SMA 2105 ALGEBRA

RADICALS, LOGARITHMS AND INDICES

RADICALS
√
Definition: In a radical expression a radical symbol is used to represent nth roots for
√
an integer n ≥ 2. Accordingly, the radical symbol does not necessarily mean square root;

it can also be used to describe a cube root, a fourth root, or a higher root. In the radical
√n
a, n is called the index /exponent and represents the nth root of a; on the other hand, a,
i.e. the expression under the radical is called the radicand.
√ √
In the radical x, the index has been suppressed, but it is understood to be 2. A radical n

with index n is the inverse (opposite operation) of the exponent n.

Laws of Radicals
√
n
√ n
1. an = ( n a) = a
√
n √ √ n
2. ab = n a b
p √
na
3. n ab = √
n , b > 0
b
p
m n
√ √ p√
4. a = mn a = n m a
√ q
√ n
If n is even and a ≥ 0 or if n is odd, then n an = ( n a) = a. For instance, 3 (−2)3 = −2.
√ √
However, if n is even and a < 0, then n a is not a real number. For instance, −4 is not a
real number (it is complex).
The simplified form of a radical expression requires that:
(a) no prime factors of a radicand has an exponent equal or greater than the index.

(b) no radicand contains a fraction.

(c) no denominator contains a radical sign.

1
Example:
q
8
Simplify the radical expression 3
.

Solution:
q √ √ √ √ √ √
8 √8 = 4 2 2√ 2 √3 2 6
3
= 3
√
3
= 3
· 3
= 3
.

Steps to Solve Radical Equations

Step 1 : Isolate the radical on one side of the equation (if possible).
Step 2 : Raise each side of the equation to a power equal to the index of the radical to

eliminate the radical.

Step 3 : Solve the resultant polynomial equation.
Example:
√
Solve for x given that 2 x − 5 = 13.
√ √ √ 2
Solution: 2 x = 18 ⇒ x = 9 ⇒ ( x) = (9)2 ⇒ x = 81.

Exercise:

1. The minute you drive a newly purchased car off the lot, its resale value drops imme-
q
diately. The equation r = 1 − 3 VC models a car’s immediate resale value, where V
represents the immediate resale value of the car, C represents the original cost of the

car, and r represents the depreciation rate. Determine the immediate resale value of
the car if the original cost was Ksh. 3,000,000 and the depreciation rate is 7%. Round
your answer to the nearest whole shilling.

√
2. The velocity (V ) of a roller coaster as it moves down a hill is V = v 2 + 64h where v

is the initial velocity in feet per second and h is the vertical drop in feet. The designer
wants the coaster to have a velocity of 90 feet per second when it reaches the bottom of
the hill. If the initial velocity of the coaster at the top of the hill is 10 feet per second,
how high should the designer make the hill?

2
Graphs of Radicals

Example:
√ 1√
The figure below gives the graphs of the radical expressions f (x) = x, g(x) = 2
x,
√ √ √ √
h(x) = 2 x, p(x) = − x, q(x) = − 12 x, and r(x) = −2 x.

√
h(x) = 2 x

√
f (x) = x

1√
g(x) = 2
x

x
√
q(x) = − 21 x

√
p(x) = − x

√
r(x) = −2 x

Definition (rational number): A rational number is a real number that can be expressed
in the form a/b where a and b are integers such that b 6= 0 and the greatest common divisor of
a and b is 1. These include all integers/whole numbers, i.e. {· · · , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, · · · },
•
terminating and recurring decimal numbers, for example 0.5 = 1/2, 0.3 = 1/3, etc.

Definition (irrational number): An irrational number is a real number that is not ratio-
√
nal. They are decimal numbers that neither recur nor terminate, for example p where p is
prime, π = 3.142857 · · · , e = 2.71828182845 · · · .
p
Definition (surd): A surd is a number of the form n p/q (where p, q, n are integers) but
which cannot be expressed in the form a/b for any integers a and b, b 6= 0, and gcd(a, b) = 1.

3
They are irrational.
√ √ p √
Examples of surds are 2, 3 9, 4 1/3. However, 9 = 3/1 is rational and hence not a surd.
p
Similarly, 3 8/27 = 2/3 is not a surd.

Further Examples:
√ √
3
√
1. 3 216 = 63 = 6; hence 3 216 is not a surd.
√ √ √ √ √
2. 216 = 62 6 = 6 6; hence 216 is a surd.
√ √
3. Express 4 48 in the form p 4 q where p and q are integers and q contains no factors
which are 4th powers of integers.
√ √ √ √
Solution: 4 48 = 4 16 4 3 = 2 4 3.
p √
4. Express 3 81/625 in the form p 3 q for rational numbers p and q, and q contains no factors
which are exact cubes q of rational numbers.
p
3 3
q
q 3

3 3 3
p
Solution: 3 81
/625 = 3 35 5
= 3
5 5
= 3/5 3 3/5.
√ √
5. Express 6 5 in the form k for an integer k.
√ √ √ √ √
Solution: 6 5 = 62 5 = 62 × 5 = 180.
√ √
6. Express 7 4 3 in the form 4 p.
√ √4
√ √ √
Solution: 7 4 3 = 74 4 3 = 4 74 × 3 = 4 7203.
p p
7. Express 8/3 3 5/9 in theqform 3 p/q. q
p p p
Solution: 8/3 3 5/9 = 3 (8/3)3 3 5/9 = 3 (8/3)3 × 5/9 = 3 2560/243.

Addition and Multiplication of Surds

In surds, we add like terms (i.e. the randical expressions have same index and same randi-
cand).
Example:
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
1. 6 2 + 3 3 − 3/4 2 + 2/5 3 = (6 − 3/4) 2 + (3 + 2/5) 3 = 21/4 2 + 17/5 3.
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
2. 3 5 + 5 2 + 5/2 3 5 + 3/7 2 = (1 + 5/2) 3 5 + (5 + 3/7) 2 = 7/2 3 5 + 38/7 2.

We multiply surds of the same order (i.e. the randical expressions have same index, but not
necessarily the same randicand).
Example:
√ √ √ √
1. 3 5 × 5 3 2 = 5 3 5 × 2 = 5 3 10.
√ √
√ √

2. Simplify 5 2 + 3 3 4 2 − 5 3

4
 Solution:
 √ √  √ √  √  √ √  √  √ √ 
5 2+3 3 4 2−5 3 = 5 2 4 2−5 3 +3 3 4 2−5 3
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
= 20 2 2 − 25 2 3 + 12 3 2 − 15 3 3
√ √
= 40 − 25 6 + 12 6 − 45
√
= −5 − 13 6.

Exercise:
√
12
√
1. Simplify 5
+
108.
√ √ √
2. Simplify 3 2x − 5 8x + 72x.
p p √
3. Show that 85/21 × 63/136 = 1/4 30.

Rationalizing the Denominator

If fractions are involved with surds, it is appropriate to eliminate the surds from the denom-
inator. The aim here is to work with a rational denominator.
√ √ √ √
If a and b are surds and the denominator is of the form a + b, multiplying the
√ √
numerators and denominator by a − b makes the denominator a − b, which is rational.
√ √ √ √
In this case, a − b is called the conjugate of a + b, and vice versa.
Example:
1. Without tables or calculator, determine √1 correct to 6 decimal places given that
√ 7
7 = 2.6457513.
√ √
Solution: √1 = √1 √7 = 7
= 2.6457513
= 0.377964 (to 6 d.p.).
7 7 7 7 7
√ √
2. Write √6+ √3 with
6− 3
a rational denominator.
√ √ √ √
√ √
(√6+√3)(√6+√3) √ √ √
Solution: √6+ √3 = 6− 3 6+ 3 = 6+3+2 18
= 9+6 2
= 3 + 2 2.
6− 3 ( )( ) 6−3 3

3. Simplify 3 cos2 45° cos 42° +tan2 60° sin 48° −9 cos 60° cos 42° without tables or calculator.
Solution:
√

Recall : cos 45° = √12 , cos 60° = 12 , tan 60° = 3 and sin 48° = cos 90° − 48° = cos 42° .
So,

5
 √ √
3 cos2 45 cos 42 + tan2 60 sin 48 − 9 cos 60 cos 42 = 3 (1/ 2)2 cos 42° + ( 3)2 sin 48°
◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦

− 9 (1/2) cos 42°

= (3/2 − 9/2) cos 42° + 3 sin 48°
= −3 cos 42° + 3 sin 48°
= −3 cos 42° + 3 cos 42°
= 0.

Exercise:
√
2√5−3
1. Simplify 3 5−2
by rationalizing the denominator.
√ √ √ √
2. Simplify √35−√30 + √35+√30 .
35+ 30 35− 30
√ √
3. Without using tables or calculator, evaluate √7−√5 correct to 6 d.p. given that
√ 7+ 5
35 = 5.9160798.
sin2 315° (1−tan2 210° ) 1
4. Show that (1+cos 120° )(1+tan2 330° )
= 2
without tables or calculator.
3
5. Rationalize the denominator: √
3
5−2
. [Hint: use a3 − b3 = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2 )]

LOGARITHMS AND INDICES

Indices
There are three laws of indices related to powers of the same base a.
(i ) am × an = am+n .

(ii ) am ÷ an = am−n .

(iii ) (am )n = amn .

Rational Indices
Consider a1/n where n is a positive integer. From law (iii ) above,

n √
a /n = a /n×n = a1 ⇒ a /n = n a.
1 1 1

m √ m √ √ √ m
= ( n a) . Also, am/n = (am ) /n = n am . So, n am = ( n a) .
1
Now, am/n = a1/n

Example: h

3
1/4 i3
(16) /4 = 16 /4
3
24 = 23 = 8
1
=

or h

1/4
3 i1/4
1/4
(16) /4 = 163
3
= 24 = 212 = 23 = 8.

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Zero and Negative Indices
Clearly, am ÷ am = 1. But am ÷ am = am−m = a0 . So, a0 = 1.
1 1
Now, a0 ÷ an = 1 ÷ an = an
. But a0 ÷ an = a0−n = a−n . So, a−n = an
.

Example:
1. Find the value of (27/8) /3 .
−2

h i2
−2/3  −1 2/3 2/3 1/3
Solution: ( /8)
27 = ( /8)
27 = ( /27) = ( /27)
8 8 = (2/3)2 = 4/9.
1/2 −1/2
(1+x) − 1 x(1+x)
2. Simplify 2
1+x
.
Solution: Multiplying the numerator and denominator by 2 (1 + x) /2 ,
1

h i h i
(1 + x) /2 2 (1 + x) /2 − 12 x (1 + x) /2 2 (1 + x) /2
1 1 −1 1
1/2 1 −1/2
(1 + x) − 2
x (1
+ x)
= h i
1+x (1 + x) 2 (1 + x) /2
1

2(1 + x) − x
=
2 (1 + x) /2
3

2+x
= .
2 (1 + x) /2
3

Power of a Quotient

The following two laws hold for powers of a quotient.

n n
(i ) ab = abn

−n h a
−1 in
n n
(ii ) ab = b = ab = abn

Exercise:
1. Find the value of
(a) 0.04−3/2 [Ans: 125]
4 /2
−3
(b) 8−2/3
[Ans: 1/2]

1
2. Show that x−0.6 = √ 3 .
( 5 x)
3. Simplify:
(a) 3n+1 × 9n ÷ 27(2/3)n [Ans: 3n+1]

(b) 9−(1/2)n × 3n+2 × 81−1/4 [Ans: 3]

7
 (c) 6(1/2)n × 12n+1 × 27−(1/2)n ÷ 32(1/2)n [Ans: 12]

(d ) 10(1/3)n × 15(1/2)n × 6(1/6)n ÷ 45(1/3)n [Ans: 10n/2 ]

4. Simplify:
√ 1 1
xy×x /3 ×2y /4
(a) 10 9 1/12
[Ans: 2]
(x y )
−1/2 1
−1/2x(1−x) +(1−x) /2 x−2
(b) x2
[Ans: 2x2 (1−x)1/2
]
1/2x1/2 (1+x)−1/2 −1/2x−1/2 (1+x)1/2 −1
(c) x
[Ans: 2x3/2 (1+x)1/2
]
1/3 1
− /3x(1+x) /3
−2
(1+x) 3+2x
(d ) (1+x)2/3
[Ans: 3(1+x)4/3
]

Logarithms
Logarithm is another word for index or power. Now, let a be a positive real number. If
ax = y, then x is the logarithm of y to base a, written x = loga y.
Example:
1. 23 = 8 ⇒ 3 = log2 8.

2. Let a be a positive real number such that ap = xy for some real numbers p, x, y.
Then x = ap/y ⇒ p/y = loga x.

3. 1251/3 = 5 ⇒ log125 5 = 1/3.

Note: The base for a logarithm can only be a positive real number.

Logarithms base 10 are called common logarithms. In logs base 10, we sometimes suppress
the base, e.g. log10 a = log a.
In advanced mathematics, we have the number e ≃ 2.71828. Logs to base e are called natu-
ral/Napierian logarithms. Logarithm base e of x is usually written ln x, i.e. loge x = ln x.

Laws/Properties of Logarithms
(i ) loga xy = loga x + loga y for any base a > 0.
Proof : Let loga x = m and loga y = n. Then am = x and an = y.
⇒ xy = am an = am+n ⇒ loga xy = m + n ⇒ loga xy = loga x + loga y.

(ii ) loga x/y = loga x − loga y for any base a > 0.

Proof : Let loga x = m and loga y = n. Then am = x and an = y.
⇒ x/y = am/an = am−n ⇒ loga x/y = m − n ⇒ loga x/y = loga x − loga y.

8
 (iii ) loga xp = p loga x for any base a > 0.
Proof : Let loga x = m. Then am = x.
⇒ xp = apm ⇒ loga xp = pm ⇒ loga xp = p loga x.

Additional Laws
For any a > 0,
(i ) a0 = 1 ⇒ 0 = loga 1.

(ii ) a1 = a ⇒ 1 = loga a.

Example:
1. Simplify:
(a) log2 (8 × 16)

(b) log 125

log 25
Solution:
(a) log2 (8 × 16) = log2 8 + log2 16 = 3 + 4 = 7.
log 125 log 53 3 log 5
(b) log 25
= log 52
= 2 log 5
= 3/2.
a b√ 2 3
2. Write log 100 c
in terms of log a, log b and log c.
Solution:

a2 b3
log √ = log a2 b3 − log 100c1/2
100 c


= log a2 + log b3 − log 100 + log c /2
1

= 2 log a + 3 log b − 2 − 1/2 log c.

3. Solve the equation log5 x + log5 (2x − 3) = 1.

Solution: log5 x + log5 (2x − 3) = log5 x(2x − 3) = 1 ⇒ x(2x − 3) = 51
⇒ 2x2 − 3x − 5 = 0 ⇒ (x + 1)(2x − 5) = 0 ⇒ x = −1 or x = 5/2.
Since log5 x, or even log5 (2x − 3), does not exist if x = −1, then we have x = 5/2.

Exponential and Logarithmic Equations

Expressions in which the variable/unknown is in the index are called exponential functions,
e.g. −2 (3x ), 4−5x , 5e1/2x , etc. Equations which involve exponential functions are called
exponential equations while equations in which the variable is expressed in logarithmic form
(the variable lies inside a logarithm) are called logarithmic equations. Here, solutions of such
equations involve changing from index to log form or vice versa.

9
Change of Base
To find the logarithm of a number t to base u say, where logarithms to base v are available,
let logu t = x so that ux = t. Introducing log base v on both sides, logv ux = logv t which
logv t logv t
gives x logv u = logv t ⇒ x = logv u
⇒ logu t = logv u
.

Now, the logarithm, to a base, of a given number, is the reciprocal of the logarithm, to that

given number as base, of the original base, i.e. logu v = 1 . To show this, from above
logv u
logv t logv v
logu t = logv u
and putting t = v, then we have logu v = logv u
= log1 u .
v

Example:
1. Solve for x in 3x = 2.
log 2
Solution: 3x = 2 ⇒ log 3x = log 2 ⇒ x log 3 = log 2 ⇒ x = log 3
≃ 0.6309.

2. Evaluate log7 2 correct to 4 decimal places.

Solution: log7 2 = log 2
log 7
= 0.3562 (to 4 d.p.).

3. If x = log9 5 and y = log3 5, find y in terms of x.

Solution: Take x = log9 5. Introducing logs base 3, we have
log3 5 log3 5 log3 5 y
x = log9 5 = = 2
= = .
log3 9 log3 3 2 log3 3 2
So, y = 2x.
1−a
4. If log10 2 = a, show that log8 5 = 3a
.
Solution:
log10 5 log10 (10/2) log10 10 − log10 2 1−a
log8 5 = = = = .
log10 8 log10 23 3 log10 2 3a
5. Solve for x if log3 x + log9 x2 = 6.
2
Solution: log3 x + log9 x2 = 6 ⇒ log3 x + log 3x
log3 9
= 6 ⇒ log3 x + 2 log3 x
2 log3 3
=6
⇒ 2 log3 x = 6 ⇒ log3 x = 3 ⇒ x = 33 = 27.

Exercise:
1. Solve for x if:
(a)(2/3)x = 1/16
2
(b) 2x = 8

(c) log2 (log3 x) = 1

√
(d ) log2 (1 + x) = 6
 2
x x4
2. Find y in terms of x if log y
= 5 − 2 log x. [Ans: y = 105
]

10
 3. Solve for x if:
(a) log2 x = logx 16

(b) log2 1 + log4 1/2 = log9 x

(c) log2 8x3 − logx 8x3 = 8

(d ) log3 x − 4 logx 3 + 3 = 0 [Ans: x = 1/81 or x = 3]

4. Given that log 5 = 0.6989700, without using tables or calculator, find correct to 6
decimal places the value of log 40.
 
5. During an earthquake the magnitude of the earthquake is given by M = 32 log E
E0

where E is the energy released, measured in joules, and E0 = 104.4 joules.

(a) If 8 × 1014 joules of energy is released during an earthquake, what was the

magnitude of the earthquake? [Ans: ≈ 7.002 (to 3 d.p.)]

(b) How much energy will be released in an earthquake with a magnitude of 5.9?
[Ans: 1013.25 joules ]

LINEAR LAWS FROM EXPERIMENTAL DATA

The Law y = kx
Let x and y be variable quantities such that y varies directly as x, i.e. y ∝ x or y = kx for
some constant k. This is the equation of a straight line passing through the origin and with
gradient k. If we plot the two quantities, the graph is a straight line (the law is one of direct
variation). Graphically, k is determined by finding the gradient of the line.

Example:
A spiral spring is extended by hanging various loads from it. The amount of extension (E cm)
of the spring for the various loads (N) were observed and recorded as in the table below.

