivity

Reluctance
- The opposition offered in a magnetic circuit to the flow of
magnetic flux.
- It is analogous to resistance in an electrical circuit, but rather
than dissipating magnetic energy it stores magnetic energy.

Domain Theory F
R=
- The domain theory states that inside a magnet there are small 
regions in which the magnetic alignment of all the atoms are
aligned in the same directions. Where:
("R") is the reluctance in ampere-turns per weber (a unit that is
equivalent to turns per henry)..
("F") is the magnetomotive force (MMF) in ampere-turns
Φ ("Phi") is the magnetic flux in webers.

Permeance
- a measure of the quantity of flux for a number of current-turns in
magnetic circuit.
- Reciprocal of Reluctance

Magnetic behavior of materials

 A
= =
1. Diamagnetism NI l
2. Paramagnetism
3. Ferromagnetism Where:
4. Ferrimagnetism Λ = Permeance
5. Antiferromagnetism Φ = Flux
NI = Current-turns (current x number of coils)
Diamagnetism μ = Permeability of Material
- Is the property of an object which causes it Α = Cross Sectional Area
to create a magnetic field in opposition to an l = Length of Circuit
externally applied magnetic field, thus
causing a repulsive effect. Permeability
- Diamagnetic materials are composed of - The ability of a material to allow magnetic flux to flow
atoms that have no net magnetic moments.
Reluctivity
Paramagnetism - The reciprocal of Permeability
- Paramagnetic materials show a weak
magnetic attraction when placed near a Relative Permeability
magnet. - μr is the product of μ (absolute permeability) and μo the
- In a strong magnetic field, paramagnetic permeability of free space and is given as.

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CERTCDAVAO ELECTROMAGNETISM

– One Ampere-Turn equals 1.26 Gb.

 = r o Magnetic Field Strength for Electromagnets

Magnetic Field

Sources:
1. permanent magnet
2. electric field changing linearly with time,
3. a direct current

1. Lines of force NEVER cross.

2. Lines of force are CONTINUOUS.
3. Lines of force always form individual CLOSED LOOPS around Units of Magnetic Field Intensity
the magnet.
4. Lines of force have a definite DIRECTION from North to South. • Ampere-Turn per Meter.
– At/m is the SI unit of Magnetic Field Intensity.
5. Lines of force that are close together indicate a STRONG – The Magnetomotive force per meter.
magnetic field. • Oersted
6. Lines of force that are farther apart indicate a WEAK magnetic – The cgs unit for Magnetic Field Intensity.
field. – The Magnetomotive force in Gilberts per
centimeter.
Magnetic Flux The strength or intensity of a coils magnetic field depends on the
- a measure of the amount of magnetic B field passing through a following factors.
given surface.
- Unit - (weber) 1). The number of turns of wire within the coil.
2). The amount of current flowing in the coil.
Units of Magnetic Flux () 3). The type of core material.
• Maxwell
– The cgs unit of magnetic flux. Magnetization, Magnetic Hysteresis Curves or B-H Curve
– One (1) Maxwell unit is equal to one magnetic - The B-H Curve depicts the ability of a material to accept, allow or
field line. set-up a magnetic field as it is subjected to a magnetizing force.
• Weber
– The SI unit of magnetic flux.
– One (1) Weber equals 1 x 108 lines or Maxwell.

Magnetic Flux Density

B = H

Units of Flux Density (B)

• Gauss
– A cgs unit of Magnetic Flux Density.
– It has a unit of one line or Maxwell per square
centimeter.
• Tesla
– The SI, the unit of Magnetic Flux Density. Magnetic Hysteresis
– It has a unit of one Weber per square meter. - The lag or delay of a magnetic material known commonly as
Magnetic Hysteresis, relates to the magnetization properties of a
Electromagnetism material by which it firstly becomes magnetized and then de-
- Produced when an electrical current flows through a simple magnetized.
conductor such as a piece of wire or cable.
- A small magnetic field is created around the conductor with the Magnetic Hysteresis Loop
direction of this magnetic field with regards to its "North" and
"South" poles being determined by the direction of the current
flowing through the conductor.

The Electromagnet
- Electromagnets are basically coils of wire which behave like bar
magnets with a distinct north and south pole when current passes
through them.

Retentivity
- This ability to retain some magnetism in the core after
magnetization has stopped.
- Also called Remanence
Magneto Motive Force
- The amount of flux available in any given magnetic circuit is Residual Magnetism, BR
directly proportional to the current flowing through it and the - The amount of flux density still present in the core.
number of turns of wire within the coil.
Coercive Force, HC
- One way to reduce the residual flux density to zero is to reverse
the direction of current flow through the coil making the value of H,
Units of Magnetomotive Force (MMF) the magnetic field strength negative

• Ampere-Turns Electromagnetic Induction

– The SI unit of Magnetomotive Force. • Electromagnetic Induction was first discovered way back
– It is the product of the current flowing through in the 1830's by Michael Faraday
the coil and the number of turns.
• Gilberts So how much voltage (emf) can be induced into the coil using just
– The cgs unit of Magnetomotive Force. magnetism?

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CERTCDAVAO ELECTROMAGNETISM

8. Two positive point charges of Q1=12x10^uC and

1. Increasing the number of turns of wire in the coil. - By increasing Q2=8x10^uC are placed 10 cm apart. Find the work done in
the amount of individual conductors cutting through the magnetic bringing the two charges 4 cm closer.
field, the amount of induced emf produced will be the sum of all the
individual loops of the coil, so if there are 20 turns in the coil there 9. What current density correspond to a drift velocity of 6.0 x
will be 20 times more induced emf than in one piece of wire. 10^-4 m/s in a silver conductor? σ = 61.7 MS/m, µ = .0056
A. 6.61 MA/m^2*
2). Increasing the speed of the relative motion between the coil B. 5.56 MA/m^2
and the magnet. - If the same coil of wire passed through the same C. 8.67 MA/m^2
magnetic field but its speed or velocity is increased, the wire will D. 1.01 MA/m^2
cut the lines of flux at a faster rate so more induced emf would be
produced. 10. AWG #12 copper conductor has 80.8 mil diameter. A 50-foot
length carries a current of 20 A. Find the voltage drop across
3). Increasing the strength of the magnetic field. - If the same coil the 50 foot length. σ = 5.8 x 10^7 S/m, µ = 0.0032
of wire is moved at the same speed through a stronger magnetic A. 3.59 V
field, there will be more emf produced because there are more B. 1.59 V*
lines of force to cut. C. 3.78 V
D. 4.67 V
Faraday’s First Law
11. What is the density of free electrons in a metal for a mobility
“Electromotive Force (EMF) is induced whenever a conductor cuts of 0.0046 m^2/V.s and a conductivity of 29.1 MS/m?
magnetic flux.” A. 5.98 x 10^28 electrons/m^3
Faraday’s Second Law B. 0.89 x 10^28 electrons/m^3
“The magnitude of the induced emf is proportional to the relative C. 3.1 x 10^28 electrons/m^3
rate of change of flux.” D. 3.96 x 10^28 electrons/m^3*

Faraday's Motional emf Expression 12. An electric field of 1 volt/cm is applied to a uniform silver wire.
Assuming that silver has 5.8 x10^28 conduction
electrons/m^3 and resistivity of 1.54x10^-8 ohm-m at 300 K,
find the drift velocity of electrons.
Lenz's Law of Electromagnetic Induction A. 3.7 m/s
B. 1.7 m/s
Lenz's Law states that: "the direction of an induced emf is such C. 2.7 m/s
that it will always opposes the change that is causing it". D. 0.7 m/s

This self-induced emf will, by Lenz’s law oppose the change in 13. Two point clusters of charge situated in free space placed on
current in the coil and because of its direction this self-induced emf a line that is called the x-axis. The first, with a positive charge
is generally called a back-emf. of Q1 = +8e, is at the origin. The second, with a negative
charge of Q2 = −4e, is to the right at a distance equal to 0.2m.
SAMPLE PROBLEMS What is the magnitude of the force between them?
a. 1.8432 x 10^-25 N
1. Two identical charge particles 1.5 meters apart placed under b. -1.8432 x 10^-25 N
water experience a force of 2 Newton. If the dielectric c. 2.4351 x 10^-25 N
constant of water is 80, calculate each charge. d. -2.4351 x 10^-25 N

2. Q1 and Q2 are placed 50 cm apart in an x-axis. In between 14. The permeability of a material having a flux density of 5
the two charges another charge Q3 is placed 20cm from Q1. Wb/m^2 is 10^-5 H/m. What is the value of the magnetizing
If Q1= 3 uC, Q2= 8 uC and Q3= -5 uC, calculate the net force force?
on Q3. A. 5 x 10^-5
B. 13 x 10^3
3. Three point charges C. 500 x 10^3*
are placed at the D. 130pi x 10^-5
corners of an
equilateral triangle 15. If a 50 turn coil has 2 amperes of current flowing through it
as shown. Calculate and a core length of 2 inches, it has:
the resultant force A. 24.8 gilberts
exerted on the B. 24.8 gauss
charge 2 uC. C. 24.8 oersted*
D. 24.8 flux
4. Two charges are
placed 40 cm apart 16. An electric field of 1500 V/m and a magnetic field act on an
on the x-axis. Q1=3 uC is placed at 0 while Q2= 5 uC is at electron moving with a speed of 3000 m/s. If the resultant field
40cm. Calculate the distance from Q1 a new negatively is to be zero what should be the strength of the magnetic field
charge Q3 be placed if the force on it is zero. (in Wb/m2).
a. 0.1 T
5. Charges of - 6 and + 4 nC are 3 m apart. Determine the b. 1.8 T
electric field at a point midway between them. c. 0.5 T
A. 40 N/C towards the positive charge d. 1.1 T
B. 40 N/C towards the negative charge*
C. 8 N/C towards the positive charge 17. An iron ring of mean diameter 10 cm is uniformly wound with
D. 8 N/C towards the negative charge 2000 turns of wire. When a current of 0.25 A is passed
through the coil a flux density of 0.4 T is set up in the iron.
6. Two spheres having charges of Q1= 5 uC and Q2=3 uC are Find the relative permeability of their on under these
placed 20cm apart. The spheres are made to touch each conditions.
other and then again separated at a distance of 30cm. a. 200
Calculate the force after this condition. b. 250
c. 300
7. Five 20 nC charges are located 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 m from a certain d. 415
point. Find the potential at that point.
A. 130 V 18. Five hundred turns of a wire are wound on a thin tube 1m
B. 260 V* long. If the wire carries a current of 5A, determine the field in
C. 140 V the tube.
D. 280 V a. 1.24 x 10^-3 T
b. 3.14 x 10^-3 T
c. 5.67 x 10^-3 T
d. 7.01 x 10^-3 T

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CERTCDAVAO ELECTROMAGNETISM

9. A conductor has how many types of flow?

19. An air-gap between two pole pieces is 20 mm in length and A. 1*
the area of the flux path across the gap is 5 cm2. If the flux B, 2
required in the air-gap is 0.75 mWb find the mmf necessary. C. 3
a. 23870 A D. 4
b. 21570 A
c. 13970 A 10. Suppose an intrinsic semiconductor has 1 billion free
d. 13800 A electrons at room temperature. If the temperature changes to
75'C, how many holes are there?
20. An infinitely long, straight conductor carrying a current 100 A. Fewer than 1 billion
amperes is located in air. Determine the flux density at a point B. 1 billion
0.05 in away from the conductor. C. More than 1 billion*
a. 0.1 mT D. Impossible to say
b. 1.3 mT
c. 0.4 mT 11. The contribution to the ionization in an ionization chamber by
d. 1.9 mT electrons liberated from the walls.
A. ion effect C. Wall effect *
21. The magnetic field at 40 cm from a long straight wire is 10^−6 B. Hall effect D. wiegand effect
T. What current is carried by the wire? 12. Suppose that an air-core loop of wire consisting of one turn
a. 1 A carries a certain amount of dc. If the number of turns in the
b. 2 A loop is doubled while the current remains the same, the
c. 3 A magnetomotive force is
d. 4 A A. cut to one-quarter its previous value.
B. cut in half.
22. A conductor is moved at a velocity of 5 m/s at an angle of 60° C. unchanged. doubled
to a uniform magnetic field of 1.6 mWb. The field is produced D. quadrupled*.
by a pair of pole pieces, the faces of which measure 10 cm by
4 cm. If the conductor length is parallel to the longer side of 13. Positive ions are atoms that have
the field, calculate the emf induced. A. Gained a proton
a. 0.173 V B. Lost a proton
b. 0.261 V C. Gained an electron
c. 0.391 V D. Lost an electron*
d. 0.411 V
14. Current will cause a magnetic field in a conductor as follows
TAKEHOME EXAM A. An ac current causes a fixed polarity magnetic field.
B. A dc current causes a fixed polarity magnetic field.*
1. What do you call a positively charged ion? C. A dc current causes an alternating magnetic field.
A. cathode C. cation * D. Both ac and dc current cause a fixed polarity magnetic
B. anion D. domain field.

2. A law stating that the current in a thermionic diode varies 15. Determine the force in Newton between 4 C charges
directly with the three-halves power of anode voltage and separated by 0.1 meter in air.
inversely with the square of the distance between the A. 1.44 N C. 144 N
electrodes, provided the operating conditions are such that B. 14.4 N * D. 1440 N
the current is limited only by the space charge.
A. Lenz’s Law C. Child’s Law * 16. Using the left-hand rule, if your fingers wrap around a coil in
B. Lorentz’s Law D. Coulomb’s Law the direction of its current flow, your thumb will point toward
the
3. The difference in energy between the valence and conduction A. positive polarity of the source
bands of a semiconductor is called B. south pole of the electromagnet
A. band gap * C. conductivity C. north pole of the electromagnet*
B. extrinsict photoeffect D. energy density D. negative polarity of the source

4. The force on a point charge due to electromagnetic fields is 17. Nonmetallic materials that has ferromagnetic properties.
know as A. termites C. ferrous
A. lorentz’s force* C. full force B. ferrites * D. loadstone
B. field force D. coulomb’s force
18. What must be the distance between two point charges
5. What is the law whereby the force of attraction and repulsion Q1=7.0x10-6 C and Q2=5.0x10- 5C for the electrostatic force (in
between poles is inversely proportional to the square of the the air) between them to have magnitude 3.0 N?
distance between them? A. 1.02 m* C. 1.05 m
A. Newton's first law B. 2.06 m D. cannot be solved
B. Norton's law
C. Newton's second law 19. What is meant by back EMF?
D. Coulomb's second law * A. A voltage that is applied in the reverse direction.
B. An EMF that is due to the fly wheel effect.
6. It is the production of a voltage difference across an electrical C. An EMF that is generated from the back of an
conductor, transverse to an electric current in the conductor electromagnet.
and a magnetic field perpendicular to the current. D. A voltage that opposes the applied EMF*
A. wiegand effect C. Hall effect*
B. butterfly effect D. Oersted Rule
20. Determine which statement is true?
7. It is an equation in electromagnetism that describes the A. The current carriers in conductors are protons.
magnetic field B generated by an electric current. The vector B. The current carriers in conductors are valence electrons*
field B depends on the magnitude, direction, length, and C. Valence & inner electrons are the carriers in conductors.
proximity of the electric current, and also on a fundamental D. Valence electrons are not the ones that become free
constant called the magnetic constant. electrons.
A. lenz’s equation C. henry’s law
B. biot-savart law* D. norton’s equation 21. A substance with high retentivity is best suited for making:
A. AC electromagnet.
8. What do you call the total number of electric lines of force in B. DC electromagnet.
an electric field? C. Electrostatic shield.
A. Electric field D. Permanent magnet.*
B. Electric flux *
C. Electric flux density
D. Electric lines of force

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CERTCDAVAO ELECTROMAGNETISM

22. An electric charge produces a total electric field of 6

Coulombs, what is the electric flux density in an area of one
square meter (1m2).
A. 1 C/m2 C. 2 C/m2
B. 4 C/m2 D. 6 C/m2 *

23. What does a ferromagnetic material do?

A. Concentrates magnetic flux lines within itself.*
B. Increases the total magnetomotive force around a wire.
C. Causes an increase in the current in a wire.
D. Increases the number of ampere-turns in a wire.