Load (N ) 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Extension, E (cm) 0 1.1 2.2 3.4 4.7 5.5

Plot E against N, draw the line of best fit through the points and determine a law connecting
E and N.

11
 Extension E(cm)
6
Q
×
5
×

×
3

×
2

P
1 ×

Load(N)
0 ×
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

5.5−1.1
Gradient of P Q = k = 1.0−0.2
= 5.5. Hence, E = 5.5N.

The Laws y = k/x and y = kx2

If y ∝ 1/x, i.e. y = k/x or y ∝ x2 , i.e. y = kx2 , we do not obtain a straight line by plotting y
against x.
(i ) In y = k/x, i.e. y = k · 1/x, plotting y against 1/x gives a straight line.

(ii ) In y = kx2 , i.e. y = k · x2 , plotting y against x2 gives a straight line.

Example:
The following set of values of x and y are found experimentally.
x 2 3 5 8 12
y 24 16 9.6 6 4

By plotting y against 1/x show that y varies inversely as x, and calculate the value of k, the
constant of proportion. Use your graph to find the value of y when x = 4 and x when y = 20.

y 24 16 9.6 6 4
1/x 1/2 1/3 1/5 1/8 1/12

1/x 0.500 0.333 0.200 0.125 0.083

12
 y
25
+

20

+
15

10 +

+
5
+

1/x
0 +
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

The graph is a straight line passing through the origin. Hence, y ∝ 1/x or y = k.1/x.
24−0
Gradient k of the line = 0.5−0
= 48. Hence y = 48/x.

(i ) x = 4 ⇒ 1/x = 1/4 = 0.25; in the graph, when 1/x = 0.25, y = 12.

(ii ) when y = 20, 1/x = 0.415 ⇒ x ≃ 21.6.

The Law y = mx + k
Let y = mx+ c where c 6= 0. Then y is partly constant and partly varying as x. The equation
y = mx + c is linear and does not pass through the origin. In this case m is the gradient of
the line and c the y-intercept.

Example:
The force (F ) needed to move load (N) by a machine is determined by the law F = aN + b,
where a, b are constants. In one such experiment, the following results were obtained.

Load (N ) 1 2 3 4 5
Force (F ) 4 4.8 5.5 6.65 7.2

Plot F against N and draw the straight line which fits these points as closely as possible and
use it to find the law connecting F and N.

13
 8.0 Force(F)
7.5 Q
×
7.0
×
6.5
6.0
5.5 ×
5.0
×
4.5
P
4.0 ×
3.5
+
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
Load(N)
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0

Gradient of P Q = 7.2−4
5−1
= 0.8. Hence, a = 0.8. On the other hand, b is the y-intercept;
hence b ≈ 3.25. Therefore, F = 0.8N + 3.25.

Non-Linear Laws
Laws involving powers of a variable, for instance y = k/x, i.e. y = kx−1 , or y = kx2 are not
always represented by a straight line.

14
 y

Figure 1: Graph of y = k/x

Figure 2: Graph of y = kx2

Recall : A non-linear relationship connecting two variables may often be considered in such

15
a way that it involves a linear relationship. For example, in the case of y = k/x we plot y
against 1/x (instead of x), and in y = kx2 , we plot y aginst x2 (and not x).

(a) The Law y = axn + b

For the function y = axn where n is known, we plot y against xn where the resulting graph
is a straight line through the origin. For the function y = axn + b we plot y against xn to
obtain a straight line but not through the origin.

Note: The graph in such cases does not show the relationship between y and x but it helps
to find the values of a and b.

Example:
Two variables x and y are thought to be connected by a non-linear law involving two con-
stants. The following values of x and y are known. Plot y against x2 and find the law
connecting the variables.

x 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

y −9.5 −8.0 −5.5 −2.0 2.5 8.0

Let the general equation be y = ax2 + b.

x2 0.25 1.00 2.25 4.00 6.25 9.00

y −9.5 −8.0 −5.5 −2.0 2.5 8.0

Plotting y against x2 , the graph is a straight line.

16
 y
10

8 +

+
2

Q
+ x2
2 4 6 8 10

−2 P +

−4

+
−6

−8 +
+
−10

From the graph, y-intercept ≈ −10 = b. The coefficient a of x2 is the gradient of the line.
Take two points P and Q on the line so that the gradient of P Q = 0−(−2)
5−4
= 2. Therefore,
the law connecting y and x is y = 2x2 − 10.

(b) The Law y = axn Using Logarithms

The equation y = axn where a and n are unknown constants (but in (a) above the power
of x was known) can be reduced to a linear equation by using logarithms. If y = axn , then
log y = log a + log xn ⇒ log y = n log x + log a. Now, writing v = log y, u = log x and
c = log a, we have v = nu + c which is the equation of a straight line with gradient n and
y-intercept c.

Example:
The fall of a stone (s metres) in t seconds from rest is given by the law s = atn , corresponding
values of s and t being those given in the table below. Find graphically, the values of a and
n.

17
 t 1 1.5 2 2.5
s 16 36 64 100

Considering s = atn where a and n are unknown constants, log s = n log t + log a. Writing
log s as y, log t as x and log a as c, we have y = nx + c, a straight line of gradient n and
y-intercept c.

x = log t 0 0.176 0.301 0.398

y = log s 1.204 1.556 1.806 2.000

Plot y against x.

y
2.4

2.2
Q
2.0 ×
1.8 ×
1.6 ×
P
1.4 +
1.2 ×

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
x
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

2−1.4
The graph is a straight line. For two points P and Q on the line, gradient of P Q = 0.4−0.1
= 2.
Hence, n = 2. On the other hand, y-intercept ≈ 1.2. Thus, log a = 1.2 ⇒ a = 15.85 ≈ 16
(to 2 s.f.). Therefore, s = 16t2 .

18
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS AND FUNCTIONS
Definition: The function f (x) = ax2 + bx + c where a, b, and c are real numbers and a 6= 0
is called a quadratic function or a polynomial of degree 2 in x.

QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
Definition: A quadratic equation, in standard form, is an equation of the form ax2 +bx+c = 0
where a, b, and c are real numbers and a 6= 0. The quadratic expression is of degree 2 in this
case.
Solutions of Quadratic Equations
There are four methods of solving quadratic equations, namely
(a) factorization
(b) completing the square
(c) quadratic formula
(d ) use of graphs

(a) Factorization
This method involves expressing the quadratic function under consideration as a product of
two linear factors (polynomials of degree 1) and then solving for the unknowns.

Example:
Solve 2x2 − 5x − 3 = 0 by factorization method.
Solution: We find a and b such that ab = −6 and a + b = −5. So, a = −6, b = 1.
Rewriting the equation 2x2 − 5x − 3 = 0 gives 2x2 − 6x + x − 3 = 0 and factorizing, we have
2x(x − 3) + 1(x − 3) = 0 ⇒ (2x + 1)(x − 3) = 0 ⇒ 2x + 1 = 0 or x − 3 = 0 ⇒ x = −1/2
or x = 3.

In the case of the preceeding example, 2x+1 and x−3 are called (linear ) factors of 2x2 −5x−3

while x = −1/2 and x = 3 are called roots/zeros of 2x2 −5x−3 or solutions of 2x2 −5x−3 = 0.

Solving Equations in Quadratic Form

Example:
Solve for x in the equation:

(a) 22x − 4 (2x ) + 4 = 0

(b) x4 −7x2 + 12 = 0
2 1
(c) x 3 − 2x 3 − 15 = 0
(d ) x−6 − 9x−3 + 8 = 0

19
Solution:
(a) Rewriting the equation 22x − 4 (2x ) + 4 = 0 we have (2x )2 − 4 (2x ) + 4 = 0. Let y = 2x .
This reduces the equation to the quadratic equation y 2 − 4y + 4 = 0. In this case
(y − 2)2 = 0 so that y = 2. Therefore, 2x = 2 so that x = 1.
2
(b) Rewriting the equation x4 −7x2 + 12 = 0 we have (x2 ) − 7x2 + 12 = 0. Let k = x2 .
The equation reduces to the quadratic equation k 2 − 7k + 12 = 0. In this case

(k − 4) (k − 3) = 0 so that k = 4 or k = 3. If k = 4, then x2 = 4 so that x = ±2, and

√
if k = 3, then x2 = 3 so that x = ± 3.
2 1
 1 2 1 1
(c) Rewriting the equation x − 2x − 15 = 0 gives x 3 − 2x 3 − 15 = 0. Let t = x 3 .
3 3

The equation reduces to the quadratic equation t2 − 2t − 15 = 0. Solving this equation

gives t = −3 or t = 5. If t = −3, then x 3 = −3 so that x = (−3)3 = −27, and if

1

1
t = 5, then x 3 = 5 so that x = 53 = 125.
2
(d ) Rewriting the equation x−6 − 9x−3 + 8 = 0 we get (x−3 ) − 9x−3 + 8 = 0. Let p = x−3 .
The equation reduces to the quadratic equation p2 − 9p + 8 = 0. Solving we have

p = 1 or p = 8. If p = 1, then x−3 = 1 so that x = 1, and if p = 8, then x−3 = 8 so

that x = 12 .

(b) Completing the Square

Consider the expansion of (x + a)2 for a real number a, i.e. (x + a)2 = x2 + 2ax + a2 . For all
such expansions, the constant term is the square of half the coefficient of x. This forms the
basis for the solution of quadratic equations by completing the square method.

Example:
1. Solve the equation 5x2 − 6x − 2 = 0 by completing the square.
Solution: Dividing through by 5 to have x2 − 6/5x − 2/5 = 0 and rewrite this equation
to get x2 − 6/5x = 2/5. Complete the square by adding [1/2(−6/5)]2 = (−3/5)2 to both sides
so that x2 − 6/5x + (−3/5)2 = 2/5 + (−3/5)2 = 19/25. Next, factorize the left hand side to get
√
(x − 3/5)2 = 19/25. Taking squareroots on both sides we obtain x − 3/5 = ± 19
5
, and
√ √ √
3 19 3+ 19 3− 19
rewriting we have x = 5
± 5
so that x = 5
or x = 5
.

2. Solve the equation x2 − 8x + 11 = 0 by completing the square.

Solution: Rewriting x2 − 8x + 11 = 0 gives x2 − 8x = −11. Completing the square we

20
 have x2 −8x+(−4)2 = −11+(−4)2 . Factorizing gives (x−4)2 = 5 and taking squareroots
√ √ √
on both sides gives x − 4 = ± 5 and on rewriting we get x = 4 ± 5 so that x = 4 + 5
√
or x = 4 − 5.

(c) Quadratic Formula

The quadratic formula is the most convenient way of solving equations which cannot be
solved by factorization.

Let ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a, b, and c are real numbers and a 6= 0. Solving this equation by
completing the square method:

ax2 + bx + c = 0 ⇒ x2 + b/ax + c/a = 0 ⇒ x2 + b/ax = −c/a

b2 c b2 − 4ac
⇒ x2 + b/ax + (b/2a)2 = (b/2a)2 − c/a ⇒ (x + b/2a)2 = 2 − =
4a a 4a2
r √ √
b b2 − 4ac b b2 − 4ac −b ± b2 − 4ac
⇒ x+ =± ⇒ x=− ± ⇒ x= .
2a 4a2 2a 2a 2a
√
2
In this case, x = −b± b −4ac is called the quadratic formula.
2a

The expression b2 − 4ac in the quadratic formula is called the discriminant of the equation
ax2 + bx + c = 0. The nature of the roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0 depend on the discriminant:

(i ) If b2 − 4ac > 0, then ax2 + bx + c = 0 has two real and distinct roots.

(ii ) If b2 − 4ac = 0, then ax2 + bx + c = 0 has two equal real roots.

(iii ) If b2 − 4ac < 0, then ax2 + bx + c = 0 has two complex roots (the roots are not real).

Complex Numbers

Consider the quadratic equation x2 +1 = 0. Then x2 = −1. Hence x2 +1 = 0 has no real roots.
To solve an equation of this type, we need another category of numbers called imaginary
√
numbers. We take i = −1, where i is an imaginary number. This can be extended to the
√ p √ √
square roots of other negative numbers, for example −25 = 25(−1) = 25 −1 = ±5i.

Definition: The general form of a complex number z is x + iy, where x and y are real
√
numbers, and i is the imaginary unit such that i = −1 or i2 = −1. The numbers x and y
are, respectively, called the real and imaginary parts of z and this is written as x = Re(z)
and y = Im(z).

For example, if z = 2 + 7i, then Re(z) = 2 and Im(z) = 7.

21
Non-Real Roots of Quadratic Equations
√
−b± b2 −4ac
Recall that if ax2 +bx+c = 0 is a quadratic equation, then x = 2a
and if b2 −4ac < 0,
then ax2 + bx + c = 0 has non-real roots.

Example:
1. Giving your answer correct to 2 d.p., solve 2x2 − 6x − 3 = 0.
Solution: In this case a = 2, b = −6 and c = √ −3. Substituting these values into
√ √ √
−b± b2 −4ac −(−6)± (−6)2 −4(2)(−3) 6± 60 3+ 15
the formula x = 2a
gives x = 2(2)
= 4
so that x = 2
√
3− 15
or x = 2
. Therefore, x = 3.44 or x = −0.44 (to 2 d.p.).
2. Solve the equation:
(a) x2 + 2x + 5 = 0

(b) 2x2 + 3x + 5 = 0
Solution:
(a) x2 + 2x + 5 = 0 √ √ √
−2± 22 −4(1)(5) −2± 4−20 −2± −16 −2±4i
⇒ x= 2(1)
= 2
= 2
= 2
= −1 ± 2i
⇒ x = −1 + 2i or x = −1 − 2i.
(b) 2x2 + 3x + 5 = 0
√ √ √ √
−3± 32 −4(2)(5) −3± 9−40 −3± −31 −3± 31i
⇒ x= = = =
√ 2(2) √ 4 4 √ 4 √
−3+ 31i −3− 31i −3 31 31
⇒ x= 4
or x = 4
, i.e. x = 4
+ 4
i or x = −3
4
− 4
i.

(d ) Graphical Method
The method has low degree of accuracy since it involves some approximations.

Example:
Draw the graph of y = x2 with −3 ≤ x ≤ 3. Hence, use the graph to:
√
(a) find 5 (to 2 d.p.).

(b) solve the equations

(i ) x2 − x − 1 = 0

(ii ) 4x2 + x − 1 = 0
Solution: The table of values is

x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

y = x2 9 4 1 0 1 4 9

22
 y
y = x2
8

6
y =x+1

5
y=5

2
y = −1
4
x+ 1
4

x
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5

−1

−2

√ √
(a) from the line y = 5 and the graph of y = x2 , x = ± y = ± 5 ≈ ±2.24 (to 2 d.p.).

(b) (i ) x2 − x − 1 = 0 ⇒ x2 = x + 1 = y. The x-coordinates at the intersection of the

graphs of y = x2 and y = x + 1 are the required roots. These are x = 1.62 and
x = −0.62 (to 2 d.p.).
(ii ) 4x2 + x − 1 = 0 ⇒ x2 = −1/4x + 1/4. The x-coordinate at the intersection of
the graphs of y = x2 and y = −1/4x + 1/4, i.e. x = 0.39 and x = −0.64 are the
required roots.

Exercise:
1. Solve each of the following equations.
1 5
(a) x+1
=1− 2x−4
[Ans: x = −1/2, x = 5]
3 4−x
(b) x + 3 + x−1
= x−1
[Ans: x = −4]

(c) 4x2 + 4x + 5 = 0

23
 2. Solve each of the following equations.
(a) x2 − 100 = 0 [Ans: x = −10, x = 10]
√ √
3 3
(b) 25y 2−3 = 0 [Ans: x = − 5
, x= 5
]

(c) 4z 2 + 49 = 0 [Ans: z = − 27 i, z = 27 i]
√ √
9 5 9 5
(d ) (2t − 9)2 = 5 [Ans: t = 2
− 2
, t= 2
+ 2
]

(e) (3x + 10)2 + 81 = 0 [Ans: x = − 10

3
+ 3i, x = − 10
3
− 3i]

3. Solve each of the following equations.

√
(a) z − 9 z + 14 = 0 [Ans: z = 4, z = 49]
√ √
(b) t4 − 4 = 0 [Ans: t = ± 2, t = ± 2i]

(c) 4x − 6(2x ) − 16 = 0

(d ) 2x10 − x5 − 4 = 0 [Ans: x ≈ 1.11014, t ≈ −1.03473]

4. Use completing the square to solve each of the following quadratic equations.
√ √
(a) x2 −6x + 1 = 0 [Ans: x = 3 + 8, x = 3 − 8]
√ √
(b) 2x2 + 6x + 7 = 0 [Ans: x = − 23 − 2
5
i, x = − 23 + 2
5
i]

(c) 3x2 −2x−1 = 0 [Ans: x = − 31 , x = 1]

5. Draw the graph of y = 2x2 − 12x + 19 for 1 ≤ x ≤ 5. Hence, use the graph to find the
roots of the equations.
(a) x2 − 6x + 6 = 0 [Ans: x ≃ 1.3, x ≃ 4.7]

(b) 4x2 − 25x + 28 = 0. [Ans: x ≃ 1.45, x ≃ 4.8]

Roots of Quadratic Equations

Consider the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0. Then, on rewriting

x2 + b/ax + c/a = 0 ...............(1)

Now, suppose α and β are the roots of equation (1). Then x = α or x = β so that x − α = 0
or x − β = 0. Hence, (x − α) (x − β) = 0 so that x2 − αx − βx + αβ = 0, and on rewriting
we have
x2 − (α + β)x + αβ = 0 ...............(2)

24
Comparing equations (1) and (2) we have −(α + β) = b/a ⇒ (α + β) = −b/a and
αβ = c/a .

Remark : If we are required to write down an equation whose roots are known, then the
required equation is given by x2 −(sum of roots)x+(product of roots)= 0 .

Example:
1. Write down the sum and product of the roots of 3x2 − 2x − 7 = 0.
Solution: If the roots of the equation are α and β, then α + β = − (−2/3) = 2/3 and
αβ = −7/3.
2. Express each of the following in terms of α + β and αβ:
(a) α2 + β 2
(b) (α − β)2
(c) α3 + β 3
Solution:
(a) α2 and β 2 occur in the expansion of (α + β)2 . But (α + β)2 = α2 + 2αβ + β 2 . So,
on rewriting we have α2 + β 2 = (α + β)2 − 2αβ.
(b) (α − β)2 = α2 − 2αβ + β 2 = (α2 + β 2 ) − 2αβ. But α2 + β 2 = (α + β)2 − 2αβ, from
 
part (a) above. So, (α − β)2 = (α + β)2 − 2αβ − 2αβ = (α + β)2 − 4αβ.
(c) α3 and β 3 occur in the expansion of (α + β)3 . But


(α + β)3 = α3 + 3α2 β + 3αβ 2 + β 3 = α3 + β 3 + 3αβ (α + β) .