24. Three charges of +5 C, -6 C and +7 C are placed inside a

sphere, what is the total charge of the sphere in coulomb?
A. +5 Coulomb C. -6 Coulomb
B. +7 Coulomb D. +6 Coulomb *

25. What is the charge magnitude, Q of a body if it contain 5 more

electrons?
A. 5 x 10-19 Coulomb
B. 8 x 10-19 Coulomb
C. -5 Coulomb
D. -8 x 10-19 Coulomb *

26. Find the electric field intensity 10 cm from a charge Q=5nC.

A. 450 N/C C. 900 N/C
B. 4.5 x 103 N/C * D. 9.0 x 103 N/C

27. A 2 nC point charge will produce what potential value at 2m

away?
A. 4.0 Volts C. 6.0 Volts
B. 7.5 Volts D. 9.0 Volts *

28. Cobalt is an example of a what material?

A. Diamagnetic
B. Paramagnetic
C. Ferromagnetic *
D. Magnetic

29. Materials that can be easily magnetized in both directions are

A. Diamagnetic
B. Paramagnetic
C. Soft magnetic materials*
D. Hard magnetic materials

30. Nonmetallic materials that has ferromagnetic properties are.

A. Termites C. Ferrous
B. Ferrites * D. Loadstone

“The secret of getting ahead is getting

started.” – Mark Twain

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CERTCDAVAO DC CIRCUITS

Electrical CIRCUIT Real voltage source regulation:

▪ A closed conducting path through which an electric current Vno load − Vfull load
regulation =  100%
flows or is intended to flow. Vfull load

A DC circuit (Direct Current circuit) is an electrical circuit that

Independent sources deliver volatge and current at thier rated values
consists of any combination of constant voltage sources,
regardless of circuit parameters.
constant current sources, and resistors. In this case, the circuit
voltages and currents are constant, i.e., independent of time.
Dependent sources deliver volatge and current at levels determined
by a voltage or current elsewhere in the circuit. For example, a
What is DC or Direct Current? voltage source whose output is proportional to the current flowing
in a circuit leg is a dependent voltage source.
A Direct Current (DC) is an electric current that has no variation in
amplitude (strength) of the current or voltage. One that remains PARTS OF ELECTRICAL NETWORK
constant with time.
1. Node - A junction in a circuit where two or more circuit
elements and/or branches are connected together.
In electronics, it is common to refer to a circuit
that is powered by a DC voltage source such 2. Branch - Part of a network which lies netween two
as a battery or the output of a DC power junctions.
supply as a DC circuit even though what is
meant is that the circuit is DC powered.
3. Loop - A closed path in a circuit in which no element or
node is encountered more than once.

4. Mesh - A loop that contains no other loop within it.

A practical electrical circuit has at least four parts:

(1) a source of electromotive force THE BIG THREE IN ELECTRICTY

(2) conductors
(3) a load The three controlling factors (a.k.a. the BIG THREE in electricity)
(4) a means of control always present in operating electric circuits are :

 Current (I) – A progressive movement of free electrons

The basic circuit requirements are the source of electromotive force
along a wire or other conductor. Also defined as the time rate
(battery, generator, and power supply) and conductors (connecting
of change of charge, measured in amperes (A).
wires) that provide the continuous path.
Types of electric current:
Note: The load (like a lamp) is not considered as a basic
electrical circuit requirement.
Direct current (dc) – Also known as continous current is one in
which the electric current flows in one direction. One in which the
TYPES OF ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS transfer of energy takes place unidirectionally, with changes in
value from time to time that are either zero or so small that they
Linear Circuit may be neglected.
Is one whose parameters are constant (i.e. They do not
change with voltage and current. Direct current can take into several forms:

Non-Linear Circuit 1. Direct current – One in which there is no variation in

Is that circuit whose parameters change with voltage and amplitude (strength) of the current or voltage such as those
current. generated from batteries, dc generators, and power
supplies.
Bilateral Circuit 2. Varying direct current (Vdc) – One in which the amplitude of
the current or volatge varies but never falls to zero. Found in
Is one whose properties or characteristics are the same
many transistor and vaccum-tube circuits.
in either direction.
3. Pulsating direct current (Pdc) – One in which the amplitude
drops to zero periodically. Obtained in rectifier circuits.
Unilateral Circuit 4. Interrupted direct current (Idc) – One in which current or
Is that circuit whose properties or characteristics change volatge starts and stops abruptly (square wave). Produced
with the direction of its operation. by vibrators, choppers, and special oscillator circuits.

ELECTRICAL NETWORK Alternating current (ac) - Is a form of electricity that flows in an

▪ Connection of various electric elements in any manner alternating directions and/or possessing a voltage with alternating
Passive Network polarity over time. This is the usual house current.
With no source of emf.
A damped ac is alternating current that dies out in amplitude such
Active Network
as those produced by spark-type oscillators and inadvertently in
Contains one or more than one sources of emf.
many circuits as they make and break.
ENERGY SOURCES
An ideal voltage source supplies power at a constant voltage, Types of current flow:
regardless of the current drawn.
Conventional Current assumes that current flows out of the
An ideal current source is independent of the voltage positive terminal, through the circuit and into the negative terminal
between its terminals. of the source. This was the convention chosen during the
discovery of electricity.
However, real sources have internal resistances that, at higher They were wrong!
currents, decrease the available voltage. Therefore, a real
voltage source cannot maintain a constant voltage when Electron Flow is what actually happens and electrons flow out of
current becomes large. IDEAL SOURCES REAL SOURCES the negative terminal, through the circuit and into the positive
terminal of the source.
+ + R
- - V
internal
Conventional flow
Electron flow

I
G + -
internal

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CERTCDAVAO DC CIRCUITS

 Voltage (V) – Also known as electromotve force (emf) or When current, resistance and time are expressed in amperes,
potential difference is the elctron – moving force in a circuit that ohms, and seconds respectively, the heat produced (Q) is one joule
pushes and pulls electrons (current) through the circuit. In a DC (J).
ciruicuit, voltage may vary in amplitude but not in polarity.
The SI unit of energy was subsequently named the joule and given
 Resistance (R) - Is the opposition to current flow. To add the symbol J.
resistance to a circuit, electrical components called resistors
are used. ELECTRICAL POWER AND WATT’S LAW

OHM’S LAW Power is the time rate of doing work.

▪ One of the most fundamental law in electrical circuits
relating voltage, current and resistance In other words, power, P, is the amount of work (W) done (or
equivalently the amount of energy used) in a certain length of time
▪ Developed in 1826 by German physicist Georg Simon (t), expressed mathematically as:
Ohm W
P=
t

The SI unit for power is watt (W), named after the Scottish engineer
Georg Simon Ohm James Watt (1736–1819)
(1787 - 1854)
Note that an italic W is used to represent energy in the form of work
and a nonitalic W is used for watts, the unit of power.
Ohm’s Law
In DC circuits, the electric power in watts associated with a complete
The current (I) flowing in an electrical circuit electric circuit or a circuit component represents the rate at which
is directly proportional to the applied energy is converted from the electrical energy (Q) of the moving charges
voltage (E) and inversely proportional to the to some other form, e.g., heat, mechanical energy, or energy stored in
equivalent resistance (R) of the circuit. electric fields or magnetic fields.

For a resistor in a DC Circuit the power is given by the product of

Magic Triangle
applied voltage and the electric current:
Ohm’s Circle
Q W
P = VI = V = → in watt,(W )
t t
Mathematically, Ohm’s Law can be expressed in three ways:
Quick Conversion!
1. The current in a circuit is equal to the voltage applied to the
circuit divided by the resistance of the circuit:
V
I= Conversion:
R
1 W = 1 J/s
2. The resistance of a circuit is equal to the voltage applied to
1 horsepower = 746 W
the circuit divided by the current in the circuit:
= 550 ft − lb / s
V
R =
I
WATT’S LAW
3. The applied voltage to a circuit is equal to the product of the
current and the resistance of the circuit: The three power equations below are known as Watt’s Law:
V = IR

V2
P = IV P = I2R P=
Note: Ohm’s Circle (or the Magic Triangle) is provided to the right R
of each formula as an to memorizing these definitions more easily.
CIRCUIT CONNECTION:
ELECTRICAL ENERGY AND JOULE’S LAW
A. SERIES circuits
▪ A circuit connection in which the components are
Energy is the ability to do work.
connected to form one conducting path
When there is current through a resistance electrical energy is
converted to heat or other form of energy, such as light.

JOULE’S LAW:

Joule’s Law states that the rate of production

of heat by a constant direct current is directly
proportional to the resistance of the circuit
Properties of SERIES circuit:
and to the square of the current.
Q
α I2R The same current flows through all the components.
t

IT = I1 = I2 = I3

Joule's first law, also known as the Joule effect, is a physical

law expressing the relationship between the heat generated by the The total resistance equals the sum of the resistances
current flowing through a conductor. It is named for James connected in series.
Prescott Joule who studied the phenomenon in the 1840s.
R T = R1 + R 2 + R 3
It is expressed as:
Q = I2  R  t
The sum of voltage drop across each component is equal
to the applied voltage.
Where:
Q is the heat generated by a constant current I flowing
E = V1 + V2 + V3
through a conductor of electrical resistance R, for a time t.

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CERTCDAVAO DC CIRCUITS

The total power equals the sum of the individual power of NETWORK LAWS AND THEOREMS
each resistance.
A. KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS
PT = P1 + P2 + P3 ▪ More comprehensive than Ohm’s Law and is used in
solving electrical
Voltage Division for Series Circuit: ▪ Termed as “Laws of Electric Networks”
▪ Formulated by German physicist Gustav Robert
Kirchhoff
R 
Ex = ET  x 
 RT  Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
Where: “In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the current
EX – voltage across the resistor concerned meeting at a point (or junction) is zero.”

I = 0
ET – total voltage across the circuit
RX – the resistor concerned
RT – the sum of all resistances in the circuit In short the sum of currents entering a node equals the sum of
currents leaving the node.
B. PARALLEL circuits ⁻ Current towards the node,
▪ A circuit connection in which the components are positive current
connected to form more than 1 conducting path ⁻ Current away from the node,
negative current
Properties of PARALLEL circuit:
IA = IB + IC + ID
Parallel voltages are equal (IB + IC + ID ) − IA = 0

E = V1 = V2 = V3 = ... = Vn
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
The total current is equal to the sum of the branch currents. “The algebraic sum of the products of currents and resistances in
each of thr conductors in any closed path (or mesh) in a network
IT = I1 = I2 = I3 = ... = In PLUS the algebraic sum of the emfs in the path is zero.”

The inverse of the total resistance of the circuit (also called

effective resistance) is equal to the sum of the inverses of
V =0
the individual resistances. In short, the sum of the
voltages around the loop is
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ... + equal to zero
RT R1 R2 R3 Rn
⁻ For voltage sources, if
Special Formula: (For two resistances in parallel) loops enters on minus
R1R 2 and goes out on plus,
RT = positive voltage and if
R1 + R 2
loops enters on plus and
goes out on minus,
One important thing to notice from this last equation is that the more negative voltage.
branches you add to a parallel circuit (the more things you plug in)
the lower the total resistance becomes. Remember that as the total ⁻ For voltage drops, if the loop direction is the same as current
resistance decreases, the total current increases. So, the more direction, negative voltage drop and if the loop direction is
things you plug in, the more current has to flow through the wiring in opposite to the current direction, positive voltage drop.
the wall. That's why plugging too many things in to one electrical
outlet can create a real fire hazard.
B. MESH ANALYSIS
The total power equals the sum of the individual power of ▪ A sophisticated application of KVL with mesh currents.
each resistance.
Loop Analysis Procedure:
PT = P1 + P2 + P3 + ... + P4 1. Label each of the loop/mesh currents.
2. Apply KVL to loops/meshes to form equations with
Ohm's Law may be used in a parallel circuit as long as you current variables.
remember that you can use the formula with either partial values a. For N independent loops, we may write N total
or with total values but you cannot mix parts and totals. equations using KVL around each loop. Loop currents
are those currents flowing in a loop; they are used to
VTOTAL = (ITOTAL )(RTOTAL ) : VPART = (IPART )(RPART ) define branch currents.
b. Current sources provide constraint equations.
3. Solve the equations to determine the user defined loop
Current Division for Parallel Circuit: currents.

 R eq   R eq 
Ix = IT  =I  
 R x + R eq  T  R T
   

Where:
IX – current concerned flowing through resistor Rx
IT – total current of the circuit
Req – equivalent resistance of the parallel circuit except R x
RT – the sum of all resistances in the circuit C. NODAL ANALYSIS

There are two advantages of connecting bulbs in parallel: ▪ A systematic application of KCL at a node and after
simplifying the resulting KCL equation, the node voltage
 They all get the full battery voltage so they're all bright can be calculated.

 They're all in their own conducting loop so you can turn ▪ Consist of finding the node voltages at all principal nodes
one bulb off without affecting the others. with respect to the reference node.

▪ PRINCIPAL node – a node with three or more circuit

elements joined together.

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CERTCDAVAO DC CIRCUITS

▪ Reference node – the node from which the unknown I. THEVENIN’S THEOREM
voltages are measured.
“ Any two-terminal of a linear, active bilateral network of a fixed
resistances and voltage source/s may be replaced by a single
voltage source (VTH) and a series of internal resistance (RTH). ”

D. SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

“ The current through or voltage across, an element in a linear Where:

bilateral network is equal to the algebraic sum of the current or
voltages produced independently in each source. ” VTH – the open circuit voltage which appears across the two
terminals from where the load resistance has been removed.
In general:
RTH – the resistance looking back into the network across the two
▪ Number of network to analyze is equal to number of terminals with all the voltage sources shorted and replaced by
independent sources. their internal resistances (if any) and all current sources by infinite
▪ To consider effects of each source independently, sources resistance.
must be removed and replaced without affecting the final
result: J. NORTON’S THEOREM
✓ All voltage sources >> short circuited
✓ All current sources >> open circuited “ Any two-terminal active network containing voltage sources
and resistances when viewed from its output terminals, is
E. COMPENSATION THEOREM equivalent to a constant-current source (IN) and a parallel
▪ If the impedance Z of a branch in a network in which a internal resistance (RN). ”
current I flows is changed by a finite amount dZ, then the
change in the currents in all other branches of the network
may be calculated by inserting a voltage source of -IdZ into
that branch with all other voltage sources replaced by their
internal impedances.

F. RECIPROCITY THEOREM
Where:
“If a voltage source E acting in one branch of a network
causes a current I to flow in another branch of the network,
IN– the current which would flow in a short circuit placed across the
then the same voltage source E acting in the second branch
output terminals.
would cause an identical current I to flow in the first branch. ”
RN – the resistance of the network when viewed from the open
Simply mean,
circuited terminals after all voltage sources being replaced by
open circuits.
▪ E and I are mutually transferable, or
▪ The receiving point and the sending point in a network are
interchangeable, or K. THEVENIN-NORTON TRANSFORMATION
▪ Interchange of an IDEAL voltage source and an IDEAL
ammeter in any network will not change the ammeter
reading,
▪ Interchange of an IDEAL current source and an IDEAL
voltmeter in any network will not change the voltmeter
reading

G. MILLMAN’S THEOREM

“ A special case of the application of Thevenin’s Theorem/or

Norton’s Theorem used for finding the COMMON voltage (VAB)
across any network which contains a number of parallel voltage
sources. ”
R Thevenin = R Norton
▪ In Millman’s Theorem, the circuit is re-drawn as a parallel
E Thevenin
network of branches, each branch containing a resistor INorton =
or series battery/resistor combination. R Thevenin
▪ Millman’s theorem is applicable only to those cicuits
which can be re-drawn accordingly. L. NORTON-THEVENIN TRANSFORMATION

H. MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM

▪ For loads connected directly to a DC voltage supply,
maximum power will be delivered to the load when the
resistance is equal to the internal resistance of the
source.
▪ For maximum power transfer: RS = RL

E Thevenin = ( INorton ) ( R Norton )

R Thevenin = R Norton

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CERTCDAVAO DC CIRCUITS

M. EQUIVALENT THREE-TERMINAL NETWORKS Determine ε when I = 0.50 A and R = 12 Ω.

DELTA to WYE

▪ The equivalent resistance of each arm to the wye is given

by the PRODUCT of the two delta sides that meet at its end
divided by the SUM of the three delta resistances.
What is the potential difference Vb - Va shown in the circuit below.

AB AC BC
P= Q= R=
A +B+C A +B+C A +B+C

WYE to DELTA

The equivalent delta resistance between any two twrminals is Find i1 if A = 2i2.
given by the SUM of a star resistance between those terminals
PLUS the PRODUCT of these two star resistances DIVIDED
by the third resistance.

Find the power supplied by the dependent source.