⇒ α3 + β 3 = (α + β)3 − 3αβ (α + β) .

3. The roots of the equation 3x2 + 4x − 5 = 0 are α and β. Find the equation with integral
coefficients whose roots are:
(a) 1/α and 1/β
(b) α2 and β 2
(c) α + 1 and β + 1
(d ) α2 β and αβ 2
Solution: In this case α + β = −4/3 and αβ = −5/3.
−4/3

1
(a) Here, α1 + β1 = α+β
αβ
= −5/3
= 4/5 and 1
α β
1
= αβ = −3/5. So, x2 − 4/5x − 3/5 = 0,
and on rewriting we obtain 5x2 − 4x − 3 = 0, which is the required equation.
(b) In this case, we have α2 + β 2 = (α + β)2 − 2αβ = (−4/3)2 − 2 (−5/3) = 46/9 and
α2 β 2 = (αβ)2 = (−5/3)2 = 25/9. So, x2 − 46/9x + 25/9 = 0 and on rewriting we obtain
9x2 − 46x + 25 = 0 as the required equation.

25
 (c) The sum of the roots is (α + 1) + (β + 1) = (α + β) + 2 = −4/3 + 2 = 2/3 while the
product is (α + 1) (β + 1) = αβ + (α + β) + 1 = −4/3 − 5/3 + 1 = −2. So, we have
x2 − 2/3x − 2 = 0, and 3x2 − 2x − 6 = 0 is the required equation.
(d ) In this case, the sum of the roots is (α2 β + αβ 2 ) = αβ (α + β) = (−5/3) (−4/3) = 20/9
while the product is (α2 β) (αβ 2 ) = (αβ)3 = (−5/3)3 = −125/27. Therefore, we have
x2 − 20/9x − 125/27 = 0 so that 27x2 − 60x − 125 = 0 is the required equation.
Exercise:
1. Find the sums and products of the roots of the following equations:
(a) y(y + 1) = 2y + 5
1 1 1
(b) t
+ t+1
= 2

2. Find the equations, with integral coefficients, the sums and products of whose roots
are respectively:
(a) −2.5, −1.6
(b) −1/3, 1/36.
3. If the roots of the equation 3x2 − 5x + 1 = 0 are α and β, find the equation with
integral coefficients whose roots are:
(a) α3 β and αβ 3
1 1
(b) α2 β
and αβ 2
α2 β2
(c) β
and α

(d ) α + 1 and β + 1
(e) α − 2 and β − 2
4. The roots of the equation x2 + 6x + q = 0 are α and α − 1. Find the value of q.
5. Find the equation, with integral coefficients, whose roots are the squares of the roots
of the equation 2x2 + 5x − 6 = 0.
6. The roots of the equation x2 − px + 8 = 0 are α and α + 2. Find two possible values
of p.
7. The roots of the equation x2 + 2px + q = 0 difffer by 2. Show that p2 = 1 + q.
8. Prove that, if the sum of the squares of the roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 is 1,
then b2 = 2ac + a2 .
9. Prove that, if one root of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 is twice the other, then
2b2 = 9ac.
10. Prove that, if the sum of the reciprocals of the roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0
is 1, then b + c = 0.

26
Quadratic Functions
Using the method of completing the square, the form f (x) = ax2 + bx + c can be written in
the form
f (x) = a (x − p)2 + q ....................(1).

as follows:


ax2 + bx + c = a x2 + b/ax + c/a


= a x2 + b/ax + (b/2a)2 + c/a − (b/2a)2
 2

2 4ac − b
= a (x + b/2a) +
4a2
4ac − b2
= a [x − (−b/2a)]2 +
4a
4ac−b2
where p = −b/2a and q = 4a
.
In this case, q is either the minimum or maximum value of the function depending on the
value of a. If a > 0 (positive), then q is the minimum value, and if a < 0 (negative), then q
is the maximum value.

The Graph of f (x) = ax2 + bx + c

The graph of f (x) = ax2 + bx + c is a parabola. The parabola opens upward if a > 0 and
downward if a < 0. From equation (1), f (p) = q. Thus, (p, q) is a minimum point of f (x) if
a>0
y
x=p f (x)

y=q

27
and (p, q) is a maximum point of f (x) if a < 0.

y x=p

y=q

f (x)

The line of symmetry of f (x) is x = p = −b/2a (the value of x for which f (x) minimum or
maximum, depending on the value of a).
The x-intercepts are the values of x at the points where f (x) cuts the x-axis. These occur
when f (x) = 0, i.e. ax2 + bx + c = 0. These values can only be real if b2 − 4ac ≥ 0.
The y-intercept is the value of y at the point where f (x) cuts the y-axis. To obtain this value
we put x = 0.
The graph of f (x) = a (x − p)2 + q is that of y = x2 shifted horizontally p units, stretched
by a factor of a, then shifted vertically q units.
Example:
Determine the line of symmetry, minimum or maximum point and value, x- and y-intercepts
of f (x). Hence, sketch the curve of f (x).
(a) f (x) = 2x2 + 3x − 5
(b) f (x) = 2 − 3x − 4x2
Solution: In each case, write f (x) in the form f (x) = a (x − p)2 + q.

28
(a)
 
2x2 + 3x − 5 = 2 x2 + 3/2x − 5/2


= 2 x2 + 3/2x + (3/4)2 − (3/4)2 − 5/2
 
= 2 (x + 3/4)2 − 49/16
= 2 [x − (−3/4)]2 − 49/8.

In this case, p = −3/4 and q = −49/8. Since a = 2 > 0, then (p, q) = (−3/4, −49/8) is the
minimum point and −49/8 is the minimum value of f (x). The line of symmetry is x = −3/4.
For the y-intercept, x = 0; this is f (0) = 2(0)2 + 3(0) − 5 = −5. So, the curve cuts
the y-axis at the point (0, −5). For the x-intercepts, y = 0 so that 2x2 + 3x − 5 = 0
√
⇒ x = −3± 4 9+40 = −3±7 4
⇒ x = 1 or x = −5/2. Thus, the curve cuts the x-axis at the
points ( /2, 0) and (1, 0).
−5

x = − 34
2
f (x) = 2x2 + 3x − 5
1

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1

−2

−3

−4

−5
y= − 49
8
−6

−7

(b)

 
2 − 3x − 4x2 = −4 x2 + 3/4x − 1/2


= −4 x2 + 3/4x + (3/8)2 − (3/8)2 − 1/2
 
= −4 (x + 3/8)2 − 41/64

= −4 [x − (−3/8)]2 + 41/16.

29
 In this case, p = −3/8 and q = 41/16. Since a = −4 < 0, then (p, q) = (−3/8, 41/16) is the
maximum point and 41/16 is the maximum value of f (x). The line of symmetry is x = −3/8.
For the y-intercept, x = 0. So, f (0) = 2 − 3(0) − 4(0)2 = 2 is the y-intercept. Thus, the curve
cuts the y-axis at the point (0, 2). For the x-intercepts, y = 0 so that −4x2 − 3x + 2 = 0
√ √
⇒ x = 3± −8 9+32
= 3±−841 ⇒ x = 0.4 or x = −1.2 (to 1 d.p.). Thus, the curve cuts the
x-axis at the points (−1.2, 0) and (0.4, 0).

x = − 83 y

41
y= 16 2

x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5

−2

−4

−6

−8

f (x) = 2 − 3x − 4x2
−10

Exercise:
1. Find the line of symmetry, maximum or minimum point and value, x- and y-intercepts
of f (x), and then sketch the curve of f (x).
(a) f (x) = 2x2 − 4x + 1
(b) f (x) = x2 + x + 1/4
(c) f (x) = −3x2 + 3x − 6
(d ) f (x) = 2 − 2x − x2
2. Find the area and dimensions of the largest rectangular field that can be enclosed with
3000 m of fence, and from the dimensions of the field, conclude about the shape of the
field.

3. The area of a rectangle is 114.4 m2 and the length is 14 m longer than the width. Find

30
 the length and width of the rectangle.
4. A driver drove 100 km and then increased the speed by 30 km/h for the following 200 km.

If the second part took 1 hour less than the first part, what was the average speed?
5. A projectile is launched from a tower into the air with an initial velocity of 48 feet per
second. Its height, h, in feet, above the ground is modeled by the quadratic function
h = −16t2 + v0 t + 64 where t is the time, in second, since the projectile was launched

and v0 is the initial velocity.

(a) How long was the projectile in the air?
(b) When did it reach its maximum height?
(c) What was its maximum height?
6. A ball is shot into the air from the edge of a building 50 feet above the ground. Its

initial velocity is 20 feet per second. The equation h = −16t2 + 20t + 50 can be used
to model the height of the ball after t seconds. About how long does it take for the ball
to hit the ground?

FACTORIZABLE POLYNOMIALS

Definition: A polynomial in x and with real coefficients is a mathematical expression of the

n
P
form an xn + an−1 xn−1 + an−2 xn−2 + · · · + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 = ai xi where ai ∈ R. The ai are
i=0
called the coefficients of the polynomial, and x is called an indeterminate. Polynomials with
integer or rational or complex coefficients are similarly defined. If an 6= 0, the polynomial
is said to have degree n and the term an xn is called the leading term with an the leading

coefficient, while a0 is called the constant term. If the leading coefficient of the polynomial
is 1, then the polynomial is said to be monic. Polynomials in x are denoted by symbols such
as a(x), b(x), f (x), g(x), and so on.

Real numbers are considered as polynomials, called constant polynomials. The nonzero con-
stant polynomials have degree 0. However, the costant polynomial 0 does not have a degree
since no power of x appears with nonzero coefficient.

31
Long Division of Polynomials
When a polynomial f (x) is divided by a polynomial g(x), we obtain a quotient q(x) and a
remainder R. This is analogous to division of two integers in arithmetic operations.
q(x)←−quotient
divisor −→g(x) f (x)←−dividend
························
··················
············
R ←−remainder

The degree of the remainder R is less than that of the divisor g(x). When dividing poly-
nomials, it is necessary that the divisor and dividend be ordered by descending powers of
x. Additionally, any missing powers of x between the the leading term (the term in highest
power of x) and the constant term should be filled in with a 0 (provide zero placeholders for
the missing powers of x). For example, a polynomial such as 7x + 5x3 + 8 should be rewritten
as 5x3 + 0x2 + 7x + 8.
Example:
Divide
(a) f (x) = 3x3 + 2x2 + x − 1 by
(i ) g(x) = x − 1
(ii ) g(x) = x2 − 2
(b) f (x) = 4x3 − x + 2 by g(x) = 3x + 2
Solution:
(a) (i )
3x2 + 5x + 6
x−1 3x3 + 2x2 + x − 1
3x3 − 3x2
5x2 + x
5x2 − 5x
6x − 1
6x − 6
5
Thus, the quotient is 3x2 + 5x + 6 and the remainder is 5. In this case, we can write
f (x) as 3x3 + 2x2 + x − 1 = (x − 1)(3x2 + 5x + 6) + 5.
Note: In the example above, deg(remainder)< deg(divisor).

32
 (ii )

3x + 2
2
x −2 3x3 + 2x2 + x − 1
3x3 − 6x
2x2 + 7x
2x2 − 4
7x + 3
So, the quotient is 3x + 2 and the remainder is 7x + 3. In this case, we can write f (x)
as 3x3 + 2x2 + x − 1 = (x2 − 2)(3x + 2) + (7x + 3).

(b)
4/3x2 − 8/9x + 7/27

3x + 2 4x3 − x + 2
4x3 + 8/3x2

−8/3x2 − x
−8/3x2 − 16/9x

7/9x + 2
7/9x + 14/27

40/27

Hence, the quotient is 4/3x2 − 8/9x + 7/27 and the remainder is 40/27. Therefore, we have
4x3 − x + 2 = (3x + 2)(4/3x2 − 8/9x + 7/27) + 40/27.

Synthetic Division of Polynomials

Long division of polynomials may sometimes involve many steps and this can be quite cum-

bersome. Synthetic division is a shorthand method of dividing polynomials for the special
case where the divisor is a linear polynomial whose leading coefficient is 1 (a first degree
monic polynomial), i.e. the divisor is a polynomial of the form x–k for a constant k. In
synthetic division, only the coefficients are used in the division process.

Steps Involved in Synthetic Division of Polynomials

Step 1 : Write the divisor in x − k form, and the dividend in descending degrees of x.

Step 2 : Write the problem in synthetic division form: write k for the divisor and the

33
 coefficients of the dividend for the dividend.
Step 3 : Bring the leading coefficient down to the solution row.

Step 4 : Multiply the leading coefficient by k and write the product in the next column.
Step 5 : Write the sum of the terms of the second column in the solution row.
Step 6 : Multiply the result by k and write the product in the next column.
Step 7 : Repeat steps 5 and 6 for the remaining columns.

Step 8 : Use the numbers in the solution row to write the quotient. The number in the
last column is the remainder and has degree 0, the next number from the right
has degree 1, the next number from the right has degree 2, and so on.
Example:
Use synthetic division to divide:

(a) 3x3 + 2x2 + x − 1 by x − 1.

(b) −9x4 + 10x3 + 7x2 − 6 by x + 2.
Solution:
Set up the synthetic division by writing k = 1 for the divisor, and the coefficients of the
dividend for the dividend

1 3 2 1 −1

← Solution row

Bring down the leading coeficient 3 to the solution row and multiply the leading coefficient
by k. Write the result in the second row second column

1 3 2 1 −1

⇓ 3
3

Add the numbers in the second column and multiply the resulting number by k. Write
the result in the second row third column

34
 1 3 2 1 −1
3 5
3 5

Add the numbers in the third column and multiply the resulting number by k. Write the
result in the second row fourth column and add the numbers in the fourth column.

1 3 2 1 −1

3 5 6
3 5 6 5

Therefore, the quotient is 3x2 + 5x + 6 and the remainder is 5.

(b) Rewrite −9x4 + 10x3 + 7x2 − 6 as −9x4 + 10x3 + 7x2 + 0x − 6. Write the divisor in

the form x − k, i.e. x + 2 = x − (−2) so that k = −2. Now, perform synthetic division

−2 −9 10 7 0 −6

⇓ 18 −56 98 −196
−9 28 −49 98 −202

Therefore, the quotient is −9x3 + 28x2 − 49x + 98 and the remainder is −202.

Note: The synthetic division algorithm can be extended to division by polynomials of any
degree.
Exercise:
1. Divide:
(a) x3 − 2x + 4 by x − 1
(b) 2x3 − x2 + 2 by x − 3
(c) x4 − 3x3 + 5x by 2x + 1
(d ) 9x5 − 5x2 + 2 by 3x2 + 2

2. The area of a rectangle is given by 3x3 + 14x2 − 23x + 6. The width of the rectangle is
given by x + 6. Find an expression for the length of the rectangle. [Ans: 3x2 −4x + 1]
3. The volume of a rectangular solid is given by the polynomial 3x4 − 3x3 − 33x2 + 54x.
The length of the solid is given by 3x and the width is given by x–2. Find the height
of the solid.

35
Theorem (Remainder Theorem): If a polynomial f (x) is divided by x − a, the
remainder is f (a) [f (a) is free of x, i.e. f (a) is a constant].
Proof : Let R be the remainder when f (x) is divided by x − a for a constant a. Then
f (x) = (x − a)q(x) + R. Putting x = a, we get f (a) = 0q(a) + R so that R = f (a).

Corollary: If a polynomial f (x) is divided by px + q where p 6= 0, the remainder is f (−q/p).

Proof : Suppose R is the remainder when the polynomial f (x) is divided by px + q. Then
f (x) = (px + q)h(x) + R. Putting x = −q/p, we get f (−q/p) = [p(−q/p) + q]h(−q/p) + R = 0 + R
so that R = f (−q/p).

Example:
Find the remainder when x5 − 4x3 + 2x + 3 is divided by
(a) x − 1
(b) x + 2
(c) 2x − 1
Solution: Let f (x) = x5 − 4x3 + 2x + 3. Then,
(a) the remainder when f (x) is divided by x − 1 is f (1) = (1)5 − 4(1)3 + 2(1) + 3 = 2.
(b) the remainder when f (x) is divided by x + 2 is

f (−2) = (−2)5 − 4(−2)3 + 2(−2) + 3 = −1.

(c) the remainder when f (x) is divided by 2x − 1 is

f [− (−1/2)] = f (1/2) = (1/2)5 − 4(1/2)3 + 2(1/2) + 3 = 113/32.

Exercise:
Find the remainder when
(a) x3 − 2x2 + 5x + 8 is divided by x − 2
(b) x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1 is divided by x + 2
(c) 4x3 + 6x2 + 3x + 2 is divided by
(i ) 2x + 3
(ii ) −2x + 3
(iii ) −2x − 3
(iv ) x
Theorem (Factor Theorem): Let f (x) be a polynomial. Then x − a is a factor of
f (x) if and only if there is no remainder on division, i.e. if and only if f (a) = 0.

36
Example:
1. Factorize x4 − 3x3 + 4x2 − 8 completely.
Solution: We use trial and error method together with the factor theorem.
Let f (x) = x4 − 3x3 + 4x2 − 8. The factors of 8 are ±1, ±2, ±4, ±8. Now,
f (1) = 1 − 3 + 4 − 8 = −6 6= 0 ⇒ x − 1 is not a factor of f (x);

f (2) = 16 − 24 + 16 − 8 = 0 ⇒ x − 2 is a factor of f (x).

2 1 −3 4 0 −8

2 −2 4 8
1 −1 2 4 0

So, f (x) = (x − 2)(x3 − x2 + 2x + 4).

Next, we factorize f1 (x) = x3 − x2 + 2x + 4. The factors of 4 are ±1, ±2, ±4.
f1 (2) = 8 − 4 + 4 + 4 6= 0 ⇒ x − 2 is not a factor of f1 (x);
f1 (−1) = −1 − 1 − 2 + 4 = 0 ⇒ x + 1 is a factor of f1 (x).

−1 1 −1 2 4
−1 2 −4
1 −2 4 0

So, f1 (x) = (x + 1)(x2 − 2x + 4).

Now, x2 − 2x + 4 has no linear factors. Therefore,

x4 − 3x3 + 4x2 − 8 = (x − 2)(x + 1)(x2 − 2x + 4).

2. Solve the equation x3 − 7x − 6 = 0.

Solution: Let f (x) = x3 − 7x − 6. The factors of 6 are ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6.
f (1) = 1 − 7 − 6 6= 0 ⇒ x − 1 is not a factor of f (x);
f (−1) = −1 + 7 − 6 = 0 ⇒ x + 1 is a factor of f (x);
f (−2) = −8 + 14 − 6 = 0 ⇒ x + 2 is a factor of f (x);
f (3) = 27 − 21 − 6 = 0 ⇒ x − 3 is a factor of f (x).
Therefore, x3 − 7x − 6 = (x + 1)(x + 2)(x − 3) = 0 ⇒ x = −1 or x = −2 or x = 3.

37
 3. A polynomial f (x) has remainder 9 when divided by x − 3 and remainder −5 when
divided by 2x + 1. Find the remainder when divided by (x − 3)(2x + 1).
Solution: The divisor (x − 3)(2x + 1) is of degree 2. So, the remainder R is of
degree 1 or 0. Let R = ax + b (a = 0 if R is of degree 0 and a =
6 0 if R is of degree

1). Thus, f (x) = (x − 3)(2x + 1)q(x) + (ax + b). For x = 3, f (3) = 3a + b = 9 and for
x = −1/2, f (−1/2) = −1/2a + b = −5. Solving the two equations simultaneously for a
and b we get a = 4, b = −3. So, R = 4x − 3.
Exercise:
1. Solve the equations:
(a) 5x3 − 5x2 − 10x = 0 [Ans: x = −1, x = 0, x = 2]

(b) 3x3 + x2 − 5x + 2 = 0

(c) x4 + 5x3 + 5x2 − 5x − 6 = 0

(d ) 2x3 + 11x2 + 17x + 6 = 0

2. When the expression x5 + 4x2 + ax + b is divided by x2 − 1, the remainder is 2x + 3.

Find the values of a and b.
3. A cubic polynomial ax3 + bx + 6 is divisible by x + 2. It leaves a remainder −3 when
divided by x − 1. Determine the values of a and b and factorize the polynomial

completely.
4. The expression ax2 + bx + c is divisible by x − 1, has remainder 2 when divided by
x + 1, and has remainder 8 when divided by x − 2. Find the values of a, b, c.

5. A polynomial x3 + ax2 + bx + c has x − 1 and x + 1 as factors. It leaves a remainder

of 12 when divided by x − 2. Find the values of a, b, c.

Rational Root Test

Theorem: Let f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 be a polynomial with integer

r
coefficients. If r 6= 0 and the rational number s
(in lowest terms) is a root/zero of f (x),

i.e. f ( rs ) = 0, then r is a factor of the constant term a0 and and s is a factor of the leading
coefficient an .

38
Steps to Determine the Rational Roots of a Polynomial

Step 1 : Write the polynomial by descending powers of x

Step 2 : Write down all the factors of the constant term (these are all the possible values
of r).
Step 3 : Write down all the factors of the leading coefficient (these are all the possible

values of s).
Step 4 : Write down all the possible values of rs . Since factors can be negative, both r
s

and − rs should be included. Simplify each value and cross out any duplicates.
r
Step 5 : Use the factor theorem to determine the values of s
for which f ( rs ) = 0 (these

are all the rational roots of f (x)).

Example:
1. Find all the rational zeros of f (x) = 2x4 + x3 − 19x2 − 9x + 9 and hence factorize it
completely.

Solution: The factors of the constant term 9 are ±1, ±3, ±9 while the factors of the
r
leading coefficient 2 are ±1, ±2. So, the possible values of s
(possible rational roots of
f (x)) are ± 11 , ± 12 , ± 31 , ± 32 , ± 91 , ± 92 . These can be simplified to ±1, ± 21 , ±3,± 23 , ±9, ± 92 .
Calculations show that f ( rs ) = 0 for r
s
= −3, −1, 12 , 3 and f ( rs ) 6= 0 otherwise, that is
f ( rs ) 6= 0 if r
s
= − 21 , 1, ± 32 , ±9, ± 29 . Thus, the rational roots of f (x) are x = −3, −1, 12 ,

and 3. By the factor theorem, the linear factors of f (x) are x + 3, x + 1, x − 12 and x − 3
so that f (x) = (2x − 1)(x − 3)(x + 1)(x + 3) in factor form.

2. Find all the rational roots of f (x) = 2x4 + x3 − 21x2 − 14x + 12 and hence factorize it

completely.
r
Solution: If f (x) has a root of the form s
in Q, then r divides 12 (i.e. r is one of
r
±1,±2,±3,±4,±6,±12) and s divides 2 (i.e. ±1, ±2). So, the possible values of s
are
1, −1, 2, −2, 3, −3, 4, −4, 6, −6, 12, −12, 21 , − 12 , 32 , − 32 . Substituting each of
1
these in f (x) shows that −3 and 2
are the only roots of f (x) in Q. By the factor
1
theorem, both x − (−3) = x + 3 and x − 2
are factors of f (x). By long (or synthetic)

39
 division we have f (x) = (x+3)(x− 1/2)(2x2 −4x−8). The roots of the factor 2x2 −4x−8
√
are 1 ± 5 ∈ / Q.

3. The only possible roots of f (x) = x3 + 4x2 + x − 1 in Q are 1 and −1. However,
f (1) = 5 6= 0 and f (−1) = 1 6= 0. So, neither 1 nor −1 is a root of f (x). So, f (x) has
no roots in Q.

Exercise:
Find all the rational roots of f (x) and hence factorize it completely.
(a) f (x) = 2x3 + 3x–5 [Ans: x = 1]

(b) f (x) = 3x3 − 10x2 + x + 6 [Ans: x = − 32 , 1, 3]

(c) f (x) = x4 + 2x3 –7x2 –8x + 12 [Ans: x = –3, –2, 1, and 2]
(d ) f (x) = 6x4 –11x3 + 8x2 –33x–30 [Ans: x = –2
3
and 52 ]

Partial Fraction Decomposition

From previous experience, we have added and simplified rational expressions.

Example:
2 1
Simplify x
+ x+1
2 1 2(x+1) 1(x) 2x+2 x 2x+2+x 3x+2
Solution: x
+ x+1
= x(x+1)
+ (x+1)(x)
= x(x+1)
+ (x+1)(x)
= x(x+1)
= x2 +x
.

Partial fraction decomposition (also known as partial fraction expansion) is precisely the re-
verse process of the preceeding example. This technique is used to decompose a given rational
expression into simpler fractions. To decompose a fraction, first factor the denominator and

then write the fractions with one of the factors for each of the denominators.

Example:
3x+2
Find the partial fraction decomposition of the rational expression x2 +x
.
3x+2 3x+2
Solution: Factor the denominator of the expression to get x2 +x
= x(x+1)
. Write two partial

fractions with the factors of the denominator as their respective denominators, and with the
3x+2 A B
two unknown values of the numerators represented by variables A and B, i.e. x(x+1)
= x
+ x+1 .

40
To eliminate all the denominators, we multiply both sides of the equation by the least common
h i
3x+2
denominator x(x + 1), i.e. x(x+1) [x(x + 1)] = Ax [x(x + 1)] + x+1
B
[x(x + 1)]. This gives

3x + 2 = A(x + 1) + Bx, and on rewriting we have 3x + 2 = (A + B)x + A. Comparing

the coefficients of similar terms from both sides of the latter equation we have the system
A + B = 3 3x+2 2 1
which on solving gives A = 2, B = 1. Therefore, x2 +x
= x
+ x+1
.
A = 2

As seen in the preceeding example, then the decomposition process is quite straightforward if
the denominator of a rational expression factors into unique linear factors. This may however
not be the case if the rational expression has a repeated factor in the denominator.

Example:
x2 +1
Find the partial fraction decomposition of the expression x(x−1)3
.
Solution: The factor x–1 occurs three times in the denominator of the expression. Form
four partial fractions having x, x − 1, (x − 1)2 , and (x − 1)3 as their respective denominators,
x2 +1 A B C D
i.e. x(x−1)3
= x
+ x−1
+ (x−1)2
+ (x−1)3
. Now, multiply through by x(x − 1)3 to get the

equation x2 + 1 = A(x–1)3 + Bx(x–1)2 + Cx(x − 1) + Dx. Putting x = 0 gives A = −1,

and putting x = 1 gives D = 2. Putting x = 2 gives B + C = 1, and putting x = −1 gives
2B − C = 2; solving the two equations simultaneously gives B = 1 and C = 0. Therefore,
x2 +1 −1 1 2
x(x−1)3
= x
+ x−1
+ (x−1)3
.

If the denominator of a rational expression has an irreducible (unfactorable) quadratic factor,

the numerator might not be a constant. In this case, we write the numerator as a linear

expression Ax + B and then determine the unkowns A and B.

Example:
x−3
Find the partial fraction decomposition of the rational expression x3 +3x
.
Solution: The denominator of the expression, in factor form, is x(x2 + 3). In this case, the
x−3 A Bx+C
factor x2 +3 does not have linear factors with real coefficients. So, we write x(x2 +3)
= x
+ x2 +3 .
We now multiply through by the common denominator x(x2 + 3) to obtain the equation

41
x − 3 = A(x2 + 3) + (Bx + C)x, which becomes x − 3 = (A + B)x2 + Cx + 3A on rewriting.
Comparing coefficients we get the equations 3A = −3, A + B = 0 and C = 1 so that A = −1,
x−3 −1 x+1
B = 1 and C = 1. Therefore, x3 +3x
= x
+ x2 +3
.

If the denominator of a rational expression has a repeated unfactorable quadratic, then for
each possible power of the quadratic, form a partial fraction having the power of the quadratic
as the denominator and a linear expression in the numerator.

x4 +3x−2
Example: The quadratic x2 +1 in the denominator of the rational expression (x2 +1)3 (x−4)2
has
no linear factors with real coefficients. So, the set up for the partial fraction decomposition
x4 +3x−2 A B Cx+D Ex+F Gx+H
of the rational expression is (x2 +1)3 (x−4)2
= x−4
+ (x−4)2
+ x2 +1
+ (x2 +1)2
+ (x2 +1)3
(one can
then solve for the variables A, B, C, · · · , H).

Note: Partial fraction decomposition only works for rational expressions where the degree
of the denominator is larger than that of the numerator. If this is not the case, first use long
division to get the mixed form of the rational expression and then decompose the remaining
fractional part.

Example:
x5 −2x4 +x3 +x+5
Decompose the expression x3 −2x2 +x−2
.
Solution: The numerator is of degree 5 while the denominator is of degree 3. So, performing
long division,

x2

x3 − 2x2 + x − 2 x5 − 2x4 + x3 + 0x2 + x + 5

x5 − 2x4 + x3 − 2x2
2x2 + x + 5

x5 −2x4 +x3 +x+5 2x2 +x+5

so that x3 −2x2 +x−2
= x2 + x3 −2x2 +x−2
. We now decompose the fractional part. The
2x2 +x+5 2x2 +x+5
denominator factors as (x2 + 1)(x–2). So, we have x3 −2x2 +x−2
= (x2 +1)(x–2)
where x2 + 1 is
2x2 +x+5 A
irreducible. So, the decomposition will be of the form x3 −2x2 +x−2
= x−2
+ Bx+C
x2 +1
. Multiplying
through by (x2 + 1)(x–2) we obtain 2x2 + x + 5 = A(x2 + 1) + (Bx + C)(x–2). Putting x = 2,

42
we have A = 3; putting x = 0, we have C = −1; putting x = 1, we have B = −1. Therefore,
2x2 +x+5 3 x+1 x5 −2x4 +x3 +x+5 3 x+1
x3 −2x2 +x−2
= x−2
− x2 +1
so that x3 −2x2 +x−2
= x2 + x−2
− x2 +1
.

Exercise:
Find the partial fraction expansion of the rational expression:
2x−3 −3 5
(a) x2 +x
[Ans: x
+ x+1
]
x−1 3 2
(b) x2 +8x+15
[Ans: x+5
− x+3
]
9−9x 1 5
(c) 2x2 +7x−4
[Ans: 2x−1
− x+4
]
5x−7 5 2
(d ) (x−1)3
[Ans: (x+1)2
− (x+1)3
]
x2 4 3 9
(e) (x−2)(x−3)2
[Ans: x−2
− x−3
+ (x−3)3
]
x+4 −2 2x+1
(f ) x3 −2x
[Ans: x
+ x2 −2
]
8x2 −12 2 6x−4
(g) x(x2 +2x−6)
[Ans: x
+ x2 +2x−6
]
3x3 +7x−4 3x x−4
(h) (x2 +2)2
[Ans: x2 +2
+ (x2 +2)2
]

INEQUALITIES

Polynomial Inequalities

Steps in Solving Polynomial Inequalities

Step 1 : Write the inequality with the polynomial on one side and zero on the other.

Step 2 : Find the zeros/roots of the polynomial (these are the values of the independent
variable at which the polynomial changes sign, from positive to negative and vice
versa, as we move across the number line, in any direction).
Step 3 : Determine the region(s) in which the inequality is satisfied (it is more convenient

to graph the roots of the polynomial on a number line; if the polynomial has k
distinct roots, the roots divide the number line into k + 1 regions. Pick a test point
from each of the regions and substitute it into the polynomial to determine if it
satisfies the inequality. If the test point from a region satisfies the inequality, then

43
 that region is part of the solution. If the test point doesn’t satisfy the inequality,
then that region is not part of the solution. Where convenient, a sketch of the

polynomial can also be used in this case).

Example:
1. Solve 2x2 + 5x − 3 < 0.
Solution: Let f (x) = 2x2 + 5x − 3 = 2(x − 12 )(x + 3). Then the roots of f (x) are
x = −3 and x = 12 . Since f (x) < 0, the roots are not part of the solution. Now, the

number line for this problem is

−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

and is divided by the roots into three regions. Taking a test point from each of the
regions:
x = −4 ⇒ f (x) = 9 > 0 ⇒ (−∞, −3) is not part of the solution

x=0 ⇒ f (x) = −3 < 0 ⇒ (−3, 12 ) is part of the solution

x=1 ⇒ f (x) = 4 > 0 ⇒ ( 12 , ∞) is not part of the solution
So, the solution for the problem is (−3, 21 ), i.e. −3 < x < 21 .
The graph of the function is

44
 y
f (x) = 2x2 + 5x − 3
3

1
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1

−2

−3

−4

−5

−6

−7

From the graph, f (x) < 0 if −3 < x < 21 .

2. Find the set of values for which 1 + 2x − 3x2 ≤ 0.

Solution: Let f (x) = 1 + 2x − 3x2 . The zeros of f (x) are x = − 13 and x = 1. Since
f (x) ≤ 0, the zeros are part of the solution. Now, the number line for this problem is

−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

and is divided by the zeros into three regions. Taking a test point from each of the

regions:
x = −1 ⇒ f (x) = −4 < 0 ⇒ (−∞, − 13 ) is part of the solution
x=0 ⇒ f (x) = 1 > 0 ⇒ (− 13 , 1) is not part of the solution
x=2 ⇒ f (x) = −7 < 0 ⇒ (1, ∞) is part of the solution
So, the solution for the problem is (−∞, − 31 ) ∪ {− 13 } = (−∞, − 31 ] and

45
 (1, ∞) ∪ {1} = [1, ∞), i.e. −∞ < x ≤ − 13 and 1 ≤ x < ∞.
The graph of the function is
y
2

x
−2 −1 1 2

−1

−2

−3

−4
f (x) = 1 + 2x − 3x2

From the graph f (x) ≤ 0 if x ≤ − 31 and if x ≥ 1.

3. Solve 4x2 − 21x + 5 ≥ 0.

Solution: Let f (x) = 4x2 − 21x + 5 = 4(x − 14 )(x − 5). The roots of f (x) are x = 41
and x = 5. Since f (x) ≥ 0, these roots are part of the solution. Now, the number line
for this problem is

−2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

and is divided by the zeros into three regions. Taking a test point from each of the
regions:
x = 0 ⇒ f (x) = 5 > 0 ⇒ (−∞, 14 ) is part of the solution
x = 1 ⇒ f (x) = −12 < 0 ⇒ ( 41 , 5) is not part of the solution

46
 x = 6 ⇒ f (x) = 23 > 0 ⇒ (5, ∞) is part of the solution
So, the solution for the problem is (−∞, 14 ) ∪ { 41 } = (−∞, 14 ] and (5, ∞) ∪ {5} = [5, ∞),
1
i.e. −∞ < x ≤ 4
and 5 ≤ x < ∞.

4. Solve the inequality x3 − 5x2 + 3x + 9 > 0.

Solution: Let f (x) = x3 − 5x2 + 3x + 9. By the factor theorem f (−1) = 0. So, x + 1
is a factor of f (x). Using synthetic division

-1 1 −5 3 9

⇓ −1 6 −9
1 −6 9 0

So, x2 − 6x + 9 = (x − 3)2 is the quotient when f (x) is divided by x + 1. Hence,

f (x) = (x + 1) (x − 3)2 and the polynomial will be zero at x = −1 and x = 3. Since

f (x) > 0, x = −1 and x = 3 are not part of the solution.

Now, the number line for this problem is

−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5

and is divided by the zeros into three regions. Taking a test point from each of the
regions:

x = −2 ⇒ f (x) = −25 < 0 ⇒ (−∞, −1) is not part of the solution

x=0 ⇒ f (x) = 9 > 0 ⇒ (−1, 3) is part of the solution
x=4 ⇒ f (x) = 5 > 0 ⇒ (3, ∞) is part of the solution
So, the solution for the problem is (−1, 3) and (3, ∞), i.e. −1 < x < 3 and 3 < x < ∞.
The solution to the inequality can also be obtained from the graph of f (x) below.

47
 11

10
f (x) = x3 − 5x2 + 3x + 9
9

−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1

−2

−3

In this case, the solution is the set of values of x for which f (x) > 0, namely
−1 < x < 3 and 3 < x < ∞.

5. Solve x4 + 4x3 − 12x2 ≤ 0.

Solution: Let f (x) = x4 + 4x3 − 12x2 . Factoring we have

f (x) = x2 (x2 + 4x − 12) = x2 (x − 2) (x + 6).

So, f (x) is zero at x = −6, x = 0 and x = 2. Since f (x) ≤ 0, the three roots are part
of the solution. Now, the number line for this problem is

−8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

48
 and is divided by the zeros into four regions. Taking a test point from each of the

regions:
x = −7 ⇒ f (x) = 441 > 0 ⇒ (−∞, −6) is not part of the solution
x = −1 ⇒ f (x) = −15 < 0 ⇒ (−6, 0) is part of the solution
x=1 ⇒ f (x) = −7 < 0 ⇒ (0, 2) is part of the solution

x=3 ⇒ f (x) = 81 > 0 ⇒ (2, ∞) is not part of the solution

So, the solution for the problem is (−6, 0)∪(0, 2)∪{−6, 0, 2} = [−6, 2], i.e. −6 ≤ x ≤ 2.