PQ + QR + RP PQ + QR + RP
A = B=
R Q
PQ + QR + RP
R=
P

SAMPLE PROBLEM

When a 20-V emf is placed across two resistors in series, a current

of 2.0 A is present in each of the resistors. When the same emf is
placed across the same two resistors in parallel, the current through Find the voltage across each current source.
the emf is 10 A. What is the magnitude of the greater of the two
resistances?
a. 7.2 Ω
b. 7.6 Ω
c. 6.9 Ω
d. 8.0 Ω

Three resistors are connected in series to a 120V dc source. The

voltage across R1 and R2 together is 80V and the voltage drop
across R2 and R3 together is 90V. If the total resistance is 8kΩ,
what is the resistance of R2?
a.) 2 kΩ
b.) 4.5 kΩ Find ix.
c.) 5.33 kΩ
d.) 3.33 kΩ

What is the magnitude of the potential difference across the 20- Ω

resistor?

For the circuit as shown find Thevenin equivalent resistance

between terminals a and b.

What is the current in the 10-Ω resistor ?

For the circuit as shown obtain the Thevenin equivalent resistance

as seen from terminals a-b using NORTON’S THEOREM

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CERTCDAVAO DC CIRCUITS

A. Provide more power*

B. Provide lighter current
C. Provide less power
D. Provide wider tolerance

8. The voltage applied in DC circuit having a power of 36 watts

and a total resistance of 4 ohms.
A. 6 V C. 9V
B. 12 V* D. 24 V

9. When resistor are connected in series, what happens?

FIND THE NORTON AND THEVENIN EQUIVALENT AT 1Kohm A. The effective resistance
RESISTOR. B. Nothing
C. The tolerance
D. The effective resistance is increased*

10. Find the thevenin’s impedance equivalent across R2 of a linear

close circuit having 10-V supply in series with the resistors
(R1=100 ohms and R2=200 ohms)
A. 666 ohms C. 6.66 ohms
B. 66.6 ohms* D. 6666 ohms

11. How much power does electronic equipment consume,

assuming a 5.5A current flowing and a 120-V power source.
Find the Thevenin Equivalent. A. 60 W C. 66 W
B. 660 W* D. 125.5 W

12. How many nodes are needed to completely analyze a circuit

according to Kirchoffs Current Law.
A. One
B. Two
C. All nodes in the circuit*
D. One less than the total number of nodes in the circuit
Find Rin.
13. A common connection between circuit elements or conductors
from different branches.
A. Node* C. Junction
B. Ground D. Mesh

14. It is used to denote a common electrical point of zero potential.

A. Short circuit C. Reference point
B. Open circuit D. Ground*

15. Loop currents should be assumed to flow in which direction?

A. Straight C. Clockwise
B. Counterclockwise D. Either b or c*

16. In mesh analysis, we apply:

A. KCL C. KVL*
B. Source D. Millman’s theorem
TAKE HOME EXAM
17. Which of the following is not a valid expression of Ohms Law
A. R = PI* C. E = IR
1. A battery with a rating of 9 volts has an internal resistance of
B. I = E/R D. R = E/I
20 ohms. What is the expected resistance of the bulb that is
connected across the battery to attain a maximum power
18. Using ohms Law, what happens to the circuit current if the
transfer?
applied voltage increases?
A. 20 ohms* C. 10 ohms
A. Current doubles
B. 5 ohm D. 2 ohms
B. Current increases*
C. Current remians constant
2. In a sireis ciscuit a resistors 2200 and 4500 with an impressed
D. Current decreases
voltage of 10, what is the circuit current in mA?
A. 1.49* C. 6.67
19. According to ohms law, what happen to the circuit current if the
B. 4.34 D. 1.34
circuit resistance increases?
a. Current doubles
3. The current needed to operate a soldering iron which has a
b. Current decreases*
rating of 600 watts at 110 volts is.
c. Current increases
A. 5.455 A* C. 66,000 A
d. Current remains constant
B. 18,200 A D. 0.182 A
20. If the resistance of a circuit is doubled and the applied voltage
4. The ammeter reads 230 ampere while the voltmeter is 115
is kept constant, the current will be _______ .
volts. What is the power inKW at the time of reading
A. Be quaddrupled C. Remains
A. 264.5 C. 2645
B. Be cut in half* D. Be doubled
B. 264500 D.26.45*
5. What is the type of circuit whose parameters are constant
21. It is an electrical current that flows in one direction only?
which do not change with voltage or current?
A. Normal current C. Alternating current
A. Lumped C. Tuned
B. Direct current* D. Eddy current
B. Reactive D. Linear*
22. In Ohms Law, what is E/R?
6. What is the resistance of two equal valued resistor series?
A. Amperage* C. Voltage
A. Twice as one*
B. Resistance D. Power
B. The sum of their reciprocal
C. The difference of both
23. A 33-Kohm resistor is connected in series with a parallel
D. The product of both
combination made up of 56-Kohm resistor and a 7.8-kohm
resistor. What is the total combined reistance of the three
7. What do you expect when you use two 20 kohms, 1 watts
resistors?
resistors in parallel instead of one 10 kohms, 1 watt?
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CERTCDAVAO DC CIRCUITS

A. 390667 ohms* C. 49069 ohms

B. 63769 ohms D. 95000 ohms

24. Which of the following cannot be included in a loop of Kirchoff’s

Voltage Law
A. Current source* C. Voltage source
B. Resistance D. Reactance

25. A series connected circuit consists of 3 loads and consume a

total power of 50 Watts. It was reconfigured such that 2 are in
parallel and the other load is in series with a combination. What
is the applied expected powers to be consumed them?
A. 50 watts* C. 75 watts
B. 25 watts D. 45 watts

26. If the number of valence electrons of an atom is less than 4,

the substance is usually
A. Semiconductor C. A conductor*
B. An insulator D. None of the above

27. Electric current in a wire is the flow of

A. Free electrons* C. Bound electrons
B. Valence electrons D. Atoms

28. EMF in a circuit is a form

A. Power C. Charge
B. Energy* D. none

29. The SI unit of specific-resistance is

A. Mho C. Ohm-sq.-m
B.Ohm-m* D. Ohm-cm

30. The resistance of a material is ___ its area of cross-section

A. Directly proportional
B. Inversely proportional*
C. Independent
D. None of these

“A gem cannot be polished without friction, nor a

man perfected without trials.”
~ Lucius Annaeus Seneca

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AC FUNDAMENTALS For radio waves it is assumed to be equal to the velocity of

light in vacuum;
I. INTRODUCTION:
AC stands for “Alternating Current”. It is a form of electricity that flows v = 3 x108 m/s
in an alternating directions and/or possessing a voltage with alternating
For sound waves;
polarity over time. In general, AC means voltage or current that changes
polarity or direction, respectively over time.
v = 334 m/s
The shape of a graph of the varying quantity against time or distance is Amplitude - the value of the wave at its peak.
called a waveform.
IV. THE GENERAL SINE WAVE EQUATION
Examples of alternating waveforms :
e = E m sin  t = E m sin  (in volts)
I = Im sin  t = Im sin  (in amp)

Where
e = instantaneous value of sine wave emf
i = instantaneous value of sine wave current
Em = maximum value of emf with respect to zero time
axis
Im = maximum value of current with respect to zero time axis
ω t = angle in radians measured from the zero point where the
slope is positive
The standard ac waveform is the sine wave. ω = angular frequency in radians
t = time from zero point where the slope
II. ALTERNATING CURRENT VS DIRECT CURRENT
✓ DC voltage or current maintains constant polarity or direction,  Instantaneous Value is the value of a sine wave at any instant
respectively over time whereas AC voltage or current alternates of time or at any angle of rotation. It is denoted by a lowercase
polarity or direction over time. letters v and i for voltage and current, respectively.
Instantaneous v and i equations
Voltage v = Vm (sinθ) =Vm sinωt=Vm (sin2πft)
Current i = Im (sinθ) =Im sinωt=Im (sin2πft)

Where:
Θ is the rotation angle, ωt
ω is the angular velocity, 2f

 Peak Value is the maximum value denoted by Vm or Vp and Im

or Ip for voltage and current, respectively.

Peak value of v and i equations

III. PROPERTIES OF AC WAVEFORM:
Voltage Vp or Vm = ( 2 ) V =1.414V
rms rms

Current Ip or Im = ( 2 ) I =1.414I
rms rms

 Peak – to – peak value is the value twice the peak value when
the positive and negative peak is symmetrical.
Frequency, (f) – is the number of cycles in one second. The basic unit Peak-to-peak value of v and i equations
of frequency is Hz.
Voltage V( p-p ) = 2Vp =2.828Vrms
1 Hz = 1 cycle per second
Current I( p-p ) = 2Ip =2.828Irms
Period – the length of time it takes to complete one cycle. It is
basically the reciprocal of the frequency.  Average value is the arithmetic average of all the values in a sine
wave for 1 half -cycle.
1
T= ; (seconds) Average value of v and i equations
f
Importance
( Vp ) =0.637Vp
2
Voltage Vavg =
π
proper operation of electrical equipment requires specific
(Ip ) =0.637Ip
2
frequency Current Iavg =

frequencies lower than 60 Hz would cause flicker when used
in lighting.  Root-Mean-Square (RMS) value of an alternating sine wave is
that value that gives the same heating effect as a steady direct
current or voltage source.
PN
f = (in Hz) Example:
120 An alternating voltage with an rms value of 220 V, is just as
Where effective as a 220 V from a steady dc voltage source in heating
P = even number of poles a filament of a light bulb. It is for this reason that the rms value
N = speed of rotation in rev/min (rpm) is also considered the effective value.

Wavelength – is the distance between two points of similar cycles of RMS value of v and i equations
a periodic wave.
Vp
Voltage Vrms = =0.707Vp
propagation velocity v 2
λ= =
frequency f

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CERTCDAVAO AC CIRCUITS

Ip
Current Irms = =0.707I p
2

Notice that the rms value of a sine wave is the value of the wave at
45o which corresponds to 70.7% of the peak value.

FORM FACTOR AND PEAK FACTOR of Sine Wave

VII. OPPOSITION TO ALTERNATING CURRENT
Form factor is the ratio of the rms value to the average value.
 IMPEDANCE (Z) is the total opposition to ac current with the
Peak factor is the ratio of peak value to the rms value. resistance and total reactance of the circuit combined.
(
Z = R + j X eq ) → in rectangular form
Form factor and Peak factor Equations
Z = Z  → in polar form
Vrms 0.707Vm
Form factor = = =1.11
Vavg 0.637Vm
Where:
Vm Vm X eq = X L − X C
Peak factor = = =1.4142
Vrms 0.707Vm
( )
2
Z = R 2 + X eq
V. AC PHASE RELATIONSHIP  X eq 
 = tan − 1  
▪ Phase is an angular measurement that specifies the position of  R 
a sine wave relative to a reference
Impedance Angle ( Φ )

gives the angle between the total voltage and current in AC

circuit
o + Φ → I lags V (inductive)
• Phase angle of two waveforms of the same frequency is the o - Φ → I leads V (capacitive)
angular difference at a given instant of time or the distance o Φ = 0 → I and V are in-phase (resistive)
between corresponding points on two waves.
 REACTANCE (X) is the opposition to ac current other than
❑ Phase-Shifted Sine Wave resistance due to inductance and/or capacitance in the circuit.
It is dependent on the frequency (f) of the ac source.
A leading waveform is defined as one waveform that is ahead of
another in its zero crossing on the horizontal axis. the imaginary part of the impedance of an ac circuit.

If V is sinusoidal voltage applied across a load Z' the

 sine wave shifted to left of reference (leading) by an angle
current I will be governed by the circuit parameters: R, L,
Φ:
C and f then,
y = A Sin ( θ + Φ)
Z = R ± jX (in ohms)
A lagging waveform is one that is behind another.
 Capacitive reactance (XC) is the opposition to alternating
current in a capacitor. It varies inversely with the frequency
 sine wave shifted to right of reference (lagging) by an angle (f) of the ac source.
Φ:
1
XC = , ( )
y = A Sin ( θ- Φ) 2πfC
Where:
❑ Current and Voltage Phase Relationship C = capacitance in Farad

1 Farad = 1 Amp-sec/volt

 Inductive reactance (XL) is the opposition to alternating

current in an inductor. It varies directly with the frequency
of the ac source.
XL = 2 fL, (  )
Where:
L = inductance in Henry
ω = angular frequency in rad/sec
f = frequency of AC source

1 Henry = 1 Volt-sec / amp

 RESISTANCE (R) is the opposition to ac current by the

VI. PHASORS
same factor as in dc in resistive circuits.
To compare phase angles or phases of alternating voltages
ADMITTANCE (Y)
and currents, it is more convenient to use phasor diagrams
the reciprocal of impedance, in Siemens (S)
corresponding to the voltage and current waveforms. the over-all ability of an electric circuit to pass alternating
current
A PHASOR is a rotating arrow used to represent the time
varying quantities in terms of their magnitude and angular
measurements
1
Y= = ( G + jB ) , (Siem ens)
Z
SUSCEPTANCE (B)
the ability of the inductance and capacitance to pass AC, in
Siemens (S)
the imaginary component of admittance

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CERTCDAVAO AC CIRCUITS

where XC is the capacitive reactance of the circuit.

1 ✓ The power dissipated by a purely capacitive circuit is
Y= = ( G + jB ) , (Siem ens) ideally zero.
Z

 Inductive Susceptance (BL or -jBL) is the ability of an inductor to IX. AC POWER

permit current to flow ❑ Apparent power (S)

1 the product of RMS value of voltage and current

B= (Siemens)
XL
S = EI (in volt-amp, VA)
 Capacitive Susceptance (BC or +jBC) is the ability of a capacitor ❑ Average / active / real / true power
of permit the flow of current
the power actually consumed by an AC circuit
1
B= (Siemens)
XC
P = EI Cos Φ (in watts, W)
VIII. AC CIRCUITS ANALYSIS
When a time-varying ac voltage such as a sinusoidal voltage is ❑ Reactive / "Wattless" Power (Q)
applied to a circuit, the circuit laws and power formulas that you
the power taken by a reactance (inductive or capacitive) in
studied earlier in dc circuits still apply. Ohm’s law, Kirchhoff’s
an AC circuit
laws and the power formulas apply to ac circuits in the same
way that they apply to dc circuits.
❑ Power Factor (pf)
A. PURELY RESISTIVE LOAD the cosine of angle between voltage and current in AC
circuit

pf = Cos Φ

I and V from impedance triangle, the ratio of resistance to

waveform impedance of AC circuit

R
I and V pf =
phasors
Quick facts to remember in purely RESISTIVE circuits: Z
✓ The current and the voltage are always in phase.
V from power triangle, the ratio of real power to a apparent
✓ When using ohm’s law, I = , I and V must be expressed power of AC circuits
R
consistently, that is, both as peak values, both as rms P
values, both as average values, and so on.
pf =
S

Power in Resistive ac Circuits Types of Power Factor:

In solving for the power in a resistive ac circuits, the same rule  Unity pf
applies as for dc circuits provided the rms values of current and ✓ current remain in-phase with voltage
voltage are used. ✓ real and apparent power arc equal
✓ purely resistive load
P=VrmsIrms
 Leading pf
( Vrms )
2

P= ✓ current leads voltage by an angle Φ electrical degree

R
✓ capacitive load
P= ( Irms ) R
2

 Lagging pf
B. PURELY INDUCTIVE CIRCUITS ✓ current lags voltage by an angle Φ electrical degree
✓ inductive load

 Zero pf
✓ there is a phase difference of 90 electrical degree
I and V between current and voltage, so no useful work done
waveform ✓ purely reactive load

 Zero lagging
I and V ✓ purely inductive load
phasors
✓ Zero leading
Quick facts to remember in purely INDUCTIVE circuits:
✓ purely capacitive load
✓ The current always lags behind the voltage by 90
electrical degrees.
X. CIRCUIT CONNECTIONS
Remember! ELI
✓ Ohm’s law equation becomes,
V V 1. SERIES RL CIRCUIT
I= =
XL 2πfL
where XL is the inductive reactance of the circuit.
✓ The power dissipated by a purely inductive circuit is ideally
zero.