Exercise
1. Solve each of the inequalities:
(a) x2 − 5x ≥ −6 [Ans: −∞ < x ≤ 2 and 3 ≤ x < ∞]
(b) x2 − 10 < 3x [Ans: −2 < x < 5]

(c) 2x2 + 5x ≤ 3
(d ) 1 + 2x − 3x2 ≥ 0
(e) 6 + x > 12x2
2. Determine the values of k for which the equation x2 + 2(k + 1)x + 2(k + 5) = 0 has real
roots. [Ans: k ≥ 3 or k ≤ −3]
3. Solve the inequalities:
(a) x3 − 7x − 6 < 0
(b) 3x3 + x2 − 5x + 2 ≥ 0
(c) 5x3 − 5x2 − 10x ≤ 0
(d ) 2x3 + 11x2 + 17x + 6 > 0
(e) x4 + 5x3 + 5x2 − 5x − 6 < 0
(f ) 2x3 + 3x − 5 ≥ 0
(g) 3x3 − 10x2 + x + 6 ≤ 0

49
Rational Inequalities

The process for solving rational inequalities is similar to the process for solving polynomial
inequalities.

Steps in Solving Rational Inequalities

Step 1 : Write the inequality with a zero on one side and write the other side as a single
rational expression.
Step 2 : Factor both the numerator and denominator of the rational expression as much as
possible.
Step 3 : Determine the points where both the numerator and the denominator are zero

(just like with polynomial inequalities, these are the only numbers where the rational
expression may change sign; we also need to know the values of the variable that
make the denominator of the rational expression zero so as to avoid division by
zero).

Step 4 : Graph a number line using these points to define ranges out of which to pick test
points and hence determine the region(s) in which the rational inequality is satisfied.

Example:
1. Solve x+1
x−5
≤ 0.
Solution: In this case the numerator of the rational expression is zero at x = −1
and the denominator is zero at x = 5. In this case x = −1 is part of the solution since

it makes the rational expression 0 which satisfies the inequality; however, x = 5 is not
part of the solution (since it means division by zero). The number line for the inequality
is

50
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

and is divided by the points x = −1 and x = 5 into three regions. Taking a test point
from each of the regions:
x+1 1
x = −2 ⇒ x−5
= 7
>0 ⇒ (−∞, −1) is not part of the solution
x+1
x=0 ⇒ x−5
= − 51 < 0 ⇒ (−1, 5) is part of the solution
x+1
x=6 ⇒ x−5
=7>0 ⇒ (5, ∞) is not part of the solution
So, the solution for the problem is (−1, 5) ∪ {−1} = [−1, 5), i.e. −1 ≤ x < 5.
2
2. Solve x +4x+3
x−1
> 0.
Solution: Factor the numerator to give (x+1)(x+3)
x−1
> 0. The numerator of the rational
expression is zero at x = −3 and x = −1 while and the denominator is zero at x = 1.

In this case x = −3 and x = −1 do not satisfy the inequality and are therefore not
part of the solution. Similarly, x = 1 is not part of the solution. The number line for
the inequality is

−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

51
 and is divided by the points x = −3, x = −1 and x = 1 into four regions. Taking a
test point from each of the regions:
(x+1)(x+3)
x = −4 ⇒ x−1
= − 53 < 0 ⇒ (−∞, −3) is not part of the solution
(x+1)(x+3) 1
x = −2 ⇒ x−1
= 3
>0 ⇒ (−3, −1) is part of the solution
(x+1)(x+3)
x=0 ⇒ x−1
= −3 < 0 ⇒ (−1, 1) is not part of the solution
(x+1)(x+3)
x=2 ⇒ x−1
= 15 > 0 ⇒ (1, ∞) is part of the solution

So, the solution for the problem is (−3, −1) and (1, ∞), i.e. −3 < x < −1 and
1 < x < ∞.
3x+1
3. Solve x+4
≥ 1.
Solution: Subtract 1 from both sides and then write the left hand side into a single
rational expression:
3x+1 3x+1 x+4 (3x+1)−(x+4) 2x−3
x+4
−1≥0 ⇒ x+4
− x+4
≥0 ⇒ x+4
≥0 ⇒ x+4
≥ 0.
3
The numerator of the rational expression is zero at x = 2
while the denominator is
3
zero at x = −4. In this case x = 2
is part of the solution since it satisfies the inequality,
but x = −4 is not part of the solution. The number line for the inequality is

−7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

3
and is divided by the points x = −4 and x = 2
into three regions. Taking a test point
from each of the regions:
2x−3
x = −5 ⇒ x+4
= 13 > 0 ⇒ (−∞, −4) is part of the solution
2x−3
x=0 ⇒ x+4
= − 43 < 0 ⇒ (−4, 23 ) is not part of the solution
2x−3 1
x=2 ⇒ x+4
= 6
>0 ⇒ ( 23 , ∞) is part of the solution

52
 Therefore, the solution for the problem is (−∞, −4) and ( 23 , ∞) ∪ { 32 } = [ 23 , ∞) , i.e.
3
−∞ < x < −4 and 2
≤ x < ∞.

Exercise:
Solve:
x+1
(a) −x−6
≤ 0. [Ans: (−∞, −6) ∪ [−1, ∞)]
x
(b) x2 +4x−5
> 0. [Ans: (−5, 0) ∪ (1, ∞)]
x−7
(c) x+5
≥ −3. [Ans: (−∞, −5) ∪ [−2, ∞)]
x2 −16
(d ) (x−1)2
< 0. [Ans: −4 < x < 1 and 1 < x < 4]
x−8
(e) x
≤ 3 − x. [Ans: −∞ < x ≤ −2 and 0 < x ≤ 4]
7−x 4−x
(f ) x+1
> x+3
. [Ans: (−17, −3) ∪ (−1, ∞)]

Systems of Linear Inequalities

A system of linear inequalities in two variables (say, x and y ) consists of at least two linear
inequalities in the same variables.
To graph a linear inequality in two variables, first get y alone on one side. Then, write the

linear equation corresponding to the linear inequality by changing the inequality sign to an
equality sign. The graph of this equation is a staright line. If the inequality is strict (i.e.
< or >), graph a dashed /broken line. If the inequality is not strict (i.e. ≤ or ≥), graph a
solid /continuous line. Finally, pick one point that is not on the line (the point (0, 0) is usually

the easiest to consider, if it is not on the line) and determine whether these coordinates satisfy
the inequality or not. If they do, shade the half-plane containing that point. If they don’t,
shade the other half-plane.
Graph each of the other inequalities in the system in a similar manner. The solution of the
system of inequalities is the region of intersection of all the solutions in the system.

53
Example:
1. Solve the following system of inequalities by graphing.

y ≤x−2
y > −3x + 5
Solution:
For the inequality y ≤ x − 2, graph the the straight line whose equation is y = x − 2.

Since the inequality is not a strict one, the border line y = x − 2 is solid.
Now, the point (0, 0) is not on the line and substituting it in the inequality y ≤ x − 2,
we have 0 ≤ 0 − 2 ⇒ 0 ≤ −2 which is false. So, the solution does not contain the
point (0, 0). Hence, we shade the lower half of the plane.
Similarly, for the inequality y > −3x + 5 draw a dashed line for the corresponding

equation y = −3x + 5. The point (0, 0) is not on the line and does not satisfy the
inequality. So, we shade the half-plane that does not contain the point (0, 0).

y
6

4
y > −3x + 5 y ≤x−2
3

x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
−1

−2

−3

−4

−5

−6

54
 The solution of the system of inequalities is the region of intersection of the solutions

of the two inequalities. This is the shaded region in the diagram below.

y
6

4
y > −3x + 5
3

x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
−1

−2

−3

−4
y ≤x−2
−5

−6

For instance, (4, −2), i.e. x = 4, y = −2 is a solution to the system since (4, −2)
satisfies both inequalities. Similarly, (15, 2) is a solution. However, (3, −4) is not a
solution because it does not satisfy the inequality y > −3x + 5 (in fact any point on
the dashed line y = −3x+5 does not satisfy the inequality y > −3x+5 and is therefore

not a solution to the system). Similarly, (−1, −1) is not a solution.

55
2. Solve the following system of inequalities by graphing.
2x + 3y ≥ 12

8x − 4y > 1
x<4
Solution:
Rewrite the first two inequalities with y alone on one side so that we have the system

y ≥ − 32 x + 4
1
y < 2x − 4

x<4
For the inequality y ≥ − 32 x + 4 we graph the straight line y = − 32 x + 4 . Since the
inequality is not a strict one, the border line is solid. Now, the point (0, 0) is not on

the line. Substituting it in the inequality we have 0 ≥ − 23 (0) + 4 ⇒ 0 ≥ 4 which is

false. So, the solution does not contain the point (0, 0). Hence, we shade the upper
half of the plane.
1
For the inequality y < 2x − 4
we draw a dashed line for the corresponding equation

y = 2x − 14 . The point (0, 0) is not on the line and does not satisfy the inequality. So,
we shade the half-plane that does not contain the point (0, 0).
For the inequality x < 4, draw a dashed vertical line x = 4. In this case the point
(0, 0) is not on the line but it satisfies the inequality. So, we shade the half-plane that

contains the origin.

56
 y
11

10

9
1
y < 2x − 4
8

5
x<4
y≥ −2
3
x +4
4

1
x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
−1

−2

−3

−4

−5

The solution of the system of inequalities is the region of intersection of the solutions
of the three inequalities. This is the shaded region in the diagram below.

57
 y
11

10

9
1
y < 2x − 4
8

5
x<4
y≥ −2
3
x +4
4

1
x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
−1

−2

−3

−4

−5

For instance, (3, 4) is a solution to the system since it satisfies all the inequalities;
however, (4, 3) is not a solution because it does not satisfy the inequality x < 4.
Exercise:

1. Graph each of the following system of inequalities and hence determine a solution to
the system:
(a)
x > −4

y≤2

58
 (b)
y ≤ −x + 2

y ≥ 3x − 4
(c)
2x + 4y < 6
x−y > 2

x≥0
y≥0
(d )
2x − 3y ≤ 12
x + 5y ≤ 20

x>0
(e)
y ≤ 2x − 3
y ≥ −3

y ≤ −1.25x + 2.5
2. Graph the following system of inequalities and hence show that the system has no
solution.
3x − y ≥ 5

3y − 9x ≥ − 23

59
ABSOLUTE VALUE

The absolute value of a real number x is denoted by |x|. Absolute value of x is non-negative
(i.e. |x| ≥ 0) irrespective of the value of x.

Geometric Definition
Let x be a real number. We can view |x| as the distance of x from the origin on a number
line. So, to find |x|, identify the point x on the number line and determine its distance from
the origin. For instance, the diagram below gives each of | − 2.5|, |2.5|, and |4| on the number
line. We also have |0| = 0 (zero is the only number that has a distance of zero from the
origin).

|4| = 4

|2.5| = 2.5
| − 2.5| = 2.5

−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5

60
Algebraic Definition



x if x ≥ 0
The absolute value |x| can also be defined using the formula |x| =


−x if x < 0.
For example,
(i ) |4| = 4 since 4 ≥ 0.

(ii ) | − 2.5| = − (−2.5) = 2.5 since −2.5 < 0.

(iii ) |0| = 0 since 0 ≥ 0.

Absolute Value Equations

Solution of equations involving absolute value is governed by the formula:

If |x| = b, b ≥ 0, then x = b or x = −b ..................(*)

Example:
1. Solve for x if |x| = 5.
Solution: Geometrically, x has a distance of 5 from the origin. But, there are only
two numbers that have a distance of 5 from the origin, namely 5 and −5. So, there are
are two solutions to this equation, namely x = −5 or x = 5.
2. Solve each of the following:
(a) |2x − 5| = 9
(b) |1 − 3t| = 20
(c) |5y − 1| = 8
(d ) |10x − 3| = 0
(e) |5x + 9| = −3
Solution:
Using the formula (*) above:
(a) |2x − 5| = 9 ⇒ 2x − 5 = −9 or 2x − 5 = 9 ⇒ x = −2 or x = 7.

(b) |1 − 3t| = 20 ⇒ 1 − 3t = −20 or 1 − 3t = 20 ⇒ t = 7 or t = − 19

3
.

(c) |5y − 1| = 8 ⇒ 5y − 1 = −8 or 5y − 1 = 8 ⇒ y = − 57 or y = 95 .
3
(d ) |10x − 3| = 0 = |0| ⇒ 10x − 3 = 0 ⇒ x= 10
.

61
 (e) Since absolute value is non-negative, the equation |5x + 9| = −3 has no solution.

We have so far considered equations that involve an absolute value being equal to a number.
We now consider equations where the absolute value is equal to an expression in terms of the

variable in the absolute value or equal to the absolute value of such an expression. In such
cases we need to check if each of the potential solutions obtained satisfy the given absolute
value equation.

Example:
Solve each of the following:
(a) |x − 2| = 3x + 1
(b) |4x + 3| = 3 − x
(c) |2x − 1| = |4x + 9|
Solution:
Using the formula (*) above:
(a) |x − 2| = 3x + 1 ⇒ x − 2 = −(3x + 1) = −3x − 1 or x − 2 = 3x + 1 ⇒ x = 14


or x = − 23 . Now, substituting x = 14 in the equation, we have | 14 − 2| = 3 41 + 1, i.e.
| − 47 | = 74 , which is true. So, x = 41 is a solution. On the other hand, if x = − 23 , we


have | − 32 − 2| = 3 − 23 + 1, i.e. | − 72 | = − 27 , which is false (since absolute value
cannot be negative). So, x = − 32 is not a solution. Therefore, the equation has only

one solution.

(b) |4x + 3| = 3 − x ⇒ 4x + 3 = − (3 − x) = x − 3 or 4x + 3 = 3 − x ⇒ x = −2 or
x = 0. If x = −2, then |4 (−2) + 3| = 3 − (−2), i.e. | − 5| = 5, which is true. If x = 0,
then |4 (0) + 3| = 3 − 0, i.e. |3| = 3, which is also true. Therefore, both x = −2 and
x = 0 are solutions.

(c) |2x − 1| = |4x + 9| ⇒ 2x − 1 = − (4x + 9) = −4x − 9 or 2x − 1 = 4x + 9 ⇒ x = − 34

or x = −5. One can verify that both x = − 43 and x = −5 satisfy the absolute value
equation. So, each of the values is a solution to the equation.

62
Absolute Value Inequalities

For inequalities that contain absolute values, we have two cases:

(i ) inequalities involving < and ≤.
(ii ) inequalities involving > and ≥.

Inequalities Involving < and ≤

Suppose b > 0. We have that

if |x| ≤ b, then −b ≤ x ≤ b

and

if |x| < b, then −b < x < b.

Example:
1. Solve for x if
(a) |x| ≤ 5

(b) |x| < 5

Solution:
(a) |x| ≤ 5 ⇒ x has a distance not exceeding 5 from the origin. So, −5 ≤ x ≤ 5.

(b) |x| < 5 ⇒ x has a distance less than 5 from the origin. So, −5 < x < 5.
2. Solve each of the following:
(a) |2x − 4| < 10
(b) |9x + 2| ≤ 1

(c) |3 − 2x| ≤ 5
Solution:
(a) |2x − 4| < 10 ⇒ −10 < 2x − 4 < 10 ⇒ −6 < 2x < 14 ⇒ −3 < x < 7.

The interval notation for this solution is (−3, 7).

(b) |9x + 2| ≤ 1 ⇒ −1 ≤ 9x + 2 ≤ 1 ⇒ −3 ≤ 9x ≤ −1 ⇒ − 13 ≤ x ≤ − 91 .
 
The interval notation for this solution is − 31 , − 19 .

(c) |3 − 2x| ≤ 5 ⇒ −5 ≤ 3 − 2x ≤ 5 ⇒ −8 ≤ −2x ≤ 2 ⇒ 4 ≥ x ≥ −1 or

63
 −1 ≤ x ≤ 4 . The interval notation for this solution is [−1, 4].

Examples 3 and 4 below illustrate how to solve inequalities, in this case, where b ≤ 0.
3. Solve each of the following:
(a) |3x + 2| < 0

(b) |x − 9| ≤ 0
Solution:
(a) Since absolute value can’t be negative, the inequality |3x + 2| < 0 has no solution.
(b) Since absolute value can’t be negative the inequality |x − 9| ≤ 0 has a solution
only if |x − 9| = 0 which is the case only if x − 9 = 0 so that x = 9.
4. Solve each of the following:
(a) |3x + 2| < −3

(b) |x − 9| ≤ −1
Solution:
(a) The inequality |3x+2| < −3 has no solution since absolute value cannot be negative.

(b) Similarly, the inequality |x − 9| ≤ −1 has no solution.

Inequalities Involving > and ≥

Suppose b > 0. We have that

if |x| ≥ b, then x ≤ −b or x ≥ b

and

if |x| > b, then x < −b or x > b.

Example:
1. Solve for x if
(a) |x| ≥ 5
(b) |x| > 5
Solution:
(a) |x| ≥ 5 ⇒ x is at least a distance of 5 from the origin. So, we have x ≤ −5 or
x ≥ 5 (note that this is not the same as −5 ≥ x ≥ 5 or 5 ≤ x ≤ −5; the double

64
 inequality 5 ≤ x ≤ −5 implies that x is simultaneously less than or equal to −5
and greater than or equal to 5, which doesn’t make sense).

(b) |x| > 5 ⇒ x has a distance greater than 5 from the origin. So, we have x < −5
or x > 5 (in a similar manner, this is not the same as −5 > x > 5 or 5 < x < −5).
2. Solve each of the following:
(a) |2x − 4| > 10

(b) |9x + 2| ≥ 1
(c) |3 − 2x| ≥ 5
Solution:
(a) |2x − 4| > 10 ⇒ 2x − 4 < −10 or 2x − 4 > 10 ⇒ 2x < −6 or 2x > 14
⇒ x < −3 or x > 7. The interval notation for these are (−∞, −3) or (7, ∞).

(b) |9x + 2| ≥ 1 ⇒ 9x + 2 ≤ −1 or 9x + 2 ≥ 1 ⇒ 9x ≤ −3 or 9x ≥ −1
⇒ x ≤ − 13 ≤ or x ≥ − 19 . In interval notation we have (−∞, − 31 ] or [− 91 , ∞).

(c) |3 − 2x| ≥ 5 ⇒ 3 − 2x ≤ −5 or 3 − 2x ≥ 5 ⇒ −2x ≤ −8 or −2x ≥ 2

⇒ x ≥ 4 or x ≤ −1 . The interval notation for these are (−∞, −1] or [4, ∞).

Examples 3 and 4 below illustrate how to solve inequalities, in this case, where b ≤ 0.
3. Solve each of the following:
(a) |2x − 4| ≥ 0

(b) |3x − 9| > 0

Solution:
(a) Since absolute value is non-negative, any real number x is a solution to the

ineqality |2x − 4| ≥ 0. In inequality notation we have −∞ < x < ∞.