C. PURELY CAPACITIVE CIRCUITS

Quick facts to remember in purely CAPACITIVE circuits:
✓ The current always leads the voltage by 90 electrical
degrees.
Remember! ICE
✓ Ohm’s law equation becomes,
V V Complete Analysis of a Series RL Circuit
I= = =V ( 2πfC )
XC 1
2πfC

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CERTCDAVAO AC CIRCUITS

Here is the procedure for doing a complete analysis of a series RL XL

circuit, given the values of R, L, f, and VT. Q=
ri
Where:
Q = quality (unitless)
XL = inductive reactance in ohms
ri = the internal resistance of the inductor

A 'real-life' inductor can be regarded as a 'perfect' inductor

connected in series with a resistance (r i).
Where:
Z = the total impedance in ohms The Q of a coil is also known as the merit of a coil.
XL = the inductive reactance in ohms
R = the resistance in ohms A 'perfect' inductor would have a Q of infinity. Although it is possible
T = total phase angle in degrees or radians to achieve Qs on the order of 2000 or so, most inductors have Q
VT = total voltage values that are less than 100 when used in their intended frequency
VR = voltage across resistor R ranges.
VL = voltage across inductor L
 Calculate the value of XL: The basic equation for Q shows that the Q of an inductor is
proportional to its reactance:
XL = 2πfL
✓ Increasing the value of XL increases the Q of an inductor.
 Calculate the total impedance: ✓ Decreasing the value of XL decreases the value of Q.

Since the reactance of an inductor is proportional to the applied

Z= R 2 + X L2 frequency (XL = 2πfL):
✓ Increasing the applied frequency (f) increases the value
 Use Ohm's Law to calculate the total current: of Q.
✓ Decreasing the applied frequency decreases the value of
IT = VT / Z Q.
2. PARALLEL RL CIRCUIT
 Determine the currents through R and L. Since this is a series
circuit:

IR = IT IL = IT

 Calculate the voltages across R and L. By Ohm's Law:

VR = RIR ; VL = XLIR
Complete Analysis of a Parallel RL Circuit
Here is the procedure for doing a complete analysis of a parallel
The total voltage in a series RL circuit is given by this RL circuit, given the values of R, L, f, and VT.
equation:  Calculate the value of XL:
VT = VL 2 + VR2
XL = 2πfL
Where:
VT = total voltage  Determine the voltages for R and L. Since this is a parallel
VR = voltage across resistor R circuit:
VL = voltage across inductor L
VR = VT VL = VT
It is very important to notice that the total voltage for a series
RL circuit is NOT equal to the sum of the voltages across the  Use Ohm's Law to calculate the currents for R and L:
resistor and inductor.
IR = VT / R IL = VT / XL

The sum of voltages in a series RL circuit is always greater  Calculate the total current:
than the sum of the voltages across the resistive and
inductive components. (IL ) + (IR )
2 2
IT =

 Determine the phase angles for R and L. Phase angles for

these components in a series circuit are always: Notice that the total current in a parallel RL circuit is NOT equal to
the sum of the currents in each branch. Instead, the total current is
ΘR= 0º : θL = 90º greater than the sum of the resistor and inductor currents.

 Calculate the total phase angle for the circuit:  Use Ohm's Law to calculate the total impedance:

ΘT = tan-1(XL/ R) Z = VT / IT

The total phase angle is also determined by the equation:  Determine the phase angles for R and L. Phase angles for
these components in a parallel circuit are always:
θT = -tan-1(VL / VR)
θR = 0º ; θL = -90º
The Q of an Inductor:
 Calculate the total phase angle for the circuit:

θT = -tan-1 (IL/ IR)

The Q of an inductor is the measure of its quality. The

more 'perfect' the inductor, the higher its Q value.

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CERTCDAVAO AC CIRCUITS

3. SERIES RC CIRCUIT θR = 0º θC = 90º

 Calculate the total phase angle for the circuit:

θT = tan-1(IC / IR)

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Complete Analysis of a Series RC Circuit
Here is the procedure for doing a complete analysis of a series RC 1. A sinusoidal waveform has a positive peak value of 15 volts at
circuit, given the values of R, C, f, and VT. 15 ms and the next positive value occurs at 55 ms. Determine
the frequency of this waveform.
 Calculate the value of XC:
XC = 1 / (2πfC) 2. The equation of a given sinusoidal voltage is v(t) = 300 cos
(377t + 30O) volts. Determine its magnitude at t = 2.78 ms
 Calculate the total impedance:
3. Find the period of v(t) = 3 sin ( 2 t + 45 O ) .

Z= Xc 2 + R 2 4. Determine the equation of a voltage v(t) = 100 sin (314t + 40O)

– 50 cos (314t + 200O) as expressed into one single cosine
 Use Ohm's Law to calculate the total current: function.
IT = VT / Z
 Calculate the currents through R and C. Since this is a series 5. Determine the phase angle between two given waveforms,
circuit: v1(t) = - 125 cos (wt -260O) volts and v2(t) = -20 sin (wt-190O)
IR = IT IC = I T volts.

 Calculate the voltages across R and C. By Ohm's Law: 6. A sinusoidal wave has a maximum value of 20 amperes and
makes one complete cycle in 1 ms. Determine the effective
VR = RIR VC = XCIR (rms) value of the wave.

The total voltage in a series RC circuit is given by this equation: 7. A voltage source that varies linearly from zero to 4 volts in 5
seconds is used to power a particular load. Determine the
effective value of the voltage source described.
( VL ) + ( VR )
2 2
VT =
It is very important to notice that the total voltage for a series RC 8. What is the maximum value of the voltage across a 2.0m H
circuit is NOT equal to the sum of the voltages across the resistor inductor if the equation of the current that flows through it is i(t)
and capacitor. = 10 cos (1571t) amperes.
The sum of voltages in a series RC circuit is always greater than the
sum of the voltages across the resistive and capacitive components. 9. An inductor with an inductance of 2m H is connected to a
voltage source having a frequency of 250 Hz. Calculate the
 Determine the phase angles for R and C. Phase angles for new value of the inductive reactance if the same is connected
these components are always: to a voltage source of frequency 500 Hz.
θR = 0º : θC = -90º
10. The equation of the voltage across a 5u F capacitor is v(t) =
 Calculate the total phase angle for the circuit: 50 sin ((120pi)t) volts. Determine the equation of the current
θT = tan-1(XC/ R) flowing through the given capacitors.

4. PARALLEL RC CIRCUIT 11. Determine the resistance R and inductance L of a given coil if
a voltage source of v(t) = 250 cos (wt + 45O) volts is impressed
across it that results to current having an equation of i(t) = 12
cos (wt – 15O).

12. A load of 20 + j60 ohms is connected to a 110 volts source

(rms). Determine its admittance (Y), conductance (G) and
susceptance (S).

13. A voltage v(t) = 250 cos (wt + 45O) volts is impressed across a
Complete Analysis of a Series RC Circuit
load. The equation of the resulting current is i(t) = 12 cos (wt +
Here is the procedure for doing a complete analysis of a parallel
15O). Determine the true, reactive and apparent powers.
RC circuit, given the values of R, L, f, and VT.
14. An impedance Z = 10 + j20 is connected across a voltage
 Calculate the value of XC:
having an effective value of 220 volts. Determine its power
factor.
XC = 1/(2πfC)
15. A voltage of v(t) = 100 sin (314t) is impressed across a series
 Determine the voltages for R and L. Since this is a parallal
circuit composed of a 10 ohm resistor, 0.032 H inductance and
circuit:
a 63.6u F capacitor. Determine the power factor and the active
power consumed.
VR = VT Vc= VT
16. Three impedances are in series. If Z1 = 3 + j4 ohms, Z2 = 13<-
 Use Ohm's Law to calculate the currents for R and L:
67.38O and Z3 = 4 + j3 ohms, determine the overall power factor
IR = VT / R IC = VT / XC
17. A load ZL in series with an impedance of 3000 + j4000 ohms is
connected across a voltage source of 10 volts (rms). Determine
 Calculate the total current:
the maximum power that can be delivered to the load ZL

(IC ) + (IR )
2 2
IT = 18. A voltage v(t) = 140 cos (wt) is connected across an impedance
of Z = 2.5 – j4.33 ohms. Find the maximum value of the
instantaneous power P(t).
 Use Ohm's Law to calculate the total impedance:
19. Three impedances Z1 = 15 – j20, Z2 = 7 + j24, Z3 = 24 + j10
Z = VT / IT
are connected in parallel. Determine (a) the total admittance (b)
total conductance (c) total susceptance.
 Determine the phase angles for R and L. Phase angles for
these components in a parallel circuit are always:

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CERTCDAVAO AC CIRCUITS

20. In an RC circuit, the voltage source has an effective value of 8. The total reactance of an ac circuit is equal to ______ at
100 volts. If the voltage across the capacitor is 50 volts, resonance.
determine the voltage across the resistor. a. 90
b. zero*
21. A coil is connected across a voltage source of 220 volts, 60 Hz.
At this condition, the coil takes 10 amperes and 250 watts. c. unity
Determine the power it will absorb if this coil is connected d. nota
across a voltage source of 110 volts, 25 Hz.
9. In a series AC circuit, if the total current lags the total voltage
22. In a series RC circuit R = 10 ohms, and C = 40 uF. Determine by angle A then ______.
the frequency that will make the current lead the voltage by 30 a. Power factor is lagging
degrees.
b. The load is inductive
23. The current in a series circuit of R = 10 ohms, and L = 40m H c. Current leads the voltage by (360-A)
lags the applied voltage by 80 degrees. Determine the source d. All of the above*
frequency
10. Power factor is equal to ______.
24. In an RLC circuit, the resistor R, the inductance L, and the a. Real power / Apparent power
capacitance C are 55.4 ohms, 0.17 H, and 82.8u F b. Cosine of an angle bet. E & I
respectively. If the voltage drop across the resistor is 72 volts,
c. Resistance / impedance
determine the effective value of the voltage source.
d. All of the above*
Take home exam
11. In ac a resistor always takes a current that is ______ with the
1. It is the length of one complete cycle. voltage across it.
a. Frequency a. leading
b. Wavelength* b. lagging
c. Period c. in phase*
d. nota d. equal

2. What is the wavelength of a carrier wave with a frequency of 12. In ac an inductor always takes a current that is ______ with the
100 megahertz? voltage across it.
a. 3.0 m* a. leading
b. 7.5 m b. lagging*
c. 1.5 m c. In phase
d. 6.0 m d. equal

3. A 240 V, 25 Hz sinosoidal generator is connected to a 20 ohms 13. In ac a capacitor always takes a voltage that is ______ with the
resistor. Determine the instantaneous current when elapsed current through it.
time is 0.01 second. a. leading
a. 15043A b. lagging*
b. 16.30 A c. in phase
c. 16.97 A* d. equal
d. 12.00 A
14. It is equal to one hertz.
4. Two current sources deliver current to a common load. The a. 0.001 khz
first source delivers a current whose equation is 25 sin 100πt b. 1 cycle per sec
amperes while the second delivers a current whose equation is c. 60 cycles / min
15 cos 100πt amperes. What is the ms values of the current d. all of the above*
in the load?
a. 29.15 A 15. Determine the power angle in the series circuit which consists
b. 40 A of R=25 ohms, L=0.2 H across a power supply of 200 volts, 30
c. 20.6 A* Hz.
d. 10 A a. 36.4º
b. 52.4º
5. Two sources A and B delivers 100A and 150 A, respectively to c. 46.4º
a load. If these currents are out of phase by 30 electrical d. 56.4º*
degrees, determine the total current drawn by the load.
a. 201.5 A 16. A 25-ohm resistor connected in series with a coil of 50 ohm
b. 250.0 A resistance and 150 mH inductance. What is the power factor
c. 215.4 A of the circuit?
d. 241.8 A* a. 85%
6. Across a 230 V, 60 Hz power supply is a 15-ohm non-inductive b. 80%*
resistor. What is the equation of the resulting current? c. 90%
a. 21.68 sin 377t* d. 75%
b. 26.55 sin 377 t
c. 15.33 sin 377t 17. The form factor of half wave rectified signal is equal to _____.
d. 28.16 sin 377t a. 1.11
b. 0.786
7. A current of 10 A and a power factor of 0.8 lagging is taken c. 2.22
from a single phase 250 volt supply. The reactive power of the d. 1.57*
system is ______.
a. 1500* 18. An impedance draws a current i=10 cos (wt - 30º) from a
b. 2000 voltage, V=220 sin (wt + 30º) . What is the impedance ?
c. 250 a. 15.6 – j 15.6
d. nota b. 15.6 +j 15.6
c. 19.1 – j 11.1*
d. 11.0 + j 19.1

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CERTCDAVAO AC CIRCUITS

b. unity*
19. A coil is practically a ______ in ______. c. slightly more than 0
a. RC, series d. slightly less than unity
b. RC, parallel
c. RL, series* “Perseverance is the hard work you do after you get
d. RL, parallel
tired of doing the hard work you already did.”
20. When the apparent power and the reactive power are
numerically equal, than the load has ______ power factor.
~ Newt Gingrich
a. unity
b. zero*
c. lagging
d. leading

21. The result capacitance is 6 µF and C2 connected in series is 3

µF . Capacitor C2 in µF will be _____.
a. 3
b. 4
c. 8
d. 6*

22. The ratio of the maximum value to the rms value of an

alternating quantity.
a. Form Factor
b. Peak Factor*
c. Power Factor
d. nota

23. Ideal inductor takes a voltage that ______ the current.

a. lags
b. leads*
c. equal
d. less

24. It is the joint effect of combining resistance and reactance in an

AC circuit.
a. admittance
b. impedance*
c. reactance
d. susceptance

25. The r.m.s. value of sinusoidal a.c. current is equal to its value
at angle of _____ degree.
a. 60
b. 45
c. 30
d. 90*

26. The pf of an R-C circuit is _____.

a. often zero
b. between zero and 1*
c. always unity
d. between zero and -1

27. The input of an a.c. circuit having p.f. of 0.8 lagging is 20 kVA.
The power drawn by the circuit is ______ kW.
a. 12
b. 20
c. 16*
d. 8

28. In an ac circuit, the ratio of kW / kVA represents ______.

a. power factor*
b. load factor
c. form factor
d. diversity factor

29. The power factor of an a.c. circuit is equal to _____.

a. cosine of the phase angle*
b. sine of the phase angle
c. zero for a resistive circuit
d. unity for a reactive circuit

30. The power factor of an ordinary electric bulb is _____.

a. 0

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CERTCDAVAO AMPLIFIERS

Amplifier

Electronic circuit which is capable of increasing the signal

magnitude or amplitude without appreciably altering the signal
waveform characteristics.

CLASS AB AMPLIFIER

An amplifier may be biased at a dc level above the zero base current

level of class B and above one-half the supply voltage level of class
AMPLIFIER General Presentation A.
The output signal swing occurs between 180° and 360° and is
neither class A nor class B operation.

Efficiency is between 25% and 78.5%.

AMPLIFIERS – Classifications

• Voltage Amplifier
– Voltage-controlled voltage source CLASS C AMPLIFIER
• Current Amplifier
– Current-controlled current source The output of a class C amplifier is biased for operation at less than
• Transconductance Amplifier 180° of the cycle and will operate only with a tuned (resonant) circuit,
– Voltage-controlled current source which provides a full cycle of operation for the tuned or resonant
• Transimpedance Amplifier frequency. This operating class is therefore used in special areas of
– Current-controlled voltage source tuned circuits, such as radio or communications.

Dependent Input Output

Amplifier type
source Z Z

Current CCCS 0 ∞

Transresistance CCVS 0 0

Transconductance VCCS ∞ ∞
Class A B C AB
Voltage VCVS ∞ 0
Conduction Less 180 to
360o 180o
Angle than 90o 360o
POWER AMPLIFIERS In
between
Power amplifiers are amplifier circuits used to handle large-voltage Centre the
signals at moderate to high current levels. Exactly on Below
Position of Point of X-axis
The main features of a large-signal amplifier are the circuit’s power the the
the Q-point the Load and the
efficiency, the maximum amount of power that the circuit is capable X-axis X-axis
Line Centre
of handling, and the impedance matching to the output device. Load
Line
CLASS A AMPLIFIER
Better
The output signal varies for a full 360° of the cycle. this requires the than A
Q-point to be biased at a level so that at least half the signal swing Overall Poor, 25 Better, 70 Higher but less
of the output may vary up and down without going to a high-enough Efficiency to 30% to 80% than 80% than B
voltage to be limited by the supply voltage level or too low to 50 to
approach the lower supply level. 70%
At the X-
None if
Signal axis Large Small
Correctly
Distortion Crossover Amounts Amount
Biased
Point

Amplifiers are sometimes classified by the coupling method of the

signal at the input, output, or between stages.

• Direct Coupling
- good frequency response
- major problem is the power supply requirements
CLASS B AMPLIFIER - not very efficient
- Not widely used
A class B circuit provides an output signal varying over one-half the
input signal cycle, or for 180° of signal. • RC Coupling
The amplifier operates at cut-off. The transistor conducts current for - most commonly used
only one-half of the signal cycle. - Low efficiency
Its maximum efficiency reaches 78.5%. - limit the low-frequency response

• Impedance Coupling

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CERTCDAVAO AMPLIFIERS

- efficiency of the amplifier stage is increased. Push-pull Amplifiers

- effective at high frequencies.
• An amplifier with two similar circuits operating in phase
• Transformer Coupling opposition. One amplifier amplifies half of the cycle while
- efficiency is very high. the other amplifies the remaining half-cycle.
- frequency response is limited by the inductive reactance • a type of electronic circuit that can drive either a positive or
of the transformer a negative current into a load.