(b) For |3x − 9| > 0, we avoid value(s) of x for which |3x − 9| = 0 ⇒ 3x − 9 = 0

⇒ x = 3. Hence, any real number x such that x 6= 3 will safisfy the inequality
|3x − 9| > 0. Therefore, the solution set is R− {3}.
4. Solve each of the following:
(a) |2x − 4| > −5

(b) |x + 4| ≥ −2

65
 Solution:
(a) Since absolute value is non-negative, it is always greater than a negative number.
Hence, |2x − 4| > −5 for any x ∈ R, i.e. the solution is all real numbers.
(b) Similarly, the solution to the inequality |x + 4| ≥ −2 is all x ∈ R.

PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS

PERMUTATIONS
A permutation is an arrangement of a number of objects in a particular order.
Suppose k independent choices are to be made where there are r1 possibilities for the first
choice, r2 for the second choice, and so on. Then, the total number of choices is r1 ×r2 ×· · ·×rk .

Example:
In how many ways can letters A, B, C be arranged in three consecutive positions?
Solution:
1st Position 2nd Position 3rd Position
B C
A
C B
A C
B
C A
A B
C
B A

So, we have
1st position 2nd position 3rd position
3 × 2 × 1 = 6 ways.

The six permuatations are A B C, A C B, B A C, B C A, C A B, and C B A.

If we have A, B, and C, any of them can fill the first position. Therefore, there are three
distinct ways of filling the first position. Once the first position is filled two letters remain
and any of them can be used in the second position. So, for each of the 3 ways of filling the
first position we have two ways of filling the second position. The third position can be filled
in any one way. Thus, the total number of arrangements is 3 × 2 × 1 = 6.
Similarly, if there are four distinct objects, there are 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24 ways of arranging
them in four positions.
Each arrangement in the above example is a permutation.

66
The Factorial Notation
Definition: The number of ways of arranging n distinct objects is

n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × · · · × 3 × 2 × 1

which is denoted by n! and read “n factorial ”.

Example: 2! = 2 × 1, 3! = 3 × 2 × 1, 4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1, 5! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1, etc.

By convention,
0! = 1 is the number of ways of arranging zero objects;
1! = 1 is the number of ways of arranging one object.

Example:
1. Evaluate:
9!
(a) 2!7!
6!
(b) (3!)2

(c) 6!2!
8!
Solution:
9! 9×8×7! 9×8
(a) 2!7!
= 2!7!
= 2×1
= 36.
6! 6×5×4×3! 6×5×4
(b) (3!)2
= 3!×3!
= 3×2×1
= 20.
6!2! 6!2! 2×1 1
(c) 8!
= 8×7×6!
= 8×7
= 28
.
2. Write 10 × 9 × 8 × 7 in factorial notation.
Solution:

10 × 9 × 8 × 7 × (6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1)
10 × 9 × 8 × 7 =
(6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1)
10!
=
6!

3. How many arrangements are there for 2 objects chosen from 4 distinct objects?
Solution: There are 4 ways of filling the first position. Once the first position is
filled, 3 objects remain, i.e. there are 3 ways of filling the second position. Therefore,
the number of arrangements of 2 objects chosen from 4 different objects is 4 × 3 = 12.
4! 4!
In factorial notation, 4 × 3 = 2!
= (4−2)!
.
5! 5!
In the same way, 5 × 4 = 3!
= (5−2)!
= 20 is the number of arrangements of 2 objects
from 5 distinct objects.

67
 5! 5!
Also, 5 × 4 × 3 = 60 where 5 × 4 × 3 = 2!
= (5−3)!
is the number of arrangements of 3
objects from 5 distinct objects.

Definition: The number of permutations/arrangements of r objects chosen from n distinct

objects is given by
1st 2nd 3rd (r − 1)th r th position
n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × ··· × (n − r + 2) × (n − r + 1)

n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × · · · × (n − r + 2) × (n − r + 1) × (n − r) × (n − r − 1) × · · · × 2 × 1
=
(n − r) × (n − r − 1) × · · · × 2 × 1
n!
=
(n − r)!

n n!
written as Pr or n Pr = (n−r)!
and read “n permutation r”.

Note: In the preceeding definition, we must have r ≤ n since it doesn’t make sense to have
an arrangement of more objects than the already available objects.
Example:
1. In a lottery a total of thousand tickets were sold. Determine the number of ways of
obtaining winners of the first, second and third prizes if three tickets are drawn one
after the other.
Solution:
1000! 1000!
There are 1000 P3 = (1000−3)!
= 997!
= 1000 × 999 × 998 = 997, 002, 000 ways.

2. Five letter words are formed from letters of the word INCOMPUTABLE. How
many of these words have no repeated letters?
Solution:
12 12! 12!
There are P5 = (12−5)!
= 7!
= 95, 040 words.

We have so far considered only cases where objects to be arranged are all distinct. However,
in some other cases, objects to be arranged may not be distinct as some may be alike.

Example:
Find how many different arrangements of 12 letters can be obtained from the letters of the
word SPEEDOMETERS.
Solution: If the 12 letters were all different, there could be 12! different arrangements.
In any of these arrangements the S’s can be arranged in 2! = 2 ways without altering
the appearance of the letters in the arrangement. Similarly, the E’s can be arranged in
4! = 24 ways without altering the appearance of the letters in an arrangement. This in turn

68
implies that in any arrangement, there can be 2! × 4! = 48 arrangements without altering
the appearance of the letters in the arrangement. Since the two S’s and four E’s are alike,
12!
there are 2!4! = 9, 979, 200 distinct arrangements.

In general, if we have n objects of which r1 of the first kind are alike, r2 of the second kind
are alike, · · · , rk of the k th kind are alike, then the total number of distinct permutations is
n!
r1 !r2 !···rk !
.

Exercise:
Determine the number of permutations of the letters of the word:
(a) ASSIGNMENT
(b) ASSASSINATION
(c) MISSISSIPPI
(d ) FUNDAMENTALISM
(e) INTERCOMMUNICATION

Example:
How many even numbers, greater than 50, 000, can be formed using the digits 0, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
(a) without repetitions.
(b) if repetitions are allowed.
Solution:
The number can have either 5 or 6 digits, cannot begin with 0, and can only end with an
even digit.
(a) If there is no repetition of digits, we have four cases to consider:
(i ) Numbers with 5 digits, the TTh digit being even
TTh Th H T U
1 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 2 = 48 possible numbers
(ii ) Numbers with 5 digits, the TTh digit being odd
TTh Th H T U
2 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 3 = 144 possible numbers
(iii ) Numbers with 6 digits, the HTh digit being even
HTh TTh Th H T U
2 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 × 2 = 96 possible numbers
(iv ) Numbers with 6 digits, the HTh digit being odd
HTh TTh Th H T U
3 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 × 3 = 216 possible numbers

69
 Therefore, if there is no repetition, there are 48 + 144 + 96 + 216 = 504 possible
numbers.

(b) If repetition of digits is allowed, we have two cases to consider:

(i ) Numbers with 5 digits
TTh Th H T U
3 × 6 × 6 × 6 × 3 = 1944 possible numbers
(ii ) Numbers with 6 digits

HTh TTh Th H T U
5 × 6 × 6 × 6 × 6 × 3 = 19440 possible numbers

So, if repetition is allowed, there are 1944 + 19440 = 21384 possible numbers.

Exercise:
1. In how many ways can five different books be arranged on a shelf? [Ans: 120]
2. In how many ways can 8 people be seated at a round table? [Ans: 5040]
3. How many arrangements can be made of three letters chosen from the word NEAT if
the first letter is a vowel and each arrangement contains distinct lettters? [Ans: 12]
4. How many even numbers greater than 2,000 can be formed with the digits 1, 2, 4, 8 if
each digit can be used only once in each number? [Ans: 12]
5. Determine how many odd numbers, greater than 500,000, can be made from the digits
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7.
(a) without repetitions.
(b) if repetitions are allowed.

COMBINATIONS
As we have already seen, in permutations, the order in which objects are chosen is important.
However, in some cases, the order of selection is irrelevant. When the selection of objects
is made with no regard being paid to order, it is refered to as a combination. Accordingly,
A B C, A C B, B A C are different permutations but they are the same combination of
letters.

70
Example:
How many committees of 3 persons can be made from 5 persons: A, B, C, D and E?
Solution:

ABC BCD CDE

AB D BCE
ABE BDE
AC D
AC E
ADE
There are 10 different committees (combinations) of 3 persons chosen from 5 (on the other
hand, there are 5 P3 = 60 permutations of 3 objects from 5 distinct objects).
In general, the number of combinations/selections of r objects from n available objects can
be obtained as follows:
n!
• there are (n−r)! permutations of r objects chosen from n distinct objects,
• but each combination of r objects can be arranged in r! ways; so,

the number of permutations = r!×(the number of combinations), i.e.

n!
(n−r)!
= r!×(the number of combinations),

• therefore,

n!
the total number of combinations = (n−r)!r!

 
n  n  n!
written as Cr or n Cr or  = (n−r)!r!
and read “n combination r”.
r

n
Note: We have that Cr = n Cn−r .
Example:
1. Five policemen are to be selected for duty from a force of 20. In how many ways can
this be done?
20! 20!
Solution: There are 20 C5 = (20−5)!5! = 15!5! = 15, 504 ways.

71
 2. A mixed hockey team containing 5 men and 6 women is to be chosen from 7 men and
9 women. In how many ways can this be done?
Solution: In this case, 5 men can be chosen from 7 men in 7 C5 ways and 6 women
can be chosen from 9 women in 9 C6 ways. For each of the 7 C5 ways of selecting men,

there are 9 C6 ways of selecting women. Therefore, the total number of ways of selecting
the team is 7 C5 × 9 C6 = 21 × 84 = 1764 ways.

3. A JKUAT student wants to invite 8 friends to a party but there is only room for 4 of
them. In how many ways can the four to be invited be chosen if two of the eight are
twins and must not be seperated?
Solution: There are two cases:
(a) the twins are invited
(b) the twins are not invited.
In this case,
(a) if the twins are invited, then choose 2 out of the remaining 6 in 6 C2 = 15 ways.

(b) if the twins are left out, then choose 4 out of the remaining 6 in 6 C4 = 15 ways.
Therefore, the total number of ways is 15 + 15 = 30.

Exercise:
1. A committee of six is to be formed from nine women and three men. In how many
ways can the members be chosen so as to include at least one man? [Ans: 840]
2. A committee of ten is to be chosen from nine men and six women. In how many ways
can it be formed if at least four women are to be in the committee? [Ans: 2142]
3. Nine people are going to travel in two taxis. The larger has five seats, and the smaller

has four. In how many ways can the party be split? [Ans: 126]
4. From a group of 10 mathematics students, two of whom are siblings, a team of 5 is to
be selected to carry out an assignment. Determine the number of ways the selection
can be done so as to include:

(a) only one of the siblings.

(b) both siblings.
(c) neither of the siblings.

72
BINOMIAL THEOREM
A binomial is a sum or difference of two terms, for instance x + y, 2a − 3b, etc. are binomials.

The Pascal’s Triangle

Consider the following expressions:

(a + b)0 = 1
(a + b)1 = a + b
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
(a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3
(a + b)4 = a4 + 4a3 b + 6a2 b2 + 4ab3 + b4
(a + b)5 = a5 + 4
5a b + 10a3 b2 + 10a2 b3 + 5ab4 + b5
• • • • • • • • • • • • •

Writing the coefficients of the binomial series expansions in a triangular array gives
1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
• • • • • • • • • • •

This triangular array is called the Pascal’s triangle.

Example:
1. Expand (2x + 3y)3 in descending powers of x.
Solution: From the Pascal’s triangle the coefficients are 1, 3, 3, 1. Therefore,

(2x + 3y)3 = (2x)3 + 3 (2x)2 (3y) + 3 (2x) (3y)2 + (3y)3

= 8x3 + 36x2 y + 54xy 2 + 27y 3.

2. Obtain the expansion of (2x − 1/2)4 in descending powers of x.

Solution: From the Pascal’s triangle the coefficients are 1, 4, 6, 4, 1. Therefore,

(2x − 1/2)4 = (2x)4 + 4 (2x)3 (−1/2) + 6 (2x)2 (−1/2)2 + 4 (2x) (−1/2)3 + (−1/2)4
= 16x4 − 16x3 + 6x2 − x + 1/16.

73
Exercise:
Use the Pascal’s triangle to expand:
(a) (1 − x)3
(b) (x + 1/x)4
(c) (2x − 1)5
(d ) (x − y)7

Theorem (Binomial Theorem):

If n is a positive integer,
! ! ! !
n n n n
(a + b)n = an + an−1 b + an−2 b2 + · · · + an−r br
0 1 2 r
! !
n n
+···+ abn−1 + bn
n−1 n
n
!
X n
= an−k bk .
k=0
k

(the expansion is a finite series with n + 1 terms) !

n
In the statement of the theorem, the term containing an−k bk is an−k bk = n Ck an−k bk .
k
Example:
1. Find the coefficient of x10 in the expansion of (2x − 3)14 .
Solution: ! ! !
14 14 14 14 13 14
(2x − 3) = (2x) + (2x) (−3) + · · · + (2x)10 (−3)4 + · · ·
0 1 4
! !
14 10 4 14
The term in x10 is (2x) (−3) . So, the required coefficient is 210 34 .
4 4

10
2. Obtain the first four terms of the expansion of 1 + 12 x in ascending powers of x.
10
Hence, find the value of (1.005) , correct to four decimal places.
Solution:
 10 ! !  ! 2 ! 3
1 10 10 1 10 1 10 1
1+ x = + x + x + x +···
2 0 1 2 2 2 3 2
45 2
= 1 + 5x + x + 15x3 + · · ·
4

10
Now, (1.005)10 = (1 + 0.005)10 and comparing with 1 + 21 x we have 21 x = 0.005 so

74

10
that x = 0.01. Substituting this value of x in the expansion of 1 + 21 x ,

45
(1 + 0.005)10 = 1 + 5 (0.01) + (0.01)2 + 15 (0.01)3 + · · ·
4
= 1 + 0.05 + 0.001125 + 0.000015
= 1.05114.

Therefore, (1.005)10 = 1.0511 (to 4 d.p.).

8
3. Obtain the expansion of (1 + x − 2x2 ) as far as the term in x3 .
Solution:

8 
8
1 + x − 2x2 = 1 + x − 2x2
! ! !
8
8
2 8
3
=1+ x − 2x2 + x − 2x2 + x − 2x2 + · · ·
1 2 3




= 1 + 8 x − 2x2 + 28 x2 − 4x3 + · · · + 56 x3 + · · ·
= 1 + 8x + 12x2 − 56x3 + · · ·

50
4. Find the coefficient of x in the expansion of (2x2 − 1/x2 ) .
50
Solution: The general term in the expansion of (2x2 − 1/x2 ) is
! ! !
50
50−k 50 x100−2k 50
2x2 (−1/x2 )k = 250−k (−1)k = 250−k (−1)k x100−4k .
k k x2k k

For the term in x, we have x100−4k = x1 so that 100 − 4k = 1 and this gives k = 99/4.
Since k is not a whole number, the expansion does not have a term in x.

Exercise:
1. Write down the coefficients of the terms indicated in the expansions of the following:
(a) (1 + x)16 , 3rd term
(b) (3 + 2x)6 , 4th term
(c) (2 − x)20 , 18th term

8
(d ) 2 + 23 x , 5th term
2. Use binomial theorem to find the values of the following:
(a) (1.01)10 , to 3 d.p.
(b) (2.001)10 , to 6 s.f.
(c) (0.997)12 , to 3 d.p.

75
 (d ) (1.998)8 , to 2 d.p.
3. Expand the following as far as the term in x3 :
3
(a) (1 + x + x2 )
6
(b) (1 + 2x − x2 )
7
(c) (2 + x − 2x2 )
4
(d ) (3 − 2x + x2 )
4. Find the ratio of the term in x7 to the term in x8 in the expansion of (3x + 2/3)17 .
8
[Ans: 45x ]

Binomial Theorem for Other Indices

Let n be a rational number such that n is not a positive integer. Then
n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3 n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3) 4
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + x + x +···
2! 3! 4!
provided −1 < x < 1, i.e. |x| < 1.

Note: This expansion holds only for (1 + x)n but not for (a + x)n if a 6= 1. In the latter
case express (a + x)n = [a (1 + x/a)]n = an (1 + x/a)n and expand the expression in terms of
x/a. The expansion in this case holds only for −1 < x/a < 1.

Example:
1. Expand the following in ascending powers of x as far as the term in x3 stating the
values of x for which the expansion is valid:
(a) (1 + x) /3
1

(b) (1 − 4x)−3
(c) (3 − x)−2
Solution:
(a)

1 1/3(−2/3) 1/3(−2/3)(−5/3)
(1 + x) /3 = 1 + x +
1
x2 + x3 + · · ·
3 2! 3!
1 1 2 5
=1+ x− x + x3 + · · ·
3 9 81

provided −1 < x < 1 or |x| < 1.

(b)

(−3)(−4) (−3)(−4)(−5)
(1 − 4x)−3 = 1 + (−3)(−4x) + (−4x)2 + (−4x)3 + · · ·
2! 3!
2 3
= 1 + 12x + 96x + 640x + · · ·

76
 provided −1 < −4x < 1, i.e. −1/4 < x < 1/4.

(c)

(3 − x)−2 = 3−2 (1 − x/3)−2

 
−2 (−2)(−3) 2 (−2)(−3)(−4) 3
=3 1 + (−2)(−x/3) + (−x/3) + (−x/3) + · · ·
2! 3!
 
2 1 2 4 3
= 1/9 1 + x + x + x + · · ·
3 3 27
1 2 1 2 4 3
= + x+ x + x +···
9 27 27 243

where −1 < −x/3 < 1, i.e. −3 < x < 3.

4
2. Expand (1+4x)(1−2x)
as far as the term in x3 stating the range of values of x for which
the expansion is valid.
4 4 −1
Solution: (1+4x)(1−2x) = 1+2x−8x2
= 4 (1 + 2x − 8x2 ) . Let y = 2x − 8x2 . Then,


−1
4 1 + 2x − 8x2 = 4 (1 + y)−1


= 4 1 − y + y2 − y3 + · · ·
h

2
3 i
= 4 1 − 2x − 8x2 + 2x − 8x2 − 2x − 8x2 + · · ·


= 4 1 − 2x + 8x2 + 4x2 − 32x3 + 64x4 − 8x3 + · · ·
= 4 − 8x + 48x2 − 160x3 + · · ·

Since we expanded 4 (1 + 4x)−1 (1 − 2x)−1 , the expansion is valid when −1 < 4x < 1
and −1 < −2x < 1, i.e. when −1/4 < x < 1/4 and −1/2 < x < 1/2. This is the case when
−1/4 < x < 1/4.

3. Find the first four terms in the expansion of (1 − 8x) /2 in ascending powers of x.
1

√
Hence, substitute x = 1/100 and obtain the value of 23 correct to 5 significant figures.
Solution:

(1/2)(−1/2) (1/2)(−1/2)(−3/2)
(1 − 8x) /2 = 1 + 1/2(−8x) +
1
(−8x)2 + (−8x)3 + · · ·
2! 3!
2 3
= 1 − 4x − 8x − 32x + · · ·

where −1 < −8x < 1, i.e. −1/8 < x < 1/8.

77
 Now, substituting x = 1/100 in the expansion of (1 − 8x) /2 we have
1

(1 − 8/100) /2 = 1 − 4/100 − 8/1002 − 32/1003 = 0.959168

1

92 1/2
√  √4  √

⇒ 100
= 23 √100 = 23 ± 15 = 0.959168

√
⇒ 23 = ±5 (0.959168) = ±4.79584 = ±4.7958 (to 5 s.f.).

Exercise:
Expand the following in ascending powers of x as far as the term in x3 :
(a) (1 − 3x) /2 x+2
−1
(d ) (1+x) 2

√
√ 1 1+2x
(b) 2+x2
(e) 1−x

q
1+x √1−x
(c) 1−x
(f ) 1+x

SEQUENCES AND SERIES

Definition: A sequence is a set of numbers in a defined order with a rule for obtaining each
of the numbers. The elements of a sequence are called terms of the sequence. We shall use
the notation a1 for the first term of a sequence, a2 for the second, a3 for the third, · · · , an
for the nth, and so on.

There are different ways to describe a sequence. These include:

• listing the terms of the sequence, e.g. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, · · · and 2, 4, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 16, · · · .

• using a function f : N −→ R defined by a(n) = an , e.g. an = n, an = 2n and an = n1 .

• recursion.

Example:
1. {5r}∞
r=1 = {5, 10, 15, 20, · · · } (positive integer multiples of 5 with general term 5r; r is
a positive integer).
n o∞
2. (−3)k = {1, −3, 9, −27, · · · } (powers of −3 with general term (−3)k ; k is a
k=0
non-negative integer).
∞
3. {i3 }i=3 = {27, 64, 125, 216, · · · } (cubes of consecutive integers in ascending order
starting with 33 , having general term i3 ; i = 3, 4, 5, 6, · · · ).

78
Definition: Let {an } be a sequence. Then:
(a) the sequence is increasing if an < an+1 for every n.

(b) the sequence is decreasing if an > an+1 for every n.

(c) the sequence is monotonic if it is an increasing or a decreasing sequence.
(d ) the sequence is a constant sequence if an = an+1 for every n (i.e. {an } is a sequence
for which all terms are equal).
Example:
1. {10k}∞
k=1 = {10, 20, 30, 40, · · · } is a monotonic increasing sequence.
1 ∞ 
2. n n=1 = 1, 21 , 13 , 41 , · · · is a monotonic decreasing sequence.
3. {1} = {1, 1, 1, 1, · · · } is a constant sequence.
Definition: A sequence that is made up of a finite number of terms is called a finite sequence;
otherwise, it is callled an infinite sequence.
Example:
1. The sequence {10k}10
k=1 = {10, 20, 30, · · · , 100} is finite (with 10 terms).

2. The sequence {10k}∞

k=1 = {10, 20, 30, · · · } is infinite (has infinitely many terms).

Definition: A series is obtained by adding the terms of a sequence. A finite series is a

series that corresponds to a finite sequence while an infinite series is one that corresponds
to an infinite sequence.
Example:
10
P 10
P
1. 10 + 20 + 30 + · · · + 100 = 10k and 33 + 43 + 53 + · · · + 103 = r 3 are finite series.
k=1 r=3
∞
P k
2. 1 + 1/4 + 1/16 + 1/64 + 1/256 + · · · = (1/4) is an infinite series (note that k has no upper
k=0
limit in this case).

ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION (AP)

Definition: An arithmetic progression (AP) is a sequence in which successive terms differ
by a constant number. In this case, the constant number is called the common difference.
If an AP has its first term a1 and its common differnce d, then its nth term is given by
an = a1 + (n − 1)d.
Example:
1. Determine the first six terms of the AP whose first term is 18 and common difference
is −5.

79
 Solution: In this case a1 = 18, d = −5. Thus,
a1 = 18,
a2 = a1 + d = 18 + (−5) = 13,
a3 = a1 + 2d = 18 + 2(−5) = 8,
a4 = a1 + 3d = 18 + 3(−5) = 3,
a5 = a1 + 4d = 18 + 4(−5) = −2,

a6 = a1 + 5d = 18 + 5(−5) = −7.

2. Determine the 3rd , 7th and nth terms of the AP whose first term is 19 and common
difference is 6.
Solution: In this case a1 = 19, d = 6. Hence,
a3 = a1 + 2d = 19 + 2(6) = 31,

a7 = a1 + 6d = 19 + 6(6) = 55,
an = a1 + (n − 1)d = 19 + 6(n − 1) = 13 + 6n.

The Sum of an AP
To find the sum of an AP whose first term, common difference, and the number of terms to
be added are all known, the method of first principles can be used.

Example:
Add up the integers from 1 to 100.
Solution:
1 + 2 + 3 + ··· + 98 + 99 + 100
100 + 99 + 98 + ··· + 3 + 2 + 1
101 + 101 + 101 + ··· + 101 + 101 + 101 = 101 × 100
= 10100
10100
Therefore, 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + 98 + 99 + 100 = 2
= 5050.

A general AP whose first term is a1 , whose common difference is d, and with n terms is given
as a1 , a1 + d, a1 + 2d, a1 + 3d, · · · , a1 + (n − 2)d, a1 + (n − 1)d . The method used in the
preceeding example can be used to determine a formula for the sum Sn of the n terms of the
AP as follows:
Let l = a1 + (n − 1)d. Then

80
 Sn = a1 + [a1 + d] + [a1 + 2d] + ··· + [l − d] + l
Sn = l + [l − d] + [l − 2d] + ··· + [a1 + d] + a1
2Sn = [a1 + l] + [a1 + l] + [a1 + l] + ··· + [a1 + l] + [a1 + l] = n [a1 + l]

n n n
Hence, Sn = 2
[a1 + l] = 2
[a1 + (a1 + (n − 1)d)]. Therefore, Sn = 2
[2a1 + (n − 1)d] .

Example:
1. The fourth term of an AP is 13 and the seventh term is 22. Determine:
(a) the common difference.
(b) the value of n if the nth term is 100.
(c) the value of m if the sum to m terms of the AP is 175.
Solution:
a1 + 3d = 13
(a) In this case we have . Solving simultaneously gives a1 = 4, d = 3.
a1 + 6d = 22
So, the common difference is 3.
(b) Now, an = 4 + 3(n − 1) = 100. So, n = 33.
(c) We have Sm = m2 [2 (4) + 3 (m − 1)] = 175 so that m [8 + 3m − 3] = 350. On
rewriting this becomes 3m2 + 5m − 350 = 0. Factoring the quadratic function
we get (3m + 35) (m − 10) = 0 so that m = −35/3 or m = 10. Since m must be a

positive integer, then m = 10.

2. The sum of the first n terms of a series is given by Sn = 2n(n + 6). Find the fifth term
of the series and show that the terms are in AP.
Solution: In this case S4 = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 = 2(4)(4 + 6) = 80; on the other hand,
S5 = S4 + a5 = 2(5)(5 + 6) = 110. So, a5 = S5 − S4 = 110 − 80 = 30.
Now,
Sn = a1 + a2 + · · · + an−1 + an = 2n(n + 6)

and

Sn−1 = a1 + a2 + · · · + an−1 = 2(n − 1) [(n − 1) + 6] = 2(n − 1)(n + 5).

So,
an = Sn − Sn−1 = 2n(n + 6) − 2(n − 1)(n + 5) = 4n + 10.

Accordingly,
an−1 = 4(n − 1) + 10 = 4n + 6.

Hence, d = an − an−1 = (4n + 10) − (4n + 6) = 4. Since 4 is the common difference

81
 regardless of the value of n, then the terms of the series form an AP.

Exercise:
1. Find the sum of an AP of 10 terms whose first term is 7 and whose last term is 10.
n
P
2. Show that the terms of log 5r are in AP and hence find the sum of the first twenty
r=1
terms of the series and also the least value of n for which the sum to n terms exceeds
400. [Ans: S20 ≃ 146.78, n = 34]
3. Find the difference between the sums of the first ten terms of the APs whose first terms
are 12 and 8, and whose common differences are respectively 2 and 3.
4. The first term of an AP is −12, and the last term is 40. If the sum of the progression
is 196, find the number of terms and the common difference.
5. Find the sum of the odd numbers between 100 and 200.
6. Find the sum of the even numbers, divisible by three, lying between 400 and 500.
7. The twenty-first term of an AP is 5 21 , and the sum of the first twenty-one terms is 94 21 .
Find the first term, the common difference and the sum of the first thirty terms.
8. In an AP, the thirteenth term is 27, and the seventh term is three times the second

term. Find the first term, the common difference and sum of the first ten terms.

GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION (GP)

Definition: A geometric progression (GP) is a sequence in which each term is a constant
times the previous term. In this case, the constant multiplying factor is called the common
ratio. In general, if a GP has its first term a1 and common ratio r, then the nth term is given
by an = a1 r n−1 . Thus, a GP having n terms is given as a1 , a1 r, a1 r 2 , · · · , a1 r n−1 .

Example: The sequence 36, 12, 4, 4/3, 4/9, 4/27, · · · is a GP with a1 = 36 and r = 1/3.

The Sum of a GP
To find the sum Sn to n terms of a GP with first term a1 and common ratio r, the method
of first principles can be used.

Example:
A GP has first term 3 and common ratio 1/2. Find the sum of the first eight terms, S8 .
Solution:


2
7
S8 = 3 + 3 21 + 3 12 + · · · + 3 21
1


2
7
8
S
2 8
= 3 12 + 3 12 + · · · + 3 21 + 3 21

8
S8 − 21 S8 = 3 − 3 21

82
 h
i
1 1 8
So, S
2 8
=3 1− 2
. Therefore, S8 = 6 (255/256) = 765/128.

We now use the method used in the preceeding example to determine a formula for the sum
to n terms of a GP a1 , a1 r, a1 r 2 , · · · , a1 r n−1 as follows:

Sn = a1 + a1 r + a1 r 2 + ··· + a1 r n−1
rSn = a1 r + a1 r 2 + ··· + a1 r n−1 + a1 r n
Sn − rSn = a1 − a1 r n

a1 (1−r n )
Hence, Sn (1 − r) = a1 (1 − r n ). Therefore, Sn = 1−r
, r 6= 1 . If r > 1, then we write
a1 (r n −1)
Sn = r−1
.

Example:
1. In a GP, the sum of the second and third terms is 6, while the sum of the third and
fourth terms is −12. Find the first term, the common ratio and the sum of the first
ten terms.
Solution:
Let the first term be a1 and let the common ratio be r. Then,
a1 r + a1 r 2 = 6 a1 r (1 + r) = 6
⇒
a1 r2 + a1 r3 = −12 a1 r 2 (1 + r) = −12

a1 r(1+r) 6 1
⇒ a1 r 2 (1+r)
= −12
⇒ r
= − 12 ⇒ r = −2

Substituting r = −2 in a1 r (1 + r) = 6 we get a1 (−2) (−1) = 6 so that a1 = 3.

3[1−(−2)10 ]
Now, S10 = 1−(−2) = 1 − (−2)10 = −1023.

2. Determine the smallest number of terms of the GP 8, 24, 72, · · · whose sum exceeds
6, 000, 000.
n −1)
Solution: In this case, a1 = 8, r = 3. So, Sn = 8(33−1 = 4 (3n − 1). We now solve the
equation 4 (3n − 1) = 6000000. Dividing through by 4 gives 3n − 1 = 1500000 which

becomes 3n = 1500001 on rewriting. Introducing logarithms base 10 on both sides and

log 1500001
solving for n, we have n = log 3
= 12.94 (to 4 s.f.). Therefore, for the sum of the
GP to exceed 6000000, then the smallest value of n is 13.

3. A ball is dropped from a height of 9 m. It hits the ground and bounces to a height of

6 m. It continues to bounce up and down. On each bounce it rises 2/3 of the height of
the previous bounce. How far has the ball travelled (both up and down) when it hits

83
 the ground for the seventh time? Leave your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
Solution: The ball originally drops 9 m and when it hits the ground for the seventh
time, it has completed six bounces. So, the total distance travelled is

12 [1 − (2/3)6 ]
9 + 2/3(9)(2) + (2/3)2 (9)(2) + (2/3)3 (9)(2) + · · · + (2/3)6 (9)(2) = 9 +
| {z } 1 − 2/3
a1 =2/3(9)(2)=12, r=2/3

= 9 + 36 (1 − 64/729)
≈ 41.83906 m

Therefore, the distance travelled is 41.84 m (to 2 d.p.).

Exercise:
1. Find the number n of terms of the GP 6, 12, 24, · · · , 1536. [Ans: n = 9]
2. Find the sum of the GP −2, 21 , − 18 , · · · , − 32768
1
.
3. The fourth term of a GP is −6 and the seventh term is 48. Find the first three terms
of the progression.
4. Find the difference between the sums to ten terms of the AP and GP whose first two
terms are −2 and 4.

5. In a GP, the sum of the second and third terms is 9, and the seventh term is eight
times the fourth. Find the first term, the common ratio, and the fifth term.

Convergence of a Geometric Series

If Sn is the sum of the first n terms of any series, and if lim Sn exits and is finite, the series
n→∞
Sn is said to converge (or the series is convergent). In this case the sum to infinity is given
by S = S∞ = lim Sn . If the series does not converge, i.e. lim Sn = ±∞, then it is said to
n→∞ n→∞
diverge (or the series is divergent).
An AP where d > 0 diverges to lim n2 [2a1 + (n − 1) d] = ∞; on the other hand, if d < 0, the
n→∞
AP diverges to lim n2 [2a1 + (n − 1) d] = −∞.
n→∞
a1 (1−r n )
Recall that for a general GP a1 , a1 r, a1 r 2 , · · · , the sum to n terms is Sn = 1−r
. If
n)
−1 < r < 1, i.e. |r| < 1, then lim r n = 0. So, =lim a1 (1−r a1
. If |r| > 1, then
n→∞ n→∞ 1−r 1−r
n a1
lim |r| = ∞ and the series diverges. Therefore, a GP converges (to the sum 1−r ) if and
n→∞
only if −1 < r < 1, i.e. if and only if |r| < 1.
Example:
1. Consider the problem of the ball in Example 3 above. Find the distance covered by the
ball before coming to rest.

84
 Solution: Theoretically, the ball bounces up and down indefinitely (practically, the
ball comes to rest after a finite number of bounces). So, the distance travelled before
coming to rest is

12
9 + 2/3(9)(2) + (2/3)2 (9)(2) + (2/3)3 (9)(2) + · · · = 9 +
1 − 2/3
= 9 + 36
= 45 m.

2. The fifth term of a convergent GP is the arithmetic mean of the preceeding two terms.
Find the common ratio given that the common ratio and the first term are non-zero,

and if the first term is 12, find the sum to infinity.

Solution: Let the series be a1 + a1 r + a1 r 2 + · · · . Then, a5 = a1 r 4 = 1/2(a1 r 2 + a1 r 3 ).
So, 2a1 r 4 = a1 r 2 + a1 r 3 . Dividing through by a1 r 2 and rewriting gives 2r 2 − r − 1 = 0,

so that r = −1/2 or r = 1. Since the series is convergent, then r = −1/2. Now, given
12
that a1 = 12, and r = −1/2, then S = 1−(−1/2)
= 8.
••
3. Express 0.45 as a fraction.
Solution:
•• 45 45 45
0.45 = 0.454545 · · · = + + +··· .
100 10000 1000000
45 1
This is a GP with a1 = and r = 100
100
. So,
•• 45/100 45 100 5
0.45 = S∞ = = × = .
1 − /100
1 100 99 11
Exercise:
1. Write down the sums of the first n terms and the sums to infinity of the series:
3 3 3 3
(a) 10 + 100 + 1000 + 10000 +··· [Ans: 1/3]
(b) 0.5 + 0.05 + 0.005 + 0.0005 · · · [Ans: 5/9]
∞
P (−3)n−1
(c) 4n
n=1
2. Express the following recurring decimals as rational numbers:
•
(a) 0.07 [Ans: 7/90]
•
(b) 0.8 [Ans: 8/9]
•
(c) 3.2 [Ans: 3 29 ]

85
 •
1
(d ) 1.004 [Ans: 1 225 ]
••
(e) 2.960 [Ans: 2 317
330
]

3. The first term of a GP is 64 and the fifth term is 4. If the sum to infinity of the GP is
128, find the common ratio.

4. Find the common ratio of a GP whose sum to infinity is three times the first term.
[Ans: 2/3]

5. The second term of a GP is 24 and its sum to infinity is 100. Find the two possible
values of the common ratio and the corresponding first terms.
[Ans: r = 2/3, a1 = 60; r = 3/5, a1 = 40]

RECURSIVE SEQUENCES

Definition: A recursive (recurrence) sequence is a sequence in which a term is defined in

terms of one or more preceeding terms which are known. Recursion is a repetitive process
which requires that one knows the value(s) of the term(s) an−1 , an−2 , · · · immediately before

the nth term an , and applying a rule to these terms to obtain an . A recursive formula has
two parts:
(i ) the starting term(s) a1 , a2 , · · · .
(ii ) the recursion equation for an as a function of the preceeding term(s) an−1 , an−2 , · · · .

Example:
1. If the (n − 1)th term of an AP is an−1 and the common difference is d, then the nth

term an is given by the recursive formula an = an−1 + d.

2. If the (n − 1)th term of a GP is an−1 and the common ratio is r, then the nth term an
is given by the recursive formula an = r · an−1 .
3. Consider the sequence given by the recursive formula an = 2an−1 + 1 with a1 = 4. Then
the first four terms are:

a1 = 4,
a2 = 2a1 + 1 = 9,

86
 a3 = 2a2 + 1 = 19,
a4 = 2a3 + 1 = 39,

4. The original value of a car is $36000. The value of the car depreciates at a rate of
10% every year. After one year the car is worth 90% of $36000, i.e. $32400. After
two years, the value is 90% of $32400, i.e. $29160, and so on. The decreasing values
form a sequaence 36000, 32400, 29160, 26244, 23619.60, · · · where each term depends on

the value of the preceding term. The sequence is a recursive sequence, defined by the
recursive formula an = 0.9an−1 with a1 = 36000.
5. Determine the recursive formula for the sequence:
(a) {2, 6, 14, 30, 62, · · · }
(b) {1, 2, 6, 24, 120, 720, · · · }.