Other Amplifiers - Circuit Configurations Complementary-symmetry Amplifiers

• are push-pull amplifiers using a complementary
• Cascaded Amplifier – the output of the first stage provides transistors, such as a pair of pnp and npn.
the input of the next stage (connected in a series fashion).

Cascode Amplifier

A two-stage amplifier composed of a transconductance amplifier

followed by a current buffer.
In modern circuits, the cascode is often constructed from two
transistors (BJTs or FETs), with one operating as a common emitter
or common source and the other as a common base or common Quasi-complementary Amplifier
gate. • Are push-pull amplifiers using the same transistors at the
output (either both pnp or npn), but their driver is using
complementary transistors.

• higher input-output isolation

• higher input impedance
• High output impedance
• higher gain or higher bandwidth.

Darlington Amplifier OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

What is an op-amp?
Two transistors in which the collectors are tied together and the
emitter of the first transistor is directly coupled to the base of the The operationalamplifier is the most versatile and widely used linear
second transistor. The current gain  of this circuit is the product of integrated circuit and considered to be the building blocks of analog
the individual transistors’ current gain. Also called darlington pair, electronic systems.
double-emitter follower, or  multiplier. In its early days, op-amps were used to perform mathematical
operations such as addition, subtraction, differentiation and
integration – thus, the term operational.

Uses of Op-amps

✓ To provide voltage amplitude changes

✓ Oscillator circuits
✓ Filter circuit
✓ Communication circuits
✓ Instrumentation circuits
✓ The key to the usefulness of op-amp circuits is in the
engineering principle of negativefeedback which constitutes
the foundation of almost all automatic control processes.

Op-amp symbols
Differential Amplifier

Designed to respond to the difference between the two input

voltages. Differential amplifier is usually the input circuit of
most low-noise power amplifiers and operational amplifiers.
- also known as a long-tailed pair

Op-amp Packages

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The Ideal Op-amp determining the change in bias current for a given change
in common-mode input voltage
Understanding op-amps would be much easier and convenient if we
analyze the device from an ideal point of view. Input Offset Current
An ideal op-amp has: ➢ Input offset current is the difference of the input bias
currents, expressed as an absolute value IOS = |I1 - I2|
✓ Infinite voltage gain ➢ Actual magnitude of offset current is usually at least an
order of magnitude less than the bias current
✓ Infinite bandwidth
✓ Infinite input impedance Output Impedance
✓ Zero output impedance ➢ Output impedance is the resistance viewed from the
output terminal of the op-amp
The Practical op-amp
Ideal op-amps can never be made. But actual IC op-amps Common-Mode Input Voltage Range
have parameters that can be treated as ideal in many cases. ➢ Common-mode input voltage range is the range of input
A practical op-amp has voltages which, when applied to both inputs, will not cause
✓ Very high voltage gain clipping or other output distortion
✓ Wide bandwidth ➢ Typically ± 10 V with dc supply voltages of ± 15 V
✓ Very high input impedance
✓ Very low output impedance Open-Loop Voltage Gain, Aol
➢ Open-loop voltage gain of the op-amp is the internal
voltage gain of the device and represents the ratio of
output voltage to input voltage when there are no external
components (set entirely by internal design)
➢ Open-loop voltage gain can range to 200,000 or more

Common-Mode Rejection Ratio

➢ Common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) is a measure of an
op-amp’s ability to reject common-mode signals CMRR =
1. Input stage (Differential amplifier ) – it provides amplification of Aol / Acm
the difference voltage between the two inputs
2. Second stage (Voltage amplifiers) – they provide the very high Slew Rate
gain of the op amp Usually, these voltage amplifiers are Class ➢ Slew rate of an op-amp is the maximum rate of change of
A. the output voltage in response to a step input voltage
3. Output stage (Push-pull Amplifier) – usually class B push-pull ➢ Slew rate is dependent upon the frequency response of
amplifier employing emitter follower configuration. the amplifier stages within the op-amp
➢ Slew rate = Vout / t
The Differential Amplifier
Frequency Response
• A basic differential amplifier is shown below ➢ Frequency response of an op-amp has voltage gains
– There are two outputs, where the op-amp has limited by junction capacitances
one ➢ Low frequency response of an op-amp extends down to
• It requires a negative and positive supply voltage dc, since there are no internal coupling capacitors

Negative Feedback

Negative feedback is a process whereby a portion of the output

is returned to the input with a phase angle that opposes the input
signal

Op-amp Parameters

Input Offset Voltage VOS

➢ Input offset voltage is due to a slight mismatch of the base- Why use negative feedback?
emitter voltages of the differential input stage  The very high open-loop gain of the op-amp drives the device
➢ It is the differential dc voltage required between the inputs into saturation, making it nonlinear
to force the differential output to zero volts  In order to be used as a linear amplifier, its voltage gain must
be reduced and controlled. This can be done by employing
Input Offset Voltage Drift with Temperature negative feedback
➢ Input offset voltage drift with temperature is a parameter  The gain of the op-amp with feedback is called the closed-loop
that specifies how much change occurs in the input offset voltage gain
voltage for each degree change in temperature (typical  In addition to stabilized voltage gain, the negative feedback
values range from 5 V to 50 V per degree Celsius) also provides for the control of input impedance, output
impedance and bandwidth
Input Bias Current
➢ Input bias current is the direct current required by the the Virtual Ground Principle
inputs of the amplifier to properly operate the first stage; • the differential input voltage is zero, meaning V + = V- .
by definition, it is the average of both input current IBIAS = • the two inputs are short-circuited but, actually not.
(I1 + I2)/2 • there is even no current flow from V+ to V-.
Input Impedance
➢ Differential input impedance is the total resistance
between the inverting and noninverting inputs; it is
measured by determining the change in bias current for a
given change in differential input voltage
➢ Common-mode input impedance is the resistance
between each input and ground and is measured by

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CERTCDAVAO AMPLIFIERS

OP-AMP Applications
 Rf Rf Rf 
 VIN 1 + VIN 2 + VIN 3 
VO U T = −  R1 R2 R3 

Non-inverting amplifier  
Rf
 + ...+ VIN n 
 Rn 

Summing Amplifier with Gain Greater than Unity

➢ When Rf is larger than the input resistors, the amplifier has
a gain of Rf/R, where R is the value of each input resisto

1
Vo = −
RC V 1
dt

Ri  Rf  Averaging Amplifier
B= Acl(NI) =   +1
(Ri + Rf)  Ri  ➢ By setting the ratio Rf/R equal to the reciprocal of the
number of inputs, the result is the mathematical average
of the input voltages
 R 
VO = V1  1 + f 
 Ri 
Rf
VOUT = − (VIN1 + VIN2 + VIN3 + ...+ VINn )
Voltage-follower R
– very high input
impedance Scaling Adder
– very low output ➢ A different weight can be assigned to each input of a
impedance summing amplifier, by adjusting the values of the
individual input resistors (the smaller the value of the input
VO = V1 resistance R, the greater the weight, and vice versa)

Inverting amplifier

dV1
Vo = −RC
dt
Integrators and Differentiators
➢ An op-amp integrator simulates mathematical integration,
which is basically a summing process that determines the
area under the curve of a function
➢ An op-amp differentiator simulates mathematical
differentiation, which is a process of determining the
Rf Rf instantaneous rate of change of a function
Acl( i) = − VO = − V1
Ri Ri
Integrators
➢ The feedback element is a capacitor that forms an RC
circuit with the input resistor
Op-amp Impedances

Non-inverting op-amp impedances

Zin(ni) = (1 + AolB)Zin

Zout
Zout (ni) =
1 + AolB
Voltage-follower impedances VOUT = − (VIN1 + VIN2 + VIN3 + . .+ VINn)
Zin(vf) = (1 + Aol)Zin

Differentiators
Zout ➢ The capacitor is now the input element
Zout (vf) =
1 + Aol ➢ A differentiator produces and output that is proportional to
the rate of change of the input voltage
Inverting op-amp impedances

Zin(i)  Ri Zout(i)  Ro

Summing Amplifiers
➢ has two or more inputs, and its output voltage is
proportional to the negative of the algebraic sum of its
input voltages

Rf
VOUT = − (VIN1 + VIN2 + VIN3 + ...+ VINn )
R

Comparators
One application of the op-amp used as a comparator is to determine
when an input voltage exceeds a certain level

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CERTCDAVAO AMPLIFIERS

➢ The inverting input is tied to a reference voltage (the C. low, high, high, wide
reference voltage may be ground, or a voltage level), and D. low, low, low, wide
the signal is applied to the noninverting input
➢ Because of the high open-loop gain, a very small 9. What is the level of the roll-off in most op-amps?
difference voltage between the two inputs drives the A. –6 dB / decade
amplifier into saturation, causing the output voltage to go B. –0 dB / octave
to its limit C. –6 dB / decade or –20 dB / octave
D. –20 dB / decade or –6 dB / octave*

10. Calculate the output impedance of an inverting op-amp using

the 741 op-amp (ro = 75 , AOL = 200 V/mV) if R1 = 100 and
Rf = 1 k .
A. 0.011 C. 0.375
B. 0.0375 D. 0.00375*

11. The input offset voltage drift is a parameter directly related to

VOS and ________.
A, ID C. Temperature*
B. power dissipation D. phase shift

12. What is the difference voltage if the inputs are an ideal opposite
signal?
A. The differential gain times twice the input signal.*
B. The differential gain times the input signal.
C. The common-mode gain times twice the input signal.
D. The common-mode gain times the input signal.

13. Which of the following circuit conditions affect(s) the output

offset voltage of an op-amp?
A. An input offset voltage, VIO
B. An input offset current, IIO
TAKE HOME EXAM C. Both an input offset voltage, VIO and an input offset current,
IIO*
1. What is the difference output voltage of any signals applied to D. None of the above
the input terminals?
A. The differential gain times the difference input voltage 14. A(n) ________ amplifier configuration has a higher input
B. The common-mode gain times the common input voltage impedance and a lower output impedance than the op-amp
C. The sum of the differential gain times the difference input itself.
voltage and the common-mode gain times the common input A. non-inverting*
voltage.* B. voltage-follower
D. The difference of the differential gain times the difference C. inverting
input voltage and the common-mode gain times the common D. [NIL]
input voltage.
15. In which of the following operations is the resulting output
2. A three-stage op-amp can have a maximum phase lag of signal of the differential amplifier near zero?
________°. A. Single-ended C. Common-mode*
A. –180 C. –270* B. Double-ended D. None of these
B. –90 D. none of the above
16. Which of the following define(s) the conversion efficiency?
3. The ________ amplifier configuration has the highest input A. Ac power to the load/ac input power
impedance and the lowest output impedance of the three basic B. Ac power to the load/dc power supplied*
op-amp configurations. C. Dc output power/ac input power
A. non-inverting C. inverting D. All of the above
B. voltage-follower* D. [NIL]
17. Which of the following should be done to obtain the ac
4. A certain op-amp has an open-loop voltage gain of 150,000. equivalent of a network?
What is this gain expressed in dB? A. Set all dc sources to zero
A. 51.7 dB C. 150,000 dB B. Replace all capacitors by a short-circuit equivalent.
B. 103.5 dB* D. 5.18 dB C. Remove all elements bypassed by the short-circuit
equivalent.
5. What is the slew rate of an op-amp if the output voltages D. All of the above*
change from 2 V to 3 V in 0.2 ms?
A. 5 V/ms C.2 V/ms 18. For a common-emitter amplifier, the purpose of the emitter
B.3 V/ms D.1 V/ms bypass capacitor is
A. no purpose, since it is shorted out by RE.
6. The maximum rate of change of the output voltage in response B. to reduce noise.
to a step input voltage is the ________ of an op-amp. C. to despike the supply voltage.
A. time constant D. to maximize amplifier gain.*
B. maximum frequency
C. slew rate* 19. A Darlington pair provides beta ________ for ________ input
D. static discharge resistance.
A. multiplication, decreased
7. At what input voltage level does the output voltage level B. multiplication, increased*
become numerically equal to the value of the differential gain C. division, decreased
of the amplifier? D. all of these
A. Vi1 = –Vi2 = 0.25 V
B. V i1 = –V i2 = 0.50 V* 20. A Darlington pair amplifier has
C. V i1 = –V i2 = 0.75 V A. high input impedance and high voltage gain.
D. V i1 = –Vi2 = 1.00 V B. low input impedance and low voltage gain.
C. a voltage gain of about 1 and a low input impedance.
8. A practical op-amp has very ________ input impedance, very D. a low voltage gain and a high input impedance.*
________ output impedance, very ________ open-loop
voltage gain, and a ________ bandwidth. 21. The main features of a large-signal amplifier is the circuit's
A. high, low, high, wide* ________.
B. high, high, low, narrow A. power efficiency

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CERTCDAVAO AMPLIFIERS

B. maximum power limitations

C. impedance matching to the output device
D. All of the above*

22. Which type of power amplifier is biased for operation at less

than 180º of the cycle?
A. Class A
B. Class B or AB
C. Class C*
D. Class D

23. In class B operation, at what fraction of VCC should the level of

VL(p) be to achieve the maximum power dissipated by the
output transistor?
A. 0.50 C. 0.636*
B. 0.707 D. 1

24. What is the maximum efficiency of a class A circuit with a direct

or series-fed load connection?
A. 90% C. 78.5%
B. 50% D. 25%*

25. Quiescent power is the power dissipation of a transistor

A. with no signal input.*
B. with no load.
C. under full load.
D. along the dc load line.

26. Which of the push-pull amplifiers is presently the most popular

form of the class B power amplifier?
A. Quasi-complementary*
B. Transformer-coupled
C. Complementary-symmetry
D. None of the above

27. Which amplifier is commonly used as a frequency multiplier?

A. class A C. class C*
B. class B D. all of the above

28. Calculate the efficiency of a transformer-coupled class A

amplifier for a supply of 15 V and an output of V(p) = 10 V.
A. 25% C. 33.3%*
B. 50% D. 78.5%

29. You have an application for a power amplifier to operate on FM

radio frequencies. The most likely choice would be a ________
amplifier.
A. class A C. class C*
B. class B D. class AB

30. Which of the following describe(s) a power amplifier?

A. It can handle large power.
B. It can handle large current.
C. It does not provide much voltage gain.
D. All of the above*

“We think, mistakenly, that success is the result of the

amount of time we put in at work, instead of the quality of
time we put in.” ~ Ariana Huffington

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CERTCDAVAO FEEDBACK AND OSCILLATORS

FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS Mixer network

- is a part in the system with feedback where a portion
- is an amplifier in which a passive network is used to of the output signal is combined with the original input signal to
return portion of the output signal to its input in such a way as to serve as the total input signal into the amplifier network.
change its performance characteristics:
a. gain Types of Mixing
b. distortion and 1. Series Mixing
c. bandwidth 2. Shunt Mixing
Two Types of Feedback Amplifier
Mixing Voltage Fed or Series Fed or
• Positive Feedback
• Negative Feedback Series Comparison

Positive Feedback
Positive/Regenerative Feedback
- the feedback signal is combined in phase with the
input signal
- useful in oscillator circuits
Advantages:
- greater voltage gain
Disadvantages: Mixing Current Fed or Shunt Fed or
- reduces gain stability Shunt Comparison
- increases noise and distortion
- reduces bandwidth

Negative Feedback
Negative/Degenerative Feedback
- If the feedback signal is combined 1800 out-of-phase
with the input signal
- Useful in feedback amplifiers
Advantages:
- better stabilized voltage gain The Four Feedback Connections
- control of impedance levels 1. Voltage-Series feedback
- increased bandwidth 2. Voltage-Shunt feedback
- reduced noise 3. Current-Series feedback
- more linear operation 4. Current-Shunt feedback
Disadvantages:
- reduced voltage gain VOLTAGE FEEDBACK tends to decrease the output
- may oscillate at high frequencies impedance
CURRENT FEEDBACK tends to increase the output impedance
Simplified Block Diagram SERIES FEEDBACK tends to increase the input resistance
SHUNT FEEDBACK tends to decrease the input resistance

Voltage-series

Av Z i (1 +  A ) Zo
A vf =
1 + A v 1 + A

The feedback network contains passive components. Current series

Positive feedback (oscillators) contains R or L, and C. Gm Z i (1 +  A ) Z o (1 +  A )

Gmf =
Negative feedback (amplifiers) is purely resistive. 1 +  Gm

Sampling Network
- is that part in the system with feedback where a Voltage-shunt
portion of the output signal is obtained; returned to the system’s
input terminals and combined with the original input signal. Rm Zi Zo
Types of Sampling: R mf = 1 + A
1 + Rm 1 + A
1. Voltage Sampling
2. Current Sampling
Current-shunt
Voltage Derive or Shunt Derive
Ai Zi Z o (1 +  A )
A if = 1 + A
1 + A i

Sensitivity and stability

Negative feedback can help reduce the effect of noise
generated in an amplifier (increasing the signal-to-noise ratio),
but it cannot reduce the effect when the noise is part of the input
signal.
Current Derive or Series Derive
Gain Stability with negative feedback

dA f 1 dA
=
Af 1 + A A

Therefore amplifier with negative feedback is more stable.

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CERTCDAVAO FEEDBACK AND OSCILLATORS

OSCILLATOR Based on the circuit components

A circuit that generates alternating currentat a frequency
determined by the values of its components and provides a ⚫ RC Oscillators
constantly varying output signal. →using the components resistance (R) and capacitor
(C)
Oscillator Requirements: LC Oscillator
The configuration differs from the negative feedback system:
→using inductance (L) and capacitor (C)
There is no subtraction or inversion of the input ⚫ Crystal Oscillator
There is no input provided for an external signal →crystal is used

The overall gain with feedback: C. Based on the range of operating frequency
e A Ae
⚫ Low Frequency (LF) or Audio frequency (AF) Oscillators
→audio frequency range which is 20Hz – 100-200kHz
⚫ High Frequency (HF) or Radio Frequency (RF)
βAe Oscillators
β
→frequency range
200-300kHzupto gigahertz (GHz)
BARKHAUSEN CRITERION FOR OSCILLATION The RC oscillators are used at low frequency range
The LC oscillators are used at high frequency range
The phase shift around the feedback loop must be effectively
0 or 360 degrees.
D. Based on: Whether feedback is used or not
⚫ Feedback type of oscillators
The voltage gain around the closed loop feedback loop (loop
gain) must equal to 1 (unity). →feedback is used
⚫ Nonfeedback oscillators
Case I: →feedback is not used to generate the oscillations
If βA<1, the output signal (oscillation) dies out
Common types of Oscillators
Case II:
If βA>1, the output signal builds up (oscillation starts to 1. RC Oscillator
grow) A. Phase-Shift Oscillator
B. Wien Bridge Oscillator
Case III:
If βA = 1, the output signal level is fixed in amplitude 2. LC Oscillator
(self-sustained oscillation) A. Hartley Oscillator
B. Colpitts Oscillator
Exponentially Decaying Oscillations: A  1
C. Clapp Oscillator

3. Crystal Oscillator
A. Pierce Crystal Oscillator
B. Miller Crystal Oscillator

Growing Type Oscillation: A  1

RC Phase-Shift Oscillators
Sustained Oscillations: A = 1
The Gain of the basic inverting amplifier:

Rf
AV = −
Rs

Feedback Factor:

1
Classification of Oscillators =−
29

The various ways in which oscillators are To maintain oscillation:

classified as:
Rf
1. Based on the Output waveform A=− = − 29
Rs
2. Based on the Circuit Components
3. Based on the Ranged of Operating Frequency Frequency of oscillation:
4. Based on : Whether Feedback is Used or Not? 1
fo =
2 RC 6
A. Based on the output waveform
Advantages RC Phase-oscillator:
Sinusoidal Oscillators 1. The circuit is simple to design
→generate purely sinusoidal waveform at the output 2. Can produce output over audio frequency range
Nonsinusoidal Oscillators 3. Produces sinusoidal output waveform
B. →generate an output waveform as triangular, square, 4. It is a fixed frequency oscillator
sawtooth etc. Disadvantage:
Frequency stability is poor

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CERTCDAVAO FEEDBACK AND OSCILLATORS

Wien Bridge Oscillators Hartley Oscillator

⚫ It does not introduce any phase shift

⚫ It has one lead and one lag circuit in the feedback path and
using a non-inverting amplifier.

Feedback Factor:
L2
=−
L1
The open-loop gain::

Rf To maintain Oscillation:
A  1+ 3 R L1
Rs A =
re L2

Feedback Factor:
Frequency of Oscillation:
1
 1
3 fo =
2  L eqC
To maintain oscillation:
Where: L eq = L1 + L 2  2M
Rf
= 2
Rs Colpitts Oscillators

Advantages:
1. different frequency ranges can be obtained
2. The perfect sine wave output is possible.
3. It is useful audio frequency range i.e. 20Hz to 100kHz.

Disadvantages:
1. If transistorized amplifier,
2. the more stages are required to obtain 0o phase shift
between input and output. This increases the number
ofcomponents and cost.
3. The frequency stability is poor. Feedback Factor:
C1
=−
LC Oscillators C2

⚫ The oscillators which use the elements L and C to produce To maintain Oscillation:
oscillators.
⚫ These are used for high frequency range from 200kHz up
R C2
to few GHz, and often used for sources of RF (radio A =
frequency) energy. re C1

THE LC TANK CIRCUIT: Frequency of Oscillation:

1
fo =
2  LC eq

Where:
C1C 2
C eq =
C1 + C 2
Advantages Colpitts Oscillator:
Flywheel effect: 1. Good frequency stability
The repetitive exchange of energy between the capacitor and 2. Stable and accurate frequency
the inductor 3. frequency can be varied in the desired range.

Clapp Oscillators
Basic Form of Oscillators

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Armstrong Oscillator Therefore, practically crystal oscillators are used upto 200 or
300kHz only

Longitudinal
-vibration of a crystal from end to end
Flexural
-vibration of a crystal back and forth
Torsional
- vibration of a crystal in twisting movement
X-cut
- the cutting is perpendicular to the end to end axis
Y-cut
- the cutting is perpendicular to the face to face axis
Frequency of Oscillation:
FACTS ABOUT THE TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF A CRYSTAL:
1
fo =
2  LC 1. If a change in temperature produces a large variation in
M frequency, a crystal has a high temperature coefficient.
= 2. If a change in temperature produces a small variation in
L
L frequency, a crystal has a low temperature coefficient.
A m in = 3. If a change in temperature produces no variation in
M
oscillating frequency, a crystal has a zero temperature
coefficient.
Crystal Oscillator 4. If an increase in temperature decreases its oscillating
- provides a very stable oscillation frequency, a crystal has a positive temperature coefficient
- basically a tuned-circuit oscillator using piezoelectric crystal 5. If an increase in temperature decreases its oscillating
as its resonant tank circuit. frequency, a crystal has a negative temperature coefficient
Frequency Drift CRYSTAL STABILITY:
LC: 0.8 % ⚫ Temperature Stability:
Crystal: 0.0001% (1 ppm) Hz/MHz /oC.
Piezoelectric Effect For 1 oC change in temperature, the frequency changes by
Generation of a voltage between opposite faces of a crystal as 10 to 12 Hz in MHz.
a result of strain due to pressure or twisting, and the reverse ⚫ Long Term Stability:
effect in which application of a voltage to opposite faces causes Aging rates are 2 x 10-8 per year, for a quartz crystal.
deformation to occur at the frequency of the applied voltage. ⚫ Short Term Stability:

Types of Crystal: In a quartz crystal, the frequency drift with time is, typically less
Rochelle Salts than 1 part in 106 i.e. 0.0001% per day.
greatest piezoelectric activity
Mechanically the weakest of the three and break very PIERCE Crystal Oscillator
easily. Basically a Colpitts oscillator in which the inductor is replaced
Tourmaline by a crystal
least piezoelectric activity, but mechanically the
strongest
most expensive, and hence its use is rare in practice.
Quartz
Is a compromise between the piezoelectric activity of
Rochelle salts and the strength of the tourmaline.
inexpensive and easily available in nature and hence
very commonly used in the crystal oscillators.
It is used for RF oscillators and the filters
MILLER Crystal Oscillator
ELECTRICAL EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A CRYSTAL:

RLC forms a resonating circuit. The expression for

resonating frequency fr is, UJT Relaxation Oscillator

NATURAL FREQUENCY OF VIBRATION

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 CERTCDAVAO FEEDBACK AND OSCILLATORS

Operating Frequency: 3. Calculate the output impedance of a voltage-series feedback

amplifier having A = -300, Ro = 50 kΩ, &β = - 1/15
1 A. 7.94 kΩ C. 1.05 MΩ
fo  B. 2.4 kΩ D. 0.71 MΩ
 1 
R T C T ln   4. Calculate the gain of a negative feedback amplifier having A =
1 −   -2000 and feedback factor = -1/10
Typically, a unijunction transistor has a stand-off ratio from 0.4 A. -9.95 C. -400,000
to 0.6. Using a value of η = 0.5, we get B. 9.95 D. 400,000
5. If the stage gain is 20 without feedback and 12 with negative
1 1 1.44 feedback, what is the feedback fraction?
fo  = =
RT CT ln 1/ (1 − 0.5 )  RT CT ln 2 RT CT A. 0.033 C. 5/3
B. 3/5 D. 1/5
6. The frequency sensitive arms of the Wien bridge oscillator uses
C1 = C2 = 0.001 μF and R1 = 10 kΩ while R2 is kept variable.
MULTIVIBRATORS The frequency is to varied from 20 kHz to 70 kHz by varying
R2. Find the minimum and maximum values of R2.
• A relaxation oscillator circuit that uses two active components 7. In Hartley oscillator, calculate L2 if L1 = 15 mH, C = 50 pF,
(electron tubes or transistors) that are coupled such that one mutual inductance of 5 μH and the frequency of oscillations is
168 kHz.
of the components is conducting, while the other one is cut-
8. For a certain UJT relaxation oscillator, the resistance is 10 kΩ
off.
while the capacitance is 0.1 μF. The stand off ratio is 0.6,
• A circuit that produces oscillations between the high and low calculate the frequency of oscillations.
level states at the output. 9. A crystal L = 0.4 H, C = 0.085 pF and CM = 1 pF with9 R = 5 kΩ.
Find a) series resonant frequency, b) parallel resonant
Primary devices involved: frequency, and c) by what percent does the parallel resonant
– Capacitor frequency exceed the series resonant frequency?
– Resistor
– Transistors (discrete or integrated) TAKE-HOME PROBLEMS
–
Principles involved:τ = RC 1. What is the term for using a circuit’s output to provide the
Where: input for the circuit causing it to oscillate?
τ = time constant A. regenerative feedback *
R = resistance B. degenerative feedback
C = capacitance C. unity attenuation factor
D. positive damping factor
BLOCK DIAGRAM: 2. How many RC circuits are there in a Wien-Bridge oscillator?
A. One C. three
B. Two * D. four

3. The initial signal triggers the oscillator to start is (are)

__________.
A. an external source temporarily switched
into the oscillator circuit.
B. power supply transients
Classifications: C. thermally produced noise
D. both (b) and (c) *
• Self-excited – an external triggering is needed for
excitation
4. What is the loop gain required to start and sustain oscillations
Driver – an external triggering is needed to excite the circuit for an oscillator?
and maintain the excitation A. greater than 1 * C. greater than 25
B. less than 1 D. less than 25
Stable state – state will not change unless the circuit is
disturbed 5. Sine wave oscillators are
Quasi-stable – state that remains unchanged for only a certain A. a form of relaxation oscillators
period of time B. a form of non relaxation oscillators *
C. not dependent on feedback
TYPES OF MULTIVIBRATOR D. 555 timer
Bistable, binary or Eccles-Jordan Multivibrator
– Commonly known as flip-flop 6. What is the magnitude of the loop gain in order to begin
– It has two stable states and no quasi-stable state oscillation in a feedback oscillator?
– Are used as memory devices in digital systems. A. 1 C. 1/3
B. 100 D. greater than 1 *
Monostablemultivibrator
7. What is the total phase shift introduced by three RC circuits of
a phase-shift oscillator?
– Also known as single-shot or one-shot
A. 600 C. 900
– It has one stable state and one quasi-stable state B. 120 0
D. 1800 *
AstableMultivibrator 8. What is the relationship of the resistances and the
– Also known as free-running capacitive reactance’s of the lead-lag network of a Wien bridge
It has no stable state and two quasi-stable state oscillator?
A. They should all be the same value *
B. The resistances should be different by a factor of 1
SAMPLE PROBLEMS C. The capacitive reactances should be different by a factor of
10.
1. An amplifier has a gain of 200 and a feedback of 0.10 is added. D. Both resistances and capacitance should be different by a
If the gain of the basic amplifier changes to 250, find the change factor of 10.
of amplifier gain with feedback.
A. 1.19% C. 11.9% 9. What attenuation occurs in a phase-shift oscillator’s feedback
B. 9.52% D. 0.95% circuit?
2. If an amplifier with gain of -1000 and feedback of β = 0.1, has A. 1/3 C. 1/29 *
gain change of 20% due to temperature, calculate the change B. ½ D. 1
in gain of the feedback amplifier
A. 20% C. 0.2% 10. The maximum operating frequency of Wien-bridge oscillator is
B. 2% D. 0.002 usually considered to be

CERTCDAVAO: 0932 328 8053

CERTCDAVAO FEEDBACK AND OSCILLATORS

A. 1 MHz* C. 100 MHz 23. The feedback signal in a(n) ________ oscillator is derived from
B. 10 MHz D. 100 kHz an inductive voltage divider in the LC circuit
A. Hartley * C. Colpitts
11. For a constant output frequency, the simplest sinusoidal B. Armstrong D. Clapp
oscillator circuit to construct is
A. crystal circuit * 24. The attenuation of the three-section RC feedback phase-shift
B. phase-shift circuit oscillator is
C. Colpitts circuit A. 1/9 C. 1/3
D. Hartley circuit
B. 1/30 D. 1/29*
12. Which LC oscillator type makes use of a tapped capacitor and
25. For a phase-shift oscillator, the gain of the amplifier stage must
series LC in the tuned circuit?
be greater than
A. Hartley oscillator
A. 19 C. 30
B. Clapp oscillator*
C. Colpitts oscillator B. 29* D. 1
D. Armstrong oscillato
26. Which of the following is (are) the determining factor(s) of the
13. What is the relationship of the frequency of oscillation and the stability of a feedback amplifier?
inductance and capacitance in an LC oscillator. A. A
A. inversely proportional to a square root of L and C * B. Phase shift between input and output signals
B. directly proportional to L and C C. Both A and the phase shift between input and output
C. independent of the values signals *
D. proportional to square of L and C D. None of the above
14. What is the impedance across the crystal if the ac signal
frequency applied to a crystal matches the crystal’s natural 27. What is the minimum frequency at which a crystal will
parallel resonant frequency? oscillate?
A. Maximum * C. unaltered A. seventh harmonic
B. Minimum D. zero B. third harmonic
C. fundamental *
15. What is the reason why the amplifier gain of feedback oscillator
be kept under control? D. second harmonic
A. to prevent overdriving other circuits*
B. to prevent other unwanted oscillations 28. If Av is 50 and Ai is 200, what is the power gain of a common
C. to prevent overheating of the amplifier emitter amplifier?
D. to keep the amplifier within its linear range of operation A. 1,000 C. 100
B. 10,000 * D. 100,000
16. Which LC oscillator type makes use of a tapped inductor in the
tuned circuit? 29. When the gain is 20 without feedback and 12 with negative
A. Hartley oscillator * feedback, feedback factor is
B. Clapp oscillator A. 0.033 * C. 5/3
C. Colpitts oscillator B. 3/5 D. 1/5
D. Armstrong oscillator
30. If the current-gain-bandwidth product of transistor is 250 MHz
17. What type of oscillator that will produce an output sine-wave and is operated at 100 MHz, what is the effective current gain
frequency that is determined by the values of an inductor in of the transistor?
parallel with two series connected capacitors? A. 2.5 * C. 250
A. Hartley oscillator B. 25 D. 350
B. Colpitts oscillator *
C. Clapp oscillator
D. Armstrong Oscillator
“Ambition is the path to success. Persistence is the vehicle
you arrive in.” ~ Bill Bradley
18. An RC oscillator is designed to produce what frequencies?
A. High C. very high
B. Audio D. very low*

19. Only the condition A = ________ must be satisfied for self-

sustained oscillations to result.
A. 0 C. 1 *
B. -1 D. None of the above

20. At what phase shift is the magnitude of A at its maximum in

the Nyquist plot?
A. 90º C. 270º
B. 180º * D. 0º

21. Which of the following improvements is (are) a result of the

negative feedback in a circuit?
A. Lower output impedance
B. Reduced noise
C. More linear operation
D. All of the above *