(c) {2, 3, 6, 18, 108, 1944, 209952, · · · }

Solution:
(a) In this case we have
a1 = 2,

a2 = 6 = 2a1 + 2,
a3 = 14 = 2a2 + 2,
a4 = 30 = 2a3 + 2,
a5 = 62 = 2a4 + 2, etc.

Hence, the sequence is given by the recursive formula an = 2an−1 + 2 where a1 = 2.

(b) In this case we have
a1 = 1,
a2 = 2 = 2a1 ,

a3 = 6 = 3a2 ,
a4 = 24 = 4a3 ,
a5 = 120 = 5a4 ,
a6 = 720 = 6a5 , etc.

87
 So, the sequence is defined by the recursive formula an = (n + 1)an−1 with a1 = 1.
(c) In this case we have

a1 = 2,
a2 = 3,
a3 = 6 = a2 · a1 ,
a4 = 18 = a3 · a2 ,

a5 = 108 = a4 · a3 ,
a6 = 1944 = a5 · a4 ,
a7 = 209952 = a6 · a5 , etc.
So, the sequence has recursive formula an = an−1 · an−2 where a1 = 2, a2 = 3.

Fibonacci Sequence

Consider the recursion formula

Fn = Fn−1 + Fn−2 , F1 = 1, F2 = 1.
Then
F3 = F2 + F1 = 2,
F4 = F3 + F2 = 3,

F5 = F4 + F3 = 5,
F6 = F5 + F4 = 8, etc.
This yields the sequence

{1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610, 987, 1597, · · · } ,

called the Fibonacci sequence. The sequence is named after a 13th-century Italian mathe-

matician Fibonacci, who used it to solve a problem concerning the breeding of rabbits. It
also has a lot applications in plant biology.

88
Exercise:
1. Find the first term of a recursive sequence in which an = 4an−1 given that a4 = 192.

2. Write the first five terms of the sequence defined by the recursive formula:
(a) a1 = 5, and an = 3an−1
(b) a1 = −2, and an = 2an−1 − 1
(c) a1 = 1, a2 = −2, and an = 2an−1 + an−2

3. Determine the fifth term of the recursive sequence defined by:

(a) a1 = 1, and an = 2 (an−1 + 1)
(b) a1 = 2, and an = (n − 2) an−1 + 5
(c) a1 = 0, a2 = 1, and an = an−2 − an−1
4. Determine the recursive formula for the sequence:

(a) {5, 11, 17, 23, · · · }

(b) {3, 4, 7, 11, 18, 29 · · · }
(c) {2, 4, 16, 256, 65536, · · · }
(d ) {6561, 81, 9, 3, · · · }

GROWTH AND DECAY

Exponential Functions

An exponential function is a non-linear function of the form y = a · bx , where a 6= 0, b > 0,

and b 6= 1. The y-intercept is a in this case, and is obtained by putting x = 0. As the
independent variable x changes by a constant amount, the dependent variable y is multiplied
by a constant factor (the y-values change by a factor of b as x increases by 1), which means

consecutive y-values form a constant ratio.

Example:
The function represented by the table

x 0 1 2 3
y 4 8 16 32

89
is an exponential function since as x increases by 1, y is multiplied by 2. The function is
y = 4 (2x ) in this case. On the other hand, the function represented by the table

x 0 1 2 3
y 2 4 12 48

is not exponential since as x increases by 1, y is not multiplied by a constant factor.

Exponential Growth and Decay

Definition: Exponential growth occurs when a quantity increases by the same factor over
equal intervals of time. A function of the form y = a(1 + r)t , where a > 0 and r > 0, is an
exponential growth function. In this case a = initial amount, y = final amount, r = rate of
growth (in decimal form), 1 + r = growth factor (where 1 + r > 1), t = time. Note that the

function is of the form y = a · bx , where b is replaced by 1 + r and x is replaced by t.

Definition: Exponential decay occurs when a quantity decreases by the same factor over
equal intervals of time. A function of the form y = a(1 − r)t , where a > 0 and 0 < r < 1, is
an exponential decay function. In this case a = initial amount, y = final amount, r = rate

of decay (in decimal form), 1 − r = decay factor (where 1 − r < 1), t = time. Similarly, the
function is of the form y = a · bx , where b is replaced by 1 − r and x is replaced by t.
Example:
1. Consider the table below.

x 0 1 2 3
y 5 10 20 40

As x increases by 1, y is multiplied by 2. So, the table represents an exponential

growth function.

2. Consider the table below.

x 0 1 2 3
y 270 90 30 10

90
 As x increases by 1, y is multiplied by 1/3. So, the table represents an exponential
decay function.

3. Determine whether each function represents exponential growth or exponential decay,

and hence find the percent rate of change.
(a) y = 5(1.07)t
(b) f (t) = 0.2(0.98)t
Solution:
(a) The function is of the form y = a(1 + r)t , where 1 + r > 1. So it represents
exponential growth. In this case the growth factor is 1 + r = 1.07 so that r = 0.07.

Therefore, the rate of growth is 7%.

(b) The function is of the form y = a(1 − r)t , where 1 − r < 1. So it represents
exponential decay. In this case the decay factor is 1 − r = 0.98 so that r = 0.02.
Therefore, the rate of decay is 2%.

4. The inaugural attendance of an annual music festival is 150,000. The attendance y

increases by 8% each year.
(a) Write an exponential growth function that represents the attendance after t years.
(b) How many people will attend the festival in the fifth year? Round your answer to
the nearest thousand.
Solution:
(a) The initial amount is 150000, and the rate of growth is 8%, or 0.08. The exponential
growth function is

y = a(1 + r)t

= 150000(1 + 0.08)t

= 150000(1.08)t.

Therefore, the festival attendance is represented by y = 150000(1.08)t.

91
 (b) During the first year t = 0 and during the fifth year t = 4. So, in the fifth year, we
have y = 150000(1.08)4 ≈ 204073. Therefore, about 204,000 people will attend the

festival in the fifth year.

Exercise:
1. Bacteria can multiply at an alarming rate when each bacteria splits into two cells,
thus doubling. If we start with only one bacteria which can double every hour, how

many bacteria will we have by the end of one day? [Ans: 16,777,216 bacteria]
2. During normal breathing, about 12% of the air in the lungs is replaced after one
breath. Write an exponential decay model for the amount of original air left in the
lungs if the initial amount of air in the lungs is 500 ml. How much of the original air

is present after 240 breaths?

3. A patient takes 400 mg of a drug. Each hour the amount of the drug in the patient’s
system decreases by 29%. How much of the drug is left after 6 hours?
4. You drink a beverage with 120 mg of caffeine. Each hour, the caffeine in your system
decreases by 12%. After how many complete hours will you have 10 mg of caffeine?

5. A YouTube channel had 500,000 subscribers in 2014. The number N of subscribers

increased by 15% each year.
(a) Write an exponential growth function that represents the channel’s subscribership
t years after 2014.

(b) How many subscribers were there in 2020? Round your answer to the nearest ten
thousand.

6. The initial value of a car Sh. 3,000,000. It depreciates at a rate of 14% p.a. Determine
after how many complete years the car will be worth Sh. 1,000,000. [Ans: 8 years]
7. The original value of a machine is $25,000. Its value is $10,000 after 12 years. Find its
annual percentage rate of depreciation.

92
Compound Interest

Compound interest is the interest earned on the principal and on previously earned interest.
Example:
A customer makes a single deposit of Sh. 16,000 in an account which pays a compound
interest at a rate of 6% p.a. Determine:
(a) how much the investment is worth after 12 years.
(b) after how many years the investment will be worth three times its initial value.
Solution:
6
(a) Value after 1 year: 16000 + 100 (16000) = 16000 (1.06)
6
2 years: 16000 (1.06) + 100 [16000 (1.06)] = 16000 (1.06)2
 
3 years: 16000 (1.06)2 + 100
6
16000 (1.06)2 = 16000 (1.06)3
This pattern shows that the investment after t years will be
6 t


Sh. 16000 (1.06)t = 16000 1 + 100
.

So, after 12 years, the investment will be Sh.16000 (1.06)12 = 32195 (to the
nearest shilling).

(b) We determine the value of n (in years) for which 16000 (1.06)t = 3 (16000). Dividing
through by 16000 we get (1.06)t = 3 so that t = log 3
log 1.06
≃ 18.85 (to 2 d.p.). Hence,
t = 19 (complete) years.

As seen in the preceeding example, exponential growth functions are used in real-life situa-
tions involving compound interest.

Although compound interest is expressed as an annual rate, the interest is usually com-
pounded more frequently than once per year. So, for compound interest problems, we modify
the formula y = a(1 + r)t . In this case, the balance A of an account earning compound inter-
est is given as A = P (1 + r )nt where P = principal (initial amount), r = annual interest
n

rate (in decimal form), t = time (in years), n = number of times interest is compounded per
year. For interest compounded yearly, as in the example above, we put n = 1 in the given
formula to get A = P (1 + r)t .

93
Example:
1. A customer invests Sh.100, 000 in an account that earns interest at a rate of 7.5% for

54 months. Determine how much money will be in the account if:

(a) interest is compounded quarterly.
(b) interest is compounded monthly.
Solution:
7.5 54
In this case P = 100000, r = 100
= 0.075 and t = 12
= 4.5.
(a) If the interest is compounded quarterly, then it is compounded 4 times a year.
So, after 54 months we then have,

 r nt
A=P 1+
n
 4(4.5)
0.075
= 100000 1 +
4
= 100000 (1.01875)18

≈ Sh.139706.69.

(b) If the interest is compounded monthly, then it is compounded 12 times a year.

Hence after 54 months we then have,

 r nt
A=P 1+
n
 12(4.5)
0.075
= 100000 1 +
12
= 100000 (1.00625)54

≈ Sh.139996.84.

From (a) and (b) above, compounding interest more times per year yields more money.

94
 2. A deposit of Sh.25000 is made into an account that earns interest at a rate of 12%.
The target is to have Sh.40000 in the account after some time. How long should the

money be kept in the account if interest is compounded 6 times a year?

Solution:
12
In this case A = 40000, P = 25000, and r = 100 = 0.12. If interest is compounded 6

6t
times a year, we have 40000 = 25000 1 + 0.126
. This simplifies to 1.6 = (1.02)6t
so that ln 1.6 = ln (1.02)6t . Rewriting the equation we get ln 1.6 = 6t ln (1.02) so that
ln 1.6
t= 6 ln 1.02
≈ 3.956 years. Therefore, the amount should be kept in the account for
about 3.956 years to reach Sh.40000.

Exercise:
1. A customer deposits Sh. 10,000 on 1st January every year for four years. How much is
the investment worth at the end of the four years if it attracts a compound interest of
12% p.a.? [Ans: Sh. 53,528 correct to the nearst Sh.]
2. A single deposit of Sh. 150,000 is invested for four years at a compound interest.
Determine the rate at which the investment will be Sh. 182,326. [Ans: 5%]
3. Sh. 100,000 was invested on 1st January 2010. An additional Sh. 6,000 was added to
the investment at the beginning of each subsequent year. If the investment earns a

compound interest of 8% p.a., calculate the value of the investment on 31st December
2020. [Ans: Sh. 327,037]
4. A deposit of Sh. 10000 is made into an account that earns compound interest at a rate
of r% per annum. The aim is to have Sh. 20000 in the account after 5 years. Find r

to the nearest whole number if interest is compounded:

(a) annually.
(b) after every 3 months.
(c) after every 4 months.
(d ) twice a year.

95
Continuous Growth and Decay

In real-life there are many quantities where the growth/decay process is continuous. In such
cases the growth/decay process is governed (at least for a short time period) by the function,

Q(t) = Q0 ekt where Q0 > 0 is the amount initially present at t = 0, and k is a non-zero
constant (growth/decay constant). By taking A = Q(t), P = Q0 and r = k in the formula

n
for compound interest, then since lim 1 + nk = ek , we have
n→∞

 nt
k
Q(t) = lim Q0 1 +
n→∞ n
  n t
k
= Q0 lim 1 +
n→∞ n
= Q0 ekt .

If k is positive (k is a growth constant), then the function will grow without bound and is
therefore an exponential growth function. On the other hand, if k is negative (k is a decay

constant), the function will die down to zero and is therefore an exponential decay function.
Interest compounded continuously as well as short term population growth is often modeled
by the exponential growth function, while the decay of a radioactive element is governed by
the exponential decay function.

Example:
1. In Example 1 above, if interest is compounded continuously, then after 54 months we
will have,

A = P ert

= 100000e(0.075)(4.5)

= 100000 (1.401439608)

≈ Sh.140143.96.

96
2. In Example 2 above, if interest is compounded continuously, we have 40000 = 25000e0.12t
which simplifies to 1.6 = e0.12t . Taking natural logarithm on both sides of the equation
ln 1.6
we have ln 1.6 = ln e0.12t so that ln 1.6 = 0.12t. Hence, t = 0.12
= 3.917 (to 3 d.p.).
Therefore, the amount should be kept in the account for 3.917 years to get Sh.40000.

3. The growth of a colony of bacteria is given by the equation Q(t) = Q0 e0.195t , where t
is given in hours. If there are initially 500 bacteria present, determine:
(a) how many bacteria there are after a half of a day.
(b) how long it will take before there are 10000 bacteria in the colony.
Solution:
The equation for this starting number of bacteria is Q = 500e0.195t .
(a) To obtain the number of bacteria after half of a day, we use t = 12 since t is in
hours. In this case we have Q = 500e0.195(12) = 500 (10.38123656) ≈ 5190.618. So,
after half of a day there are 5190 of the bacteria present.

(b) In this case we solve the exponential equation 10000 = 500e0.195t . Simplifying the
equation we get 20 = e0.195t . Taking natural logarithms we have ln 20 = ln e0.195t
ln 20
so that ln 20 = 0.195t. Hence, t = 0.195
= 15.3627. Therefore, it takes about 15.4
hours to reach 10000 bacteria.
4. Carbon-14 dating works by measuring the amount of carbon-14 (a radioactive element)
that is in a fossil. All living things have a constant level of carbon-14 in them and
once they die it starts to decay according to the formula, Q(t) = Q0 e−0.000124t where t
is in years and Q0 is the amount of carbon-14 present at death. Suppose that there
are 100 milligrams of carbon-14 present at death.

(a) How much carbon-14 will there be after 1000 years?

(b) How long will it take for half of the carbon-14 to decay?
Solution:
(a) Taking Q0 = 100 gives the equation Q = 100e−0.000124t . Taking t = 1000 we get
Q = 100e−0.000124(1000) = 100 (0.8833798409) = 88.33798409 milligrams. So, there
are approximately 88.338 milligrams left after 1000 years.
(b) To determine how long it will take until there is 50 milligrams of the carbon-14

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 left, we need to solve the equation 50 = 100e−0.000124t . Dividing through by 100
and then taking natural logarithms on both sides we have ln 0.5 = ln e−0.000124t
ln 0.5
so that ln 0.5 = −0.000124t. Thus, t = −0.000124
= 5589.896617. Hence, it will
take 5589.897 years for half of the carbon-14 to decay. This number is called the
half-life of carbon-14.
Exercise:

1. A deposit of Sh. 10000 is made into an account that earns compound interest at a rate
of r% per annum. The aim is to have Sh. 20000 in the account after 5 years. Find r
to the nearest whole number if interest is compounded continuously.
2. There are 100000 birds in a park today. They breed with a constant continuous growth
rate of 10% per year. Determine how many birds will be in the park after seven years.
3. The growth of a colony of bacteria is given by the equation Q(t) = Q0 eλt where Q(t)

is the number of bacteria at time t (t is given in hours), Q0 is the number of bacteria

at time t = 0 and and λ is a constant, called the growth constant of the colony.
There are initially 1000 bacteria present. After 12 hours there are 10000 bacteria
present. Find the growth constant of the population (correct to 4 decimal places)

and hence find how long will it take before there are 100000 bacteria in the colony
(round your answer to the nearest hour).
4. Radioactive decay is the natural process by which a radioactive element spontaneously
transforms itself into another, releasing dangerous high energy emissions. Suppose N0

is the amount of a radioactive element at time t = 0 and N(t) is the amount of the
element at time t. Then the function N(t) decreases exponentially with time according
to the equation N(t) = N0 e−λt , where λ is a constant, called the decay constant of the
element. The half-life (t1/2 ) of a radioactive element is the time in which the amount
of the element drops to half its original amount. There are 400 nanograms of a

radioactive element X initially. After 50 years, 250 nanograms of X remain. Find

the decay constant of X (correct to 4 decimal places) and hence determine its half-life
(correct to 3 significant figures).

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APPROXIMATIONS OF REAL NUMBERS BY DECIMALS

Decimal expansions of real numbers are very important in appications of mathematics. Irra-
tional numbers such as
√
2 = 1.4142135623730950488016887242096980785697 · · · ,
π = 3.141592653589793238462643383279502884197169399375 · · · ,

e = 2.71828182845904523536028747135266249775724709369995957 · · · , etc,
have infinite decimal expansions that do not recur (they have no repeating blocks) and cannot
be written as fractions. To find such number on the number line, we use approximations.
In a similar manner, approximations can be applied to recurring decimals and overlong

terminating decimals.
There are many ways of approximating real number by decimals; these include sequence of
truncations and sequence of approximations. In either of the latter two methods, the infinite
decimal expansion of an irrational number α gives us a sequence of rational numbers that

give better and better approximations to α; the sequence converges to α in its limit, i.e. the
terms of the sequence get closer and closer to α and we can get arbitrarily close to α by going
far enough down the sequence.

Sequence of Truncations

Consider the infinite decimal expansion of a real number α. If we truncate this expansion at 1
place, 2 places, 3 places, and so on, the result is a sequence of rational numbers (terminating

decimals) converging to α. For example, the sequence of truncations to π is

3.1, 3.14, 3.141, 3.1415, 3.14159, 3.141592, 3.1415926, 3.14159265, · · ·
or
31 314 3141 31415 314159 3141592 31415926 314159265
, , , , , , ,
10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000
,··· .

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Sequence of Approximations

To approximate the real number to a given number of decimal places, we truncate it one
place more and then round in the usual way. For example, the sequence of approximations
to π is
3.1, 3.14, 3.142, 3.1416, 3.14159, 3.141593, 3.1415927, 3.14159265, · · ·

or
31 314 3142 31416 314159 3141593 31415927 314159265
, , , , , , ,
10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 100000000
,··· .

100