22. This circuit is a ________ oscillator

A. phase-shift * C. Colpitts
B. Wien bridge D. Hartley

CERTCDAVAO: 0932 328 8053

 y' = cos sq.root of x-1 / 2sq.root of x
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
obtained in step 2 into a function of
single variable.
6. Differentiate: y = sin ( )
x −1 13. Find the volume of the largest
cylinder that can be inscribed in a
and is increasing at the rate of 0.3
inches per second. At that same
4. Differentiate and equate the function 7. Find the first derivative of y = right circular cone of radius 3 inches moment, the radius is 4 inches, and
to zero. arcsinh(x/2). and whose height is 10 inches. is increasing at the rate of 0.2
A. 1/square root (4+x2) A. 41.888 in3 C. 48.178 in3 inches per second. How much is the
TIME RATES B. 1/square root (4-x2) B. 24.878 in D. 43.228 in3 volume changing at that time?
C. 1/2square root (4+x2) A. 24pi/5 C. 34pi/7
Steps in Solving Problems Involving D. 1/square root (2+4x2) 14. A rectangular box open at the top is B. 16pi/6 D. 13pi/2
Time-rates to be formed from a rectangular
8. If y1 = 2x + 4 and y2 = x2 + C, find piece of cardboard 3 inches by 8 19. Car A is 70 km west of Car B and is
the value of C such that y2 is inches. What size square should be sailing south at the rate of 25 km/h.
1. Draw a diagram if necessary. Label
constants with their numerical value. tangent to y1. cut from each corner to form the box Car B is sailing north at the rate of
2. Determine which rates are given and A.6 C.7 with maximum volume? 45 km/h. How fast is the distance
which rate you need to find. B. 4 D.5 A. 3in. C. 2/3 in between the two ships changing 2
3. Find an equation relating the B. 1.5 in. D. 2 in. hours later?
variables defined in step 1. 9. Find the minimum distance from the A. 26.2 km/h C. 66.2 km/h
4. Differentiate the equation in step 3 curve y=2(sqrt2x) to the point (6,0). 15. A man whose height is 1.8m is B. 26.6 km/h D. 62.6 km/h
5. Substitute all the given information A. 3.46 C. 5.66 walking directly away from a street
into the result of step 4 and find the B. 6.67 D. 4.86 light at a constant rate of 1.2 m/s. If 20. Rocks are being dumped from a
unknown rate. the street light is 12 meters above truck at the rate of 10 ft^3/min and
10. Given the function y = x3-5x2-8x+3. the ground, find how fast his forms a pile in the shape of a cone
Determine the following: shadow lengthens. whose height is always half its
Sample problem a. maximum point A. 0.51 m/s C. 0.31 m/s radius. How fast is its height rising
b. minimum point B. 0.21 m.s D. 0.71 m/s when the pile is 5 ft?
3x 3 − 4x + 2 c. point of inflection A. 0.23 ft/min C. 0.023
1. Find lim
x→ 7x 3 + 5 16. At 12:00 noon ship B is 100 miles ft/min
A. infinity C. 3/7 A.(-0.67,5.81),(4,-45),(1.67,-19.65) east of ship A. If ship B sails west at B. 0.32 ft/min D. 0.032
B. 2/7 D. 3/5 B. (0.67,5.81),(-4,45),(-1.67,19.65) 10 mi/h and ship A sails south at 20 ft/min
tan 3 2x
C.(-0.78,6.74), (4,45),(1.67,19.65) mi/h, find the distance between the
2. Evaluate lim D. (5.81,0.67), (45,-4),(1.67,-19.65) two ships when they are closest to
x→0 x3
each other?
HOMEWORK
A. 5 C. 3 11. A painting of height 3 feet hangs on A. 84.99 miles C.89.49 miles
B. 8 D. 9 the wall of a museum, with the 1. What is the limit of cos 1/x as x
B. 89.44 miles* D.84.94 miles approaches infinity?
x3 bottom of the painting 6 feet above
3. Solve for the limit of the floor. If the eyes of an observer A. 0 C. 1 *
ex − x2 17. Two sides of a triangle are 5 and 10 B. -1 D. infinity
as x approaches + infinity are 5 feet above the floor, how far inches, respectively. The angle
A. 0 C. 1/3 from the base of the wall should the between them is increasing at the
observer stand to maximize his 2. Evaluate the limit of y/2siny as y
B. infinite D. can’t solved rate of 5° per minute. How fast is approaches 0.
angle of vision? the third side of the triangle growing
A. 3 C. 2 A. 2 C. 1/2 *
ln x when the angle is 60°?
lim B. 5 D. 4 A. 0.44 in/min C. 1.1 in/min.
x → − e−x B. 0 D. 
4. Solve for the limit B. 0.75 in/min. D.0.67 in/min
A. 0 C. 1 12. The three sides of a trapezoid are
10 m long. How long must the fourth 3. Evaluate the limit ln(sinx)/ln(tanx) as
B. infinite D. can’t 18. A sponge is in the shape of a right
side be to make the area maximum? x approaches 0.
solved circular cone. As it soaks up water,
A. 15 C. 25 A. 1 * C. 2
5. Differentiate: y = 3 − 2x 2 it grows in size. At a certain B. -2 D. 0
B. 20 D. 18 moment, the height equals 6 inches,
y' = -2x/sq.root of 3-2xraised to two

Prepared by: Francis Jay B. Jumawan 3

DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

- - - God Bless - - -
4. Find the derivative of y=2^(4x). abscissa changing when the 15. The hypotenuse of a right triangle is
A. 3^(4x+2)ln2* ordinate is 4? 20 cm. What is the maximum
B. 3^(2x+2)ln3 A. 3 units/s C. 6 units/s possible area of the triangle in sq.
C. 2^(4x+2)ln2 B. 7 units/s D. 5 units/s * cm.?
D. 2^(3x+2)ln4 A. 100 * C. 170
11. A man on a wharf 6 m above the B. 120 D. 160
5. Find y’ if y=arcsinx. water pulls in a rope to which a boat
A. square root of (1-x^2) is attached at the rate of 1.2 m/s. At 16. Find the rate of change of the
B. (1+x)/sqrt (1-x^2) what rate is the boat approaching volume of a sphere with respect to
C. 1/sqrt of (1-x^2)* the wharf when there are 10 m of its radius when its radius is 5.
D. 1/sqrt of (1+x^2) rope out? A. 25pi C. 78pi
A. 0.96 m/s * C. 0.57 m/s B. 90 pi D. 100pi*
6. Find the maximum area of a B. 0.67 m/s D. 0.89 m/s
rectangle inscribed in a semicircle of 17. At 12:00 noon car B is 100 miles
radius 5 inches if its base lies along 12. A man whose height is 1.8 m is east of car A. If car B travels west at
the diameter of the semicircle. walking directly away from a lamp 10 mi/h and car A travels south at
A. 15 sq. in. C. 25 sq. in.* post at a constant rate of 1.2 m/s. If 20 mi/h, when will the car be closest
B. 10 sq. in. D. 18 sq. in. the lamp is 12 m above the ground, to each other?
find the rate at which the tip of his A. 2 P.M.* C. 4 P.M.
7. A rectangular lot is to have an area shadow is moving? B. 3 P.M. D. 5 P.M.
of 1600 sq. m. Find the least A. 1.52 m/s C. 1.42 m/s *
amount of fence that could be used B. 1.67 m/s D. 1.97 m/s
18. A spherical snowball is melting in
to enclose the area.
such a way that its surface area
A. 260 C. 160 * 13. Two sides of a triangle are 5 and 8
decreases at the rate of 1 in^2/min.
B. 210 D. 180 units, respectively. If the included
How fast is its radius shrinking when
angle is changing at the rate of one
it is 3 in?
8. An airplane flying horizontally at an radian per second, at what rate is
A. 0.133 in /min
altitude of 1km, passes directly over the third side changing when the
B. 0. 313 in/min
an observer. If the constant speed included angle is 60°?
of the plane is 240 kph, how fast is A. 3.7units/s C. 4.5 units/s C. 0.0133 in/min*
its distance from the observer B. 4.9 units/s * D. 3.8 units/s D. 0.0313 in/min
increasing 30 seconds later?
A. 150.7 kph C. 186.6 kph 14. A 3 m. ladder is leaning against a 19. A closed rectangular box with a
B. 214.7 kph * D. 235.5 kph vertical wall and the other end is on square base is to have a surface
the horizontal floor. If the lower end area of 150 in2. What is the
9. An object moves along a straight slides away from the wall at 2 cm/s, maximum possible volume such a
path at a speed v(t)=4t2+3t+2 in how fast in cm/s is the other end box can contain?
m/s, where t=time in seconds. Find sliding down the wall when the lower A. 125 in3* C. 152 in3
the distance travelled after 4 end is 2 m from the wall? B. 215 in 3 D. 512 in3
seconds. A. -0.18 C. -1.79 *
A. 112.56 m C. 117.33 m * B. -0.235 D. -2.35 cm/s 20. The height (in feet) at any time t (in
B. 135.68 m D. 125.75 m seconds) of a projectile thrown
vertically is h(t) =-16t2 + 256t. What
10. A point moves on the parabola y 2=8 is the velocity of the projectile as it
in such a way that the rate of hits the ground?
change of the ordinate is always 5 A. 256 ft/sec* C. 265 ft/sec
units per second. How fast is the B. 562 ft/sec D. 652 ft/sec

Prepared by: Francis Jay B. Jumawan 4

INTEGRAL CALCULUS 1

 b
A = area
k=
2
, if m and n are both even A=  a
ydx
r = radius
k = 1 , otherwise  &  = lower limit and upper limit,
Where: respectively
V. HIGHER ORDER INTEGRALS A = area d = differential angle of the
a = lower limit
incremental area
➊ Iterated Double Integral b = upper limit
y = height
dx = differential width SAMPLE PROBLEM
b y 2 (x) b  y 2 (x)  Area Between Two Curves
Area entirely below the x-axis dx
a y (x) f(x,y)dydx = a  y (x) f(x,y)dy  dx  CASE 1: Vertical Strip dx
 5 - 2x
1 1  1. Evaluate: -ln (5-2x)/2 + c
(x 1, y 1 )
x2
Or: A=  ydx y xdx
2. Evaluate:
 -1/sq.root 4+x
x1

(4 + x )
3 2
Where: (x 2 , y 2 ) 2 squared + c
b x 2 (y) b  x 2 (y)  y = y 2 − y1
a x (y) f(x,y)dxdy = a  x (y) f(x,y)dx  dy 3. Evaluate: x 2 dx
= y upper curve − y lower curve x1 x2

1 1
1/3 sin raised -1 (x)cube
1 − x6
Where; -2 sq.root of 2 cos x/2
4. Evaluate  1-cosx dx
a & b are constants CASE 2: Horizontal Strip (x 2 , y 2 )
y2 +c
f(x, y) is a function of x and y  Area partly above and below the x- cos 3 x
dy sin x +
➊ Iterated Triple Integral
axis. A= 
y2

y1
xdy x 5. Evaluate:  1 − sin x dx sinsquaredx/2 + c
b y 2 ( x ) z 2 ( x,y )
Where: y1
a y ( x ) z ( x,y ) g(x, y, z) dz dy dx (x 1, y 1 ) x dx

Or:
1 1 x = x1 − x 2
= x right curve − x left curve
6. Evaluate:
 ( x+1)( x+2 ) 2ln (x+2) -ln (x+1) +c

b y 2 (z ) x 2 ( y,z )
a y (z ) x ( y,z ) g(x, y, z) dx dy dz
e2 1
1 1
7. Evaluate:
 e x ln x
dx ln 2 = 0.693

VI. PLANE AREA IN RECTANGULAR VII. AREA IN POLAR
COORDINATES COORDINATES
8. Evaluate:
0
2
sin 5  cos 5  d 1/60
1
8 −

y
9. Evaluate:  2
4(8 − x) 3 dx 19.81
 Area entirely above the x-axis r = f () 1/ 2 dx
10. Evaluate:  0 x  ln 2 x
1/ln2

d +
 r 11. Evaluate:  1
x −3 dx 1/2

x + 1
12. Evaluate:  − 1 + x2
dx pie

1  1 4

2
A= r 2d
  x dy dx
3
General Formula:
 13. Evaluate: 1
Where: 0 0
y
y = f(x)
Prepared by: Francis Jay B. Jumawan

y
INTEGRAL CALCULUS 1

y A. 32/3 * C. 31/2 1 1
 cos
2
2
1. Evaluate: 2 xdx . A. tan 5 x + tan 7 x + C *
 ( )
3 x2 + 9 y2
B. 16/3 D. 21/6
14. Evaluate: dx dy 40 5 7
1 1 7. Find the area between the curve y = cosh x
0 0
A. x + sin 4 x + C 1 1
15. Find the area of the curve y = 9 – x2 and 2 4 and the x-axis from x = 0 to x = 1. B. sec 5 x + tan 5 x + C
x+y = 7. 4.5 sq. units 1 1 A. 1.333 sq. units C. 1.125 sq. units 5 5
C. x + sin 4 x + C B. 1.667 sq. units D. 1.175 sq. units *
4 4
16. Find the area bounded by the parabolas 1 1
1 1 8. Find the area enclosed by the y-axis, the C. sec 5 x + sec 7 x + C
y^2=4x and x^2 = 4y. 16/3 B. x + sin 4 x + C *
2 8 lines y =1 and y = 4 and the part of the curve 5 7
17. Find the area bounded by the curve y + 2x 2 1 1 1
D. x + sin 8 x + C y= for which x is positive.
– 2y – 3 = 0 and the y –axis . 16/3 2 4 1 1
2. Determine the length of the arc of the curve x2 D. tan 5 x + tan 6 x + C
18. Determine the area of the region bounded x A. 1 square unit C. 2 square units * 5 6
y = e from x = 0 to x = 1. B. 3 square units D. 4 square units
by the curve y = 2x + x2 – x3 and the x- A. 2.0 * C. 1.8 14. Determine the area bounded by the curve
axis? 37/12 B. 2.2 D. 1.68 9. Evaluate the integral of tan 2 x dx . y 2 − 3 x + 3 = 0 and the line x = 4.
A. tan x − x + C * A. 6 C. 12 *
19. Find the area bounded the parabola 4x – y2 3. Determine the area under the curve
= 0 and y = 2x – 4. 23/3 B. sec 2 x + x + C B. 9 D. 16
y = x 3 + 3 x 2 and the x-axis between x = 1
C. 2 sec x − x + C
and x = 3. 15. A given area is bounded by the curve
20. Calculate the area under the curve y = D. (tan 2 x ) / 2 + x + C
A. 46 * C. 50 y = x 2 and the line 2x + y = 8. Determine the
1/[x.(ln x)^4] and above the x axis, 2 < x <
B. 42 D. 52 x-component of the centroid of the area.
∞. 1
10. What is the area within the
 sin A. –1 * C. –2
2
4. Evaluate: 3 t cos 3 tdt . 2
21. Determine the area bounded by the curve r 2 curve r = 16 cos  . B. –1/2 D. –4/5
= 16cos . 32 1 2 A. 30 C. 34
A. sin 3 3 t + C C. sin 2 3 t + C B. 36 D. 32 * 16. Find the area enclosed by the curve
22. Find the area of the region inside the 3 3 r 2 = 4 cos 2 
cardioid r = 2 + 2cosѲ and outside the circle
r = 3. 4.65 B.
1
sin 3 3 t + C * D.
2
sin 3 3 t + C
11. Evaluate
 sin 2 xdx A. 1/2
B. 2
C. 4 *
D. 3/2
9 3 1 1
A. x− sin 2 x + C * ln x dx

23. Determine the length of the arc of the curve 17. Evaluate: .
2 4

y = 4x from y = 0 to y = 2
2
2.30 5. Evaluate sin3  cos 4  d  x
1 1
B. x− sin 2 x + C A. ln x + C C. 2 ln x + C
24. Find the length of arc of a circle x2 + y2 = 25 1 1
7 5 4 4 1 1
from x=2 to x=4 on the first quadrant. 2.58 A. cos x+ cos x+C
B. ln 2 x + C * D. ln x + C
7 5 1 1
C. x− sin 2 x + C 2 2
25. Find the length of the curve r = cos^2 Ѳ. 5.87 1 1
B. cos 7 x − cos 5 x + C 2 2 18. Determine the distance of the centroid of the
26. Determine the length of the curve x = 2(2t 4 5 1 1 plane area bounded by y = 4 − x 2 , the line
+ 3)3/2, 1 1 D. x− sin 4 x + C
x = 1 and the coordinate axis in the first
y = 3( 3 + t)2 from t = -1 to t = 3. 109.20 C. cos 7 x − cos 5 x + C * 2 4
quadrant.
7 5 A. 2.02 C. 1.84 * 203/110
12. Find the area of the region enclosed by the
1 1 B. 2.53 D. 1.58
D. cos 7
x+ cos 5
x+C given set of curves y = x 2 and y = x + 2 .
4 5 A. 8.55 C. 7.32 4.5
 cot
3
B. 6.50 * D. 6.25 19. Evaluate ax csc 2 ax dx
6. Find the area bounded by the parabola 4
ax + tan ax ) + C

A. ln(sec
x 2 + y + 5 = 6 x and the x-axis. 13. Evaluate sec 4 x tan 4 x dx
-4
B. 4 a cot 4x +C

Prepared by: Francis Jay B. Jumawan

 INTEGRAL CALCULUS 1

1 B. 1.83 square units D. 1.94 square units

C. sec 4 ax + C
27. Find the area bounded by y = ln x, y = 0 and
4a
x = e.
1 A. 1 * C. 2
D. − cot 4 ax + C * B. 0.5 D. 4
4a 
2

  cos
x 8
20. Evaluate e x + e dx 28. Evaluate: xdx
0
x
A. e x + C C. e e +C * 37  33 
x A. C.
e x
B. +C D. +C 128 128
ex
x e
35  29 
21. What is the approximate area bounded by B. * D.
2 2
the curves y = 8 − x and y = −2 + x ? 128 128
A. 22.4 C. 29.8 *
B. 44.7 D. 26.8
sin 4x
22. Find the area bounded by the curve
29. Evaluate
 cos 5
4x
dx

4 y = x 2 and x + 4 = 2y. A. sec 4 x + cos 4 4 x + C

A. 10 C. 12
1
B. 11 D. 9 * B. sec - 4 4 x + C
1
 ex − 1 4
23. Evaluate:
0

 x
 e + 1
 dx

C.
1
sec 4 4 x + C *
16
A. x – 2x + 2ln ex + 1 C. x + 2x - ln (ex + 1)
B. 2x + ln (ex + 1) D. x – 2x + 2ln (ex + 1) D. tan 4x sec 4 4 x + C
*
30. Find the area bounded by the parabolas
24. Find the area bounded by the parabolas x 2 − 2 y = 0 and
x 2 − 4 x + y = 0 and the lines y = x and y =
x2 + 2y − 8 = 0 .
3.
A. 10.67 * C. 12.45
A. 15/4 C. 16/9 *
B. 14.45 D. 10.25
B. 20/6 D. 18/3

25. Find the length of the curve ----GOD BLESS----

y = ln cos x between x = 0 and
x = /4
A. 0.88 * C. 0.82
B. 1.42 D. 0.78
x
26. Find the area bounded by y = , the
2
x +1
x-axis and the line
x = 3.
A. 1.15 square units * C. 1.72 square units

Prepared by: Francis Jay B. Jumawan

Integral Calculus 2
Where: Where: mm. Find the final length L. 401.51 mm
INTEGRAL CALCULUS 2
A = area F(s) = variable force
S = length of arc 9. Calculate the work done in pumping out
Volume of a Solid of Revolution ds = variable distance
r = distance from the centroid of the arc to the the water filling a hemispherical reservoir
axis of revolution. 3m deep. 624.085 kJ
Case 1: Volume by Circular Disk Method Sample Problem
y Second Proposition of Pappus: 10. A conical tank, 10m deep and radius 4
meters, is filled with water to a depth of 5
dV = y 2 dx 1. What is the volume generated when the
The volume of a solid of revolution generated m. The tank is emptied by pumping the
b area in the first quadrant bounded by the
V =   y 2 dx by a plane area which revolves about a line not water over the top edge. Find the work
dx curve y2=8x, the line x=2 and the x-axis is
a
crossing it, is the product of the area under done in the process. 128.28 kJ
y revolved about the x-axis. 16pie
x rotation and the circumference of the circle
traversed by the centroid of the plane area. 2. The area common to parabolas y = x2 and HOMEWORK
Where: x = y2 is revolved about the y-axis. Find
Axis of
y = y UPPER − y LOWER the volume generated. 3/10pie
revolution 1. The area bounded by the curve y 2 = 4 x
V = 2  rA 3. Find the volume of the solid form by and the line x = 3 is revolved about the line x
Case 2: Volume by Hallow Cylindrical Shell rotating the area bounded by the curves y = 3. What is the volume generated? 104.47
y A. 190 C. 188
= x2 + 1, the x-axis from x = 0 to x = 2
B. 181 * D. 184
about the line x = - 2. 92/3 pie
b
V = 2   yxdy Where: 2. Determine the volume generated by rotating
a
V = volume 4. The parabolic reflector of an automobile the region bounded by y = x, x = 1 and
dy r = shortest distance from the centroid of the headlight is 12 cm in diameter and 4 cm in
y 2 = 4 x about the x-axis. 5/3 pie
y x area to be revolved to the axis of revolution depth. What is the surface area in cm2 ? 49 pie
A. 10 C. 12
5. Find the coordinate of the centroid of the B. 9 * D. 8
Where: x solid generated by revolving the area
Work by Integration 3. What is the surface area generated by
x = x RIGHT − xLEFT bounded by y = 4x – x2 and y = 0 about
the line x = 0. 1.6 revolving the parabola y = x 2 from x = 0 to
Work Done by a Constant Force:
Pappus Theorems x = 2 about the y-axis?
6. A 2 meter-square plane surface is A. 12.74 C. 11.65
W = Fs immersed vertically below the water
First Proposition of Pappus: B. 14.98 D. 13.61 *
surface. The immersion is such that the
two edges of the square are horizontal. If
When an arc of a plane curve revolves about a Where: 4. The portion of the parabola x = y 2 from (0,
the top of the square is 1 m below the
line in its plane not cutting the curve, the W = work water surface, what is the total force 0) to (1, 1) is revolved about the x-axis. Find
surface area generated is the product of the F = constant force exerted on the plane surface. 78.48 kN the surface area generated.
length of this arc and the circumference of the s = displacement A. 5.33 * C. 4.32
circle traversed by its centroid. B. 6.24 D. 5.92
S 7. A spring with a natural length of 10 cm is
Work Done by a Variable Force: stretched by ½ cm by 12 N force. Find 5. A circular water main 4 m in diameter is
The total work done by a variable force is equal the work done (in Joules) in stretching the closed by a bulkhead whose center is 40 m
r to the sum of the elements of work. spring from 10 cm to 18 cm. 7.68 J below the surface of the water in the
A = 2  rS reservoir. Find the force on the bulkhead. 4931 kN
b x2 8. A spring having a modulus of 8.8 N/mm A. 4032 kN C. 4760 kN
W = a F(s)ds Or, W = x 1
F(x)dx has a natural length of 250 mm. Work B. 4391 kN * D. 4321 kN
equal to 90,000 N-mm is exerted in pulling
it from a length of 300 mm to a length L

Francis Jay B. Jumawan

1
Integral Calculus 2
6. Find the volume of the solid generated when 13. Find the volume formed by revolving the 20. Find the force on one face of a right triangle
the area bounded by the curve y = x , the triangle whose vertices are (1,1), (2,4) and of sides 4 m and altitude of 3 m. The altitude
(3,1) about the line 2x – 5y = 10. is submerged vertically with the 4 m side in
y-axis, and the line y = 2 is rotated about the A. 52 C. 60 the surface.
y-axis. B. 63 D. 56 * A. 58.86 kN * C. 74.34 kN
A. 20.11 * C. 23.53 B. 75.34 kN D. 83.45 kN
b. 21.32 D. 25.32 14. A 60 m cable that weighs 4 kg/m has a 500
kg weight attached at the end. How much
7. Find the work done in stretching a spring of work is done in winding up the last 20 m of
natural length 8 cm from 10 cm to 13 cm.
Assume a force of 6 N is needed to hold it a
the cable? - - - GOD BLESS - - -
A. 12,000 kg-m C. 10,000 kg-m
length of 11 cm. B. 10,800 kg-m * D. 11,200 kg-m
A. 0.21 N-m * C. 0.34 N-m
B. 0.28 N-m D. 0.30 N-m 15. Find the volume generated by revolving a
rectangle of sides a and b about a line in its
8. Given is the area in the first quadrant plane and c units from its center. Assume the
bounded by x 2 = 8 y , the line y -2 = 0 and line is lying outside of the rectangle.
the y-axis. What is the volume when this A. 2abc * C. abc
area is revolved about the line y – 2 = 0? B. 42abc D. abc/2
A. 26.81 * C. 23.32
B. 29.35 D. 30.21 16. Find the volume of the solid generated by
revolving the curve x2 + y2 – 4x – 6y – 12 = 0
9. The area in the first quadrant bounded by about the line 3x + 4y – 48 = 0.
x 2 = 8 y , the line x = 4 and the x-axis. What A. 150 2 C. 400 2
B. 300 2 * D. 100 2
is the volume generated by revolving this
area about the y-axis?
17. A cistern in the form of an inverted right
A. 50.26 * C. 45.43
circular cone is 20 m deep and 12 m
B. 55.43 D. 52.21
diameter at the top. If the water is 16 m deep
in the cistern , find the work done in joules
in pumping out the water. The water is raised
10. Find the volume generated if the area
to a point of discharge 10 m above the top
between y =cosh x and x-axis from x = 0 to x
of the cistern.
= 1 is revolved about the x-axis.
A. 68,166.75 kJ * C. 87,987.98 kJ
A. 4.42 cu. units * C. 2.83 cu. units
B. 78,980.87 kJ D. 45,647.68 kJ
B. 3.43 cu. units D. 3.83 cu. units
18. What is the surface area generated by the
11. A right circular cylindrical tank of radius 2 m
arc in the first quadrant of the curve x 2 + y2 =
and a height of 8 m is full of water. Find the
100 when the axis of rotation is the x-axis?
work done in pumping the water to the top of
the tank. Assume water weighs 9810 N/m3. A 200  * C. 100 
A. 3945 kN-m * C. 3932 kN-m B. 400  D. 150 
B. 3732 kN-m D. 4032 kN-m
19. A rectangular plate is 4 feet long and 2 feet
12. The area bounded by the curve y = x 2 , the wide. It is submerged vertically in water with
x-axis and the line x = 1 is rotated about the the upper 4 feet edge parallel to and 3 feet
x-axis. Determine the volume generated? below the surface. Find the magnitude of the
A. 0.523 C. 0.785 resultant force against one side of the plate.
B. 0.667 D. 0.628 * A. 1997 lb * C. 1897 lb
B. 2019 lb D. 1345 lb

Francis Jay B. Jumawan

2
BEERS EE/ECE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 1

order: 4, degree: 5

order: 2, degree: 2

order: 2, degree: 1

order: , degree:

degree: 3

degree: 0

degree: -1

y= -1 over lnc (1-x)

y= xln c/x over y/x -1

xcubey - 3x squared + y
squared = c

x raise to 4 y + x cube y
squared - x raise to 4 /
4=C
x2y2 + 2xy3 + 2xy2 = c

x squared y - 2x raise to 4 = c

y = 1/9 x squared + 2c/3 sq.root of x

+ c squared / x

y = 2x -1 + 2/e raise to 2x

q= c1e raise to -x + c2e raise to 3x + c3e raise to 2x

s = c1+c2x + c3e raise

to -x + c4e raise to x

...

s = (c1+c2x) cosx + (c3+c4) sinx

BEERS: 0932 3288053/0945 5663113 4

BEERS EE/ECE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 1

y raise to 5 - 2y raise to 4 + 2r raise to lll - 2y raise to ll + y raise to l = 0

y raise to 4 - 4y raise to lll + 14y raise to ll - 20y raise to l + 25y = 0

C.

y= c1e raise to -x + c2e raise to -2x + 6x squared - 18x + 21

y= e raise to 0.5x (c1cos sq.root of 7/2 x + c2sin sq.root of 7/2 x) + 1/8 e raise to 3x

y=c1e-x + c2e 2x - 3/20 sin 2x + 1/20 cos 2x

y= c1e2x + c2e-x - 3/20 cos2x - 1/20 sin2x C.

y= e3t (c1cos4t + c2sin4t) + 56/663 sin t/2 - 20/663 cos t/2

C.
y= et/2 (c1cos sq.root 3/2t + c2sin sq.root 3/2t) + 9/109 e3t sin2t - 30/109 e3t cos2t

y= et/2 (c1cos sq.root of 7/2t + c2sin sq.root 7/2t) + 45/226 e3t sin3t - 3/226 e3t cos3t

y= c1e-x + e3/2x (c2cos sq. root 3/2 x + c3sin sq.root 3/2x) +3

y= c1+c2x + c3e2x - 9/4 x2 C.

y= c1e2x + c2xe2x + 9/2 x2e2x

A.

...

... B.

y= 14/5 e2x - 19/10 e3x + 1/10 sinx + 1/10 cos x

A.

B.

D.

A.

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BEERS EE/ECE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 1

B. C.

D.

D.

C.
A.

C.

B.
B.

B.
B.

A.

..
A.

D.
D.

C.

...
A.

D.

"You will never find time for anything. You must

make it." ~ Charles Buxton. M
BEERS: 0932 3288053/0945 5663113 6
BEERS EE/ECE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 2

y= c1x 3 + c2x -3
y= x 2/3 (c1+c2 lnx)

y= c1x 2/7 sin sq.root 10/7 + c2x 2/7 cos sq.root 10/7
w=3

w= 2x raise to 3

xy squared - 2y = 0

= xy raise to ll -y raise to l -y

y=cx

r= ccos teta

B= -3/101

a. 7071 e^0.34657t

i(t)= 4/5 e^-t - 8/5sin2t + 16/5 cos2t

b. 4yrs, c. 7071

a. 50e^0.05268t , b. 40.5 mg, c. 13.13769 hr

6.95 mins.

a. 15.5 min, b. 79.52 f

0.3338 min.

BEERS: 0932 3288053/0945 5663113 3

BEERS EE/ECE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 2

A.

D.

A.

...

A.

C.
A.

D.

A.

A.

A.

..

A.
D.

A. ...

D.
A.

C.

B.

B. 25%

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BEERS EE/ECE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 2

C.

A.

“Don’t judge each day by the harvest you

reap, but by the seeds that you plant.”
~ Robert Louis Stevenson

...

...

A.

B.

...

BEERS: 0932 3288053/0945 5663113 5

BEERS EE/ECE ADVANCE MATHEMATICS 1

sq.root of 2 (cos pie/4 + jsin pie/4)

-25 + j6

-1.33 + j4.05 a2 - 7a - 2 = 0

x2-5x+26-jx+j2
1.41 + j0.79
0.19 + j0.44
....
1.74 - j1.28

32 angle 450 degree

1.09 angle 281.25 degree
3 angle 40 deg, 3 angle 160 deg, 3 angle 280 deg

0.86 - j0.64

0.644 angle 1.13 rad

z = (3+4i) ^ 1/3+4i

-28.67 - j6

jpie

1.02 - j0.45

-0.45 + j1.02
j0.58

3.39 + j3.79

j ^ 23.10

[ -13 109 57 -117]

[ 24 5 -4 -12 3 2 -2 -5 4 ]

[ 6 2 13 , 6 11 1 ]

[ i 4 2i, 2+i 6+i 4, 3-i 2+2i 5+6i ]

-2

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BEERS EE/ECE ADVANCE MATHEMATICS 1

-j

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BEERS EE/ECE ADVANCE MATHEMATICS 1

BEERS: 0932 3288053/0945 5663113 9

BEERS EE/ECE ADVANCE MATHEMATICS 3

24/s^5 + 6/s^4 - 24/s^3

48/s^2+64
...

-3 sq.root pie/s

2/s^2 + 3s/s^2+1
s/s^2+16

5/s

-2/s e^-2s + 8/s

F (s) = 1/s - e^2s/s + 2/5 e ^ -2s

1/s-6

BEERS: 0932 3288053/0945 5663113 1

BEERS EE/ECE ADVANCE MATHEMATICS 3

E. 2e^25t sin 100t

2 sq.root e^-25t sin10 sq.root 10t

BEERS: 0932 3288053/0945 5663113 5

BEERS EE/ECE ADVANCE MATHEMATICS 3

BEERS: 0932 3288053/0945 5663113 6

BEERS EE/ECE ADVANCE MATHEMATICS 3

-11 , 1

BEERS: 0932 3288053/0945 5663113 